

























THE FIVE RACES OF MEN. 



!• African.—2. American —3 


Caucasian. — 4. Mongolian. —• 5. Malay. 































































































; ' 
* 

















MODERN AND ANCIENT: 


CHIEFLY COMPILED FROM THE 


ABREGE DE GEO GRAPH IE 

OF 


ADRIAN RALRI. 

BY T. G. BRADFORD. 

% 4 

ACCOMPANIED BY AN ATLAS AND ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS. 


BOSTON: 

WILLIAM D. TICKNOR. 

NEW YORK.'— FREEMAN HUNT. & CO. 
PHILADELPHIA *.-DESILVER, THOMAS, &, CO. 



1835 . 




Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1835, by 
T. G. BRADFORD, 

in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts 



NOTE BY THE EDITOR. 

This volume has been compiled chiefly from Balbi’s Abreg6 de 
Geographie, but the materials are arranged on the plan of Goodrich’s 
Universal Geography. It not only contains, however, many details 
not derived from either of those sources, but treats pretty fully of many 
topics not touched upon by the former. Such portions of the work 
as have not been borrowed from Balbi or Goodrich have been pre¬ 
pared with care from the best and most recent systematic treatises on 
Geography,—English, French, German, and American;—from official 
documents; and from the accounts of late travellers. 

THOMAS G. BRADFORD. 


Printed by Lewis & Fennfman, 
Broomfield Street. 




BRADFORD’S EDITION 

OF 

BALBI’S GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS. 


FROM THE BOSTON EVENING GAZETTE. 

This work, about to be published in this city 
and New-York, presents unusual claims to the 
public attention. The reputation of M. Balbi as 
a Geographer, is at this moment probably supe¬ 
rior to that of any other living individual; and 
Mr. Bradford is better qualified than any other 
person within our knowledge to prepare a trans¬ 
lation for the American public. 

Taking the Abrege de Geographic of Balbi 
recently published in Paris, as a basis, he has 
modelled the materials upon a new arrangement 
better suited to this country ; and collecting other 
matter from various sources, has prepared a work 
that seems to us on the whole, a nearer approach 
to perfection than has hitherto been reached by 
any writer on the same subject. 

The style is necessarily condensed, but it is 
still elegant and spirited throughout; we esteem 
this a great merit, for most works of the kind are 
rendered dry and tedious, perhaps repulsive, by 
their cold, rigid manner of communication ; we 
should be much disappointed, if this trait in the 
book before us, even supposing it to possess no 
other advantage, did not give it a decided prefer¬ 
ence, at least with all students, over those which 
have gone before it. 

But the more graceful and spirited style of the 
work, is not the only ground of commendation ; 
the arrangement is clear and natural; the topics 
are well selected, and the matter is copious. 
Even as a book of reference, it will be found mi¬ 
nute and accurate. At the same time it furnish¬ 
es the most recent intelligence, and on a subject 


>■ Mi: 






2 


so fluctuating as geography, this is a matter of 
first rate importance. The author has been care¬ 
ful to follow up the changes in our own country, 
and in South America, where the scenes are al¬ 
most as shifting as the figures of a Kaleidoscope. 
He also gives us the actual state of revolutionized 
Greece, the new discoveries in Africa, the most 
recent statistics of Europe, and the best estimates 
of population, wealth, Sic . in other parts of the 
world. 

We must not omit to mention the Atlas which 
consists of 32 maps, carefully drawn and neatly 
colored. This is therefore nearly twice as exten¬ 
sive as any other Atlas, attached to similar works, 
and affords a point of very decided superiority. 
Maps are indeed as essential, to the conveying of 
correct ideas of Geography, as books; and we 
see no reason why so little care and expense are 
usually bestowed upon them. 

The cuts illustrative of the mountains, animals 
and cities in this work, are new and valuable. 
One exhibits the mountains of North America, 
another of South America, Sic. They are all 
drawn upon one scale, each system or mass of 
mountains being in a separate group; thus, the 
actual height of each mass, with its principal 
peaks is seen at a glance, while their comparative 
elevation is also conveyed. 

We have been thus particular in noticing this 
work, because we esteem it an important advance 
in the art of writing for public instruction. It 
seems to us to be a proof of the high pitch to 
which education has risen in this country; and at 
the same time it is well calculated to exalt the 
standard of education of the rising generation to 
whom it is addressed. 



CONTENTS. 


Introduction. 

I. The Earth, its Figure, &c 5 

II. Land and Water . 6 

III. Surface of the Land . 9 

IV. Lakes and Rivers . 10 

V. Climate and Winds . 12 

VI. Geo. Distribution of £lante 13 

VII. Geo. Distribution of Animals 14 


VIII. Man 

. 15 

IX. Political Institutions . 

. 16 

X. Religion 

. 17 

Descriptive Geography. 

1 Maine 

. 19 

2 New-Hampshire 

. 24 

3 Vermont 

. 29 

4 Massachusetts 

. 33 

5 Rhode Island 

. 41 

6 Connecticut 

. 43 

7 New England . 

. 47 

8 New York 

. 51 

9 New Jersey 

. 60 

10 Pennsylvania 

. 64 

11 Delaware 

. 72 

12 Maryland . 

. 74 

13 Middle States 

. 77 

14 District of Columbia . 

. 79 

15 Virginia 

. 81 

16 North Carolina . 

. 87 

17 South Carolina . 

. 92 

18 Georgia 

. 95 

19 Florida 

. 99 

20 Alabama 

. 101 

21 Mississippi 

. 104 

22 Louisiana . 

. 106 

23 Southern States 

. Ill 

24 Tennessee 

. 115 

25 Kentucky . 

. 118 

26 Ohio 

. 121 

27 Indiana 

. 126 

28 Illinois 

. 128 

29 Missouri 

. 130 

30 Arkansaw Territory . 

. 132 

31 Michigan Territory . 

. 134 

32 Huron or Wisconsin District 136 

33 Western States . 

. 136 

34 Western District 

. 139 

35 United States 

. 140 

36 Russian Territory 

. 149 

37 Upper Canada . 

. 149 

38 Lower Canada 

. 151 

39 New Brunswick 

. 154 

40 Nova Scotia 

. 155 

41 Prince Edward Island 

. 156 


I 42 Newfoundland . . . 156 

43 New Britain . . . 157 

44 Greenland .... 158 

45 Iceland . . . .158 

46 Mexican United States . 159 

47 Republic of Central America 167 

48 North America . . . 168 

49 West Indies . . 179 

50 New Grenada . . .184 

51 Venezuela . . . 187 

52 Republic of the Equator , 189 

53 Peru „ 191 

54 Bolivia .... 193 

55 Chili .... 194 

56 United Provinces of thePlata 196 

57 Uruguay .... 198 

58 Paraguay . . . 198 

59 Patagonia . . .199 

60 Brazil .... 199 

61 Guiana .... 202 

62 South America . . 203 

63 Atlantic Ocean . .210 

64 England .... 211 

65 Scotland .... 230 

66 Ireland .... 237 

67 Great Britain and Ireland . 242 

68 France .... 244 

69 Republic of Andorra . 259 

70 Spain .... 260 

71 Portugal .... 270 

72 Naples or the Two Sicilies . 273 

73 States of the Church . 277 

74 Republic of San Marino . 280 

75 Tuscany .... 281 

76 Duchy of Lucca . . 283 

77 Duchy of Modena . .283 

78 Duchy of Parma . . 283 

79 Austrian Italy . . 284 

80 Principality of Monaco . 287 

81 Kingdom of Sardinia . . 287 

82 General View ofltaly . 289 

83 Switzerland . . . 294 

84 Baden .... 300 

85 Wurtemberg . . . 301 

86 Bavaria .... 302 

87 Saxony . . . .303 

88 Hanover .... 305 

89 Mecklenburg . . . 306 

90 Oldenburg . . .307 

91 Saxon Duchies . . 307 

92 Duchy of Brunswick . 308 

93 Hessian States . . . 308 

94 Duchy of Nassau . . 309 

95 Principality of Waldeck . 309 









4 


CONTENTS. 


96 Anhalt Duchies . 310 

97 Schwartzburg Principalities 310 

98 Reuss Principalities . . 310 

99 Lippe Principalities . .311 

100 Principality of Lichtenstein 311 

101 Hohenzollern Principalities 311 

102 Lordship of Kniphausen . 311 

103 Republic of Bremen . . 311 

104 Free City of Hamburg . 312 

105 Republic of Lubeck . . 312 

106 Republic of Frankfort . 313 

107 Austrian, Prussian^ Nether¬ 
landish, & Dan. Germany 313 

108 General view of Germany . 313 

109 Empire of Austria . . 317 

110 Kingdom of Prussia . . 324 

111 The Netherlands . . 329 

112 Kingdom of Belgium . 333 

113 Denmark .... 336 

114 Swedish Monarchy . . 338 

115 Republic of Cracow . . 343 

116 Russia in Europe . . 343 

117 Principality of Moldavia . 354 

118 Principality of Walachia . 354 

119 Principality of Servia . 355 

120 Turkish or Ottoman Empire 355 

121 Hellas or Greece . . 362 

122 Ionian Republic and Malta 366 

123 Europe . . .367 

124 Asiatic Russia . . . 376 

125 Ottoman Asia . . 379 

126 Syria or Egyptian Asia . 384 

127 Arabia .... 386 

128 Persia or Iran . . 389 

129 Cabul or Afghanistan . 392 

130 Herat .... 393 

131 Beloochistan . . . 394 

132 Turkistan .... 394 

133 India or Hindostan . . 396 

134 Farther India . . .407 

135 Chinese Empire . . 409 

136 Empire of Japan . 418 

137 Asia . . . .419 

138 Egypt .... 423 

139 Nubia - . . .428 

140 Abyssinia . . . 429 

141 Maghreb or Barbary . . 430 

142 Sahara . . . .435 

143 Nigritia or Sudan . . 436 

144 Senegambia . . 440 

145 Guinea .... 441 

146 Southern Africa . 443 

147 Eastern Africa . . 445 

148 African Islands . 446 

149 Africa .... 448 

150 Malaysia .... 452 

151 Australia .... 455 

152 Polynesia ... 457 

153 Oceania . 461 


Ancient Geography. 
General Principles 
Asia 

Asia Minor or Lesser Asia 
Syria 

Asiatic Sarmatia 
Scythia 
Colchis 
Armenia . 

Mesopotamia 
Arabia 
Assyria 
Babylonia 
Media 
Susiana 

Persis or Persia 
Carmania 
Gedrosia . 

Hyrcania 
Aria 

Drangiana 
Arachosia 
Sogdiana 
Chorasmia, &c 
Bactriana 
India 
Africa 
Mauritania 
Numidia . 

Africa Proper 
Libya 
Egypt . 

Ethiopia . 

Europa 
Graecia 

Grecian Colonies 
Moesia 
Dacia 
Sarmatia 
Scandinavia 
Macedonia 
Thrace 
British Isles 
Germania 
Pannonia 

Illyricum or Illyria 
Noricum 
Vindelicia 
Rhaetia 
Gallia or Gaul 
Hispania 
Italia 
Sicily 

Sardinia or Ichnusa 
Corsica or Cyrnos 


. 465 
. 466 
. 466 
. 469 
. 471 
. 471 
. 472 
. 472 
. 472 
. 473 
. 473 
. 474 
. 474 
. 475 
. 475 
. 475 
. 475 
. 476 
. 476 
. 476 
. 476 
. 476 
. 477 
. 477 
. 477 
. 477 
. 478 
. 478 
. 478 
. 479 
. 479 
. 481 
. 481 
. 481 
. 486 
. 488 
. 488 
. 488 
. 488 
. 487 
. 487 
. 489 
. 490 
. 491 
. 491 
. 491 
. 492 
. 492 
. 492 
. 495 
. 497 
501 
. 502 
. 502 


Appendix —Terrestrial Globes . 503 
Problems solved by 
the Globe . 504 







INTRODUCTION. 


• I. THE EARTH, ITS FIGURE, DIMENSIONS, &c. 

1. The Earth. The earth is a planet, of a globular shape, and forming 
very nearly a perfect globe or sphere. Like the other planets it has 
two motions; its rotation on its own axis, completed in about 23 hours 
and 56 minutes, causes the apparent daily revolution of the sun and 
heavens round the earth, and thus produces the alternation of day and 
night; its motion in its orbit, which carries it round the sun in about 
365 days and 6 hours, produces the alternation of the seasons. 

2. Axis, Poles . The axis of the earth is an imaginary line passing 
through its centre, and about which it revolves; the extremities of the 
axis are called the poles; the north pole is called the Arctic pole from 
its being in the direction of the Great Bear (in Greek Arctos); the 
south pole, the Antarctic. 

3. Equator , Meridian. An imaginary great circle passing round the 
earth from east to west, and equally distant from both poles, is called 
the equator; imaginary great circles drawn round the earth from north 
to south, passing through the poles, and intersecting the equator at 
right angles are called meridians. 

4. Latitude and Longitude. The relative position of a place on the 
earth’s surface is determined by its distance north or south of the 
equator, and its distance east or west of any given meridian, called the 
prime meridian ; on English and American maps and globes the me¬ 
ridian of Greenwich in England is generally assumed as the prime 
meridian ; but American geographers often adopt that of Washington, 
and other nations those of their respective capitals. Distance from the 
equator is called latitude; distance from the prime meridian is called 

* longitude. 

5. Degrees , fyr. The geographical measure of distance is a degree or 
360th part of a great circle of the earth; the degree is divided into 
60 minutes and the minute into 60 seconds. Circles passing round 
the earth parallel to the equator at given distances from each other, 
whether of one, live, or ten degrees, are called parallels of latitude, and 
serve to show at what distance from the equator are the points through 
which they pass. In the same way meridians are drawn round the 
earth’s surface from north to south at the same distances. 

6. Tropics. In spring and autumn, the sun appears to move round 
the earth, over the equatorial regions ; but in summer the sun appears 
to be 23.^ degrees north, and in winter the same distance south of the 
equator. Circles passing round the earth at these points are called 
tropics. That at the south of the equator being the tropic of Capricorn, 
and that at the north the tropic of Cancer. 

7. Polar Circles. When the sun is in the tropic of Cancer, he is not 
visible round the Antarctic pole for a distance of 23£ degrees; and on 
the contrary, when he is in the tropic of Capricorn, he is not visible for 
the same distance round the Arctic pole. Circles drawn round the poles 
at that distance, are called respectively the Arctic and Antarctic circle. 

8. Zones. These circles and the tropics divide the surface of the 



6 


INTRODUCTION. 


earth into five bands or zones ; that which lies between the tropics, oti 
both sides of the equator is called the torrid zone ; the band between 
the tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle, is called the northern tem¬ 
perate zone, and that included within the Arctic circle the northern 
frigid zone. Between the tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic cir¬ 
cle, is the southern temperate zone, and within the Antarctic circle, the 
southern frigid zone. 

9. Dimensions and Divisions of the Earth. The mean diameter of the 
earth is 7,912 miles; its circumference at the equator nearly 24,900 
miles ; and its area 198 million square miles. The surface is divided into 
land and water; the former occupies about 50 million square miles, and 
the latter 148 millions, being nearly three fourths of the whole surface. 

10. Representation of the Earth. In order to obtain a correct concep¬ 
tion of the appearance of the surface of the earth, representations of 
that surface, on a small scale, ought to be presented to the eye. There 
are two ways in which the earth may be thus represented to our view; 
viz. by globes and by maps. 

11. Globes. The appearance of the surface of the earth may be 
delineated upon the surface of a solid having the same figure as the 
earth. This is the most accurate mode of representation, for an exact 
image of it may in this way be formed. Such an image of the earth is 
called a terrestrial globe. [See Appendix, p. 503.] 

12. Maps. The other way of representing the earth’s surface, is by 
drawing a part of it upon a plane. Such drawings are called maps. 
The necessity of maps arises from large globes being very expensive 
and inconvenient for use; while on small ones sufficient details cannot 
be introduced. 

Maps are constructed by making a projection of the globe, on the 
plane of some particular circle, supposing the eye placed at some par¬ 
ticular point, according to the rules of perspective. 

In maps three things are required: First to show the latitude and 
longitude of places, which is done by drawing a certain number of 
meridians and parallels of latitude: Secondly, the shape of the countries 
must be exhibited as accurately as possible; for real accuracy cannot • 
be obtained by projection, because the map is on a plane surface, where¬ 
as the earth is globular: Thirdly, the bearings of places, and their dis¬ 
tances from each other must be shown. 

In all maps, the upper part is the north, the lower the south, the 
right the east, and the left the west. On the right and left the degrees 
of latitude are marked. 

II. LAND AND WATER. 

1. Continents. The land surface of the earth is divided into three 
vast masses called continents, and numerous smaller tracts, called 
islands. The eastern continent comprises three great divisions called 
Asia, Europe and Africa, lying chiefly upon the north of the equator; 
the western continent comprises two divisions called North America and 
South America; and the southern continent or New Holland lies to the 
south of the equator. The eastern continent has an area of 31,500,000 
square miles ; the western of 14,800,000 ; and the southern of 4,200,000. 

2. Islands. Smaller portions of land scattered over the ocean, or 
otherwise surrounded by water, are called islands; some of these form 
considerable masses as Borneo and Madagascar, the largest known. 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


islands. A number of islands lying near each other is called a group 
or cluster; several groups lying near together are often called an 
archipelago. Small islands are also called islets ; keys are rocky islets, 
which are sometimes numerous along the coasts of continents or large 
islands. 

3. Capes , Peninsulas , &c. A part of the land running out into the 
sea, and joined to the mainland only by a narrow neck is called a 
peninsula; projections of land of less extent, reaching but a little way 
into the sea are called capes, headlands, promontories, or points. A 
narrow neck of land joining larger masses is called an isthmus. 

4. Oceans. There is in fact one continuous mass of water, called 
the ocean, surrounding the land which rises above its level in conti¬ 
nents and islands; but for convenience sake different parts of it have 
distinct names given to them, as appears by the following table. 

I. The great South Eastern Basin the waters of which cover nearly 
half the globe includes: 

i. The Pacific Ocean 11,000 miles in length from east to west, and 
8,000 in breadth, occupying a superficial space rather larger than the 
whole mass of the dry land. It extends from Behring’s Straits on the 
north, to a line drawn from Cape Horn to Van Diemen’s Land on the 
south ; and from America on the east, to Asia, Malaysia, and Australia 
on the west. In consequence of the wide expanse of its surface it is 
remarkably exempt from storms, except near its mountainous shores, 
and hence its name. It is often also called the South Sea. 

ii. The Indian Ocean, lying between Africa on the west and Malaysia 
and Australia on the east, and between Asia on the north, and a line 
drawn from the Cape of Good Hope to Van Diemen’s Land on the 
south, is about 4,500 miles in length and breadth ; it covers a surface of 
about 17,000,000 square miles. 

hi. The Southern or Antarctic Ocean surrounds the south pole, lying 
to the south of a line drawn quite round the globe from Cape Horn, 
along the southern extremity of New Zealand, Van Diemen’s Land, 
and Africa, back to the point of starting. It embraces an area of 
30,000,000 square miles. It is generally covered with floating ice as far 
north as 60° S. Lat., and in higher latitudes appears to be blocked up 
by an impenetrable barrier of fixed ice. 

II. The Western Basin forms a channel between the eastern and 
western continents, and washes their northern shores. It includes: 

i. The Atlantic Ocean stretching from the Southern Ocean to the 
Arctic circle ; it is about 8,500 miles in length, varying much in breadth, 
and it covers an area of 25,000,000 square miles ; 

ii. The Arctic Ocean surrounding the north pole; it is in part covered 
with impenetrable fields of perpetual ice, and it contains large masses 
of land of unknown extent. It is often called the Icy or Frozen Ocean 
or Polar Sea. 

5. Uses of the Ocean. Although it presents to the eye only the 
image of a watery waste, the ocean sustains an important part in the 
economy of nature. It is the fountain of those vapors which replenish 
the rivers and .lakes, and dispense fertility to the soil. By its action on 
the atmosphere it tempers the extremes of heat and cold. It affords 
an inexhaustible supply of food and of salt, a substance hardly Jess im¬ 
portant. As the great highway of commerce it connects the most 
distant parts of the globe, affording facilities of intercourse to nations 
the most remote from each other. 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


6. Seas, Gvlfs, and Bays. When the ocean penetrates into the land 
forming a large expanse of water, this inland portion of the ocean is 
usually termed a sea; such a body of water of less extent is generally 
called a gulf or bay; but these three terms are often confounded. 

7. Strait, Sound, fyc. A narrow passage of water leading from one 
sea or gulf to another is called a strait; a wider passage between two 
large bodies of water is called a channel or sound. 

8. Harbors, Roadsteads, &c. Small bays or anus of the sea, com¬ 
pletely landlocked, or so much so as to protect ships lying in them from 
the winds and the sea-swell, are called ports, harbors, or havens; more 
open arms of the sea which afford good anchoring ground, are called 
roads or roadsteads. A good harbor must be deep, capacious, and safe. 

9. Depth of the Ocean. The bottom of the sea appears to have ine¬ 
qualities similar to the surface of the dry land, and the depth of the 
water is, therefore, various. There are vast spaces where no bottom 
has been found, and if it is true that the depth of the sea bears any an¬ 
alogy to the elevations of the dry land, it would be in some places from 
20,000 to 26,000 feet; the greatest depth ever sounded is 7,200 feet. 

10. Tides. Tides are regular periodical oscillations in the waters of 
the ocean, which are caused by the attraction of the. sun and moon, 
and which take place twice every twenty-four hours. In the open sea 
they are at their height three hours after the moon has passed the me¬ 
ridian of the place, and the meridian opposite. Their greatest eleva¬ 
tions take place in narrow seas, where the action of the sun and moon 
is assisted by winds, currents, the position of the coast, &c. The high¬ 
est tides known are in the Bay of Fundy, where the flood rises to the 
height of 70 feet. 

11. Currents. Beside the motions produced by the tide, it has been 
found that there are permanent oceanic currents, always setting in the 
same direction. There is one called the polar current which sets 
from each pole towards the equator, as appears from the masses of 
floating ice, constantly moving in that direction. Another current, 
called the tropical current, sets, within the tropics, from east to west; 
so that vessels coming from Europe to America, descend to the latitude 
of the Canaries, where they are carried rapidly westward, and in going 
from America across the Pacific to Asia, a similar effect is observed. 
The Gulf Stream is one of the most remarkable and best known of 
the oceanic currents. 

12. Whirlpools. When two opposite currents of about equal force 
meet one another, they sometimes, especially in narrow channels, turn 
upon a centre and assume a spiral form, giving rise to whirlpools. 
Sometimes the most violent of these, when agitated by tides or winds, 
become dangerous to navigators. 

13. Saltness of the Sea. The waters of the sea hold in solution 
several salts among which are common salt or muriate of soda, Epsom 
salt or sulphate of magnesia, and Glauber’s salt or sulphate of soda. 
The saltness of the sea varies in different places, but is generally less 
towards the poles than near the tropics, and in inland seas or bays than 
in the open ocean. In some places springs of fresh water rise up in 
the midst of tlje sea. The bitterness of sea-water is supposed to be 
owing to the decomposed animal matter which it contains. 

14. Temperature of the Ocean. The temperature of the sea changes 
much less suddenly than that of the atmosphere, and it is by no means 
subject to such extremes of heat and cold as the latter. 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


III. SURFACE OF THE LAND. 

1. Mountains. The greatest elevations of the earth’s surface are 
called mountains; elevations of an inferior height are called hills. 
Mountains are sometimes completely insulated, but they are more com¬ 
monly disposed in chains; a chain is a series of mountains, the bases 
of which are continuous. Several chains are often connected with 
each other, forming a group ; and several groups in the same manner 
form a system. 

The height of mountains is their elevation above the level of the sea, 
and as the bases are often situated upon elevated plains, the apparent 
height of the mountainous peaks is much less than their absolute 
height. Cols or necks Tire depressions in mountainous chains affording 
a passage from one declivity of the ridge to the opposite ; they are 
sometimes called gates. 

2. Volcanoes. Those mountains which send forth from their sum¬ 
mits or sides, flame, smoke, ashes, and streams of melted matter or 
lava, are called volcanoes. The deep hollow from which these sub¬ 
stances are emitted is called a crater. Some elevations merely dis¬ 
charge mud or air, and have received the name of air or mud vol¬ 
canoes. 

Many mountains present appearances, which prove that at some 
former time they must have been outlets of fire, although they have 
long ceased to have any volcanic action; these are called extinct vol¬ 
canoes. 

From most active volcanoes smoke issues more or less constantly; 
but the eruptions, which are discharges of stones, ashes, and lava, with 
columns of flame, violent explosions, and concussions of the earth, 
happen at irregular and sometimes at long intervals. There are about 
500 volcanoes upon the surface of the earth. 

3. Valleys. The spaces which separate one mountain from another, 
or one chain from another, are called valleys, and their lowest part is 
generally the bed of a river, which rises in the higher grounds, or of a 
lake. The term valley is also applied in a wider sense to the whole 
extent of country drained by a river and its branches. 

4. Plains. The surface of the earth seldom forms a perfect level for 
any great extent; it has a more or less perceptible inclination, generally 
rising from the coasts towards the interior, and even those regions 
which are described as plains, have an undulating surface. In some 
instances there are extensive plains of great elevation, called plateaux 
or table-lands, the descent from which to the low countries exhibits to 
the inhabitants of the latter the appearance of a long chain of moun¬ 
tains. 

5. Deserts , Steppes , &c. There are vast tracts consisting merely of 
wide plains of sand or shingle, or occasionally broken only by bare 
rocky heights, destitute of water and vegetation, and shunned equally 
by man and beast; these are called deserts. Interspersed over these 
oceans of sand we sometimes find fertile spots, watered by springs and 
covered with trees, called oases. In some places we meet with vast 
plains entirely destitute of trees, but bearing grasses, saline and succu¬ 
lent plants, and dwarfish shrubs. Those which bear nutritive herbage 
are called prairies, llanos, or pampas; while those which have a scanty, 
and often only a temporary vegetation are called steppes or karroos. 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


IV. LAKES AND RIVERS. 

1. Lakes. An inland body of water not immediately connected with 
the ocean or any of its branches is called a lake ; but some bodies of 
this description are also commonly called seas. They are generally 
fresh, but are salt when situated in districts of which the soil contains 
saline matter. 

2. Classes of Lakes. There are four sorts of lakes, i. The first 
class includes those which have no outlet and receive no running 
water; these are usually very small. 

it. The second class comprises those which have an outlet, but which 
do not receive any running water. They are generally in elevated 
situations, and are often the sources of large rivers; they are formed by 
springs rising up into a large hollow, until the water runs out over the 
lowest part of the edge of the basin. 

in. The third class embraces those lakes which receive and discharge 
streams of water, and is the most numerous. These lakes are the 
receptacles of the waters of the neighboring country, but in general 
have but one outlet which bears the name of the principal river that 
enters the lake. Such a river is said to traverse or flow through the 
lake, though not with strict propriety, since its current is commonly lost 
in the general mass of waters, and the outlet is in fact a newly formed 
river. The largest lakes of this class are the great lakes which lie on 
the northern frontier of the United States, and of which the St. Law¬ 
rence is the only outlet to the sea. 

iv. The fourth class of lakes includes those which receive, without 
discharging rivers. The largest of these is the Caspian Sea, which 
swallows up several large rivers; Lake Aral also belongs to this class. 
They are both salt, and this is the case with most of those which have 
no outlet. 

3. Periodical Lakes. In tropical countries the violence of the rains 
often forms temporary lakes, covering spaces of several hundred miles 
in extent. South America has large lakes which are annually formed 
during the rainy season, and are therefore called periodical lakes; they 
are again dried up by the heats of a vertical sun. 

4. Lagoons. The waters of one river or several rivers before reaching 
the sea sometimes spread out over a large surface, filling a shallow 
basin, which communicates with the ocean by a narrow channel. The 
eastern shore of the Southern States, and the coasts of the Gulf of Mexi¬ 
co present a great number of these basins, described under the various 
names of sounds, lakes, and bays; they may be more properly and 
conveniently denominated lagoons. 

5. Rivers. Rivers are natural drains, which convey to the sea that 
portion of the waters falling upon the earth, which does not pass off 
by evaporation, or go to nourish organic bodies. The sources of rivers 
are generally springs, or small streams, fed by the melting of snow and 
ice upon the mountains, or by rains. 

6. Basin. The district from which the waters of a river are derived, 
is called its basin. The basin is bounded by highlands, which are 
sometimes mountainous, and which divide it from other basins. The 
water descending from the water-shed or dividing ridge collects into 
brooks, the brooks unite into rivulets; the rivulets united form the 
main trunk or river, which conveys the waters of the whole to the sea. 
All these descend over inclined planes, so that the lowest point of each 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


brook is that where it joins the rivulet; the lowest point of the rivulet 
that where it unites with the main stream ; and the lowest point in the 
whole system that where the river falls into the sea. These basins 
form important natural divisions. Those streams which empty them¬ 
selves into larger streams are called the tributaries of the latter. 

7. Bed , Banks , fyc. The cavity or channel, in which a river flows is 
called its bed, and generally has the appearance of having been cut or 
worn by the current itself. The borders of the channel are called the 
banks of the river; that bank which is to the right of a person descend¬ 
ing the stream, or facing the mouth of the river, is called the right 
bank, and the opposite is the left bank. The mouth of a river is the 
point, where it enters into a lake, sea, or another river; in the latter 
case the point of junction of the two streams is called the confluence. 

8. Estuary , Delta. Many of the largest rivers mingle with the sea 
by means of a single outlet, in which case they often spread into wide 
expanses, called estuaries or friths. Others before their termination 
divide into several branches, embracing a triangular space of land 
called a delta, from its resemblance to the shape of the fourth letter of 
the Greek alphabet (A). 

9. Falls, Rapids , Bore. When the bed of a river suddenly changes 
its level, so that the water plunges down a considerable descent, it forms 
a fall, cascade, or cataract. When its current is accelerated by a con¬ 
siderable inclination in its bed, or broken by a series of descents of 
little height, it forms rapids. Some streams rush with great force into 
the sea carrying a large mass of water, which encounters the ocean 
tide, advancing in the opposite direction ; the collision of the opposing 
• currents produces a tremendous shock; this phenomenon is called a 
bore. 

10. Bars. The opposition which takes place between the tide and 
the currents of rivers causes, in many instances, collections of mud or 
sand at their mouths, which are called bars, on account of the obstruc¬ 
tion which they offer to navigation. 

11. Periodical floods. All rivers are more or less subject to occasional 
or periodical floods or inundations. Within the tropics, these floods 
are produced by the annual rains, and occur during the summer 
months, but beyond the tropics, they occur at various seasons, and in 
high latitudes chiefly in the spring, when the snow and ice melt. In 
some cases where the river banks are high, the water merely rises in 
the bed of the river; but where the banks are but little above the level 
of the river-bed, the waters overflow them, forming vast lake-like ex¬ 
panses. 

12. Alluvial Deposits. Rivers which pass through low and level 
tracts in their annual inundations, deposit the earth, sand, and gravel 
brought down by their waters, on their banks, and raise them gradually 
above the surrounding country, while a part of the matter carried to 
the sea extends the coast, or forms sand or mud banks, which rise by 
degrees above the wat^r. It is thus that the Ganges, Po, Nile, Missis¬ 
sippi, arid many other rivers flow on the top of ridges, behind which 
are cultivated and inhabited districts, lying lower than the level of the 
waters. During floods the elevated sides are sometimes burst through, 
and the waters which escape stagnate in temporary lakes, or return 
into the main stream lower down, or travel to the sea by a separate 
mouth. 


12 


INTRODUCTION. 


V. CLIMATE AND WINDS. 


1. Climate. The term climate expresses the particular combination 
of temperature and moisture which characterises the atmosphere of 
any particular place. We may distinguish in general six different com¬ 
binations or climates, which, however,are infinitely diversified in degree * 
thus we have warm and moist, warm and dry, "temperate and moist, 
temperate and dry, cold and moist, and cold and dry climates. 

2. Causes of Climate. There are nine circumstances which determine 
the character of climate: 1. The sun’s action upon the atmosphere; 
2. the temperature of the earth; 3. the elevation of the ground above 
the level of the ocean; 4. the general slope of the ground and its par¬ 
ticular exposure; 5. the position and direction of mountains; 6. the 
neighborhood and relative situation of great bodies of water; 7. the 
nature of the soil; 8. the degree of cultivation and density of popula¬ 
tion ; and 9. the prevailing winds. 

3. Seasons of the Torrid Zone. There are only two seasons in the tor¬ 
rid zone; the dry and the rainy or wet. The latter prevails in the 
tropical regions over which the sun is vertical, and is succeeded by the 
dry season when the sun retires to the other side of the equator. The 
rains are produced by the powerful action of a vertical sun, rapidly 
accumulating vapors by evaporation, which then descend in rains; 
this arrangement is wisely adapted to afford a shelter from the perpen¬ 
dicular rays of the sun. In some regions there are two rainy seasons, 
one of which is much shorter than the other. 

4. Seasons of the Temperate Zones. The four seasons which we dis¬ 
tinguish in this country are known only in the temperate zones, which 
alone are blessed with the varied charms of spring and autumn, the 
tempered heats of summer, and the salutary rigors of winter. In the 
part of the temperate zone bordering on the tropics the climate resem¬ 
bles that of the intertropical regions ; and it is between 40° and 60° of 
latitude, that the succession of seasons is most regular and perceptible. 

5. Seasons of the Frigid Zones. Beyond the 60th degree of latitude 
only two seasons take place; a long and severe winter is there suddenly 
succeeded by insupportable heats. The rays of the sun, notwithstand¬ 
ing the obliquity of their direction, produce powerful effects, because 
the great length of the days favors the accumulation of heat; in three 
days the snow is dissolved, and flowers at once begin to blow. 

6. Wind is a current of air moving in some particular direction ; the 
velocity and force of winds are various. The following table shows 
the degrees of velocity of different winds. 

Velocity. —4 or 5 miles an hour. Name of the wind. —Gentle wind, 


10 to 15 
30 to 35 
50 


Brisk Gale, 
Hijih wind 
Storm, 


80 to 100 


Hurricane. 


7. Permanent , Periodical and Variable Winds. Winds may be divided 
into three classes; permanent winds or those which flow constantly in 
the same direction ; periodical winds, or those which flow in one 
direction only a certain part of the year, and variable winds, which are 
constantly changing their direction. 

8. Trade-winds. The permanent winds blowing constantly between, 
and a few degrees beyond the tropics, from east to west, are called 
trade-winds. They prevail in the Pacific, Atlantic, and parts of the 
Indian ocean, to about 30° each side of the equator, being on the north 


INTRODUCTION. 13 

a little from the north-east, and on the south from the south east. In 
sailing therefore from the Canaries to Cumana, or from Acapulco to 
the Philippines, the winds blow so steadily, that it is hardly necessary 
to touch the sails. J 

9. Monsoons. In the Indian ocean to the north of 10° S., and in the 
seas around Malaysia, there prevail periodical winds called monsoons, 
which blow half the year from one quarter, and the other half from 
the opposite direction 5 at the time of their shifting or breaking up, vari¬ 
able winds and violent storms prevail. On the north of the equator a 
south-west monsoon blows from April to October, and during the rest 
of the year a north-east monsoon ; on the south of the equator a south¬ 
east wind prevails from April to October, and a north-west wind the 
other half of the year. 

10. Land and Sea Breezes. There is another kind of periodical 
winds, common on islands and coasts in tropical countries. During 
the day, when the air over the land is heated by the sun a cool breeze 
sets in from the sea; this blows from about 10 A. M. to 6 P. M. At 
night on the contrary a land-breeze prevails, that is the wind sets off 
from the land till about 8 A. M., when it dies away. 

11. Hurricanes , Whirlwinds , fy*c. Hurricanes are violent storms of 
wind, blowing with great fury, often from opposite points of the com¬ 
pass, and causing dreadful devastations. They are rare beyond the 
tropics. Whirlwinds are sometimes caused by two winds meeting each 
from different directions, and then turning rapidly round upon a centre, 
and sometimes by the form of mountains, which occasions gusts of wind 
to descend with a spiral or whirling motion. The simoon of the desert 
of Sahara, the samiel of the Arabian deserts, the chamseen of Egypt, 
and the harmattan of Guinea, the solano of Spain, the sirocco of Italy, 
and the northwest wind of New South Wales, are noxious hot winds, 
some of which merely produce languor, while others if admitted into 
the lungs cause suffocation. 

VI. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 

1. Number and Distribution of Species. Each plant has generally a 
determinate climate to which it is best adapted; there are other climates, 
however, in which it can be raised, though less advantageously, but 
beyond certain limits it ceases to grow altogether. The whole number 
of species at present known amounts to 44,000, but it is estimated that 
the total number of existing species is about 80,000. 

The most simply organised plants, such as mosses, lichens, grasses, 
&c., which form the lowest order of the vegetable creation are the most 
widely diffused; the more perfect tribes are in general limited to par¬ 
ticular regions, and, in some cases, as for example, the cedar of Lebanon, 
to a particular mountain or district. 

2. Vegetation of the Frigid Zones. There are properly no plants 
which are peculiar to the frigid zone, because the mountains of the 
torrid zone, embracing every variety of climate between their base and 
summit, are capable of producing all the vegetables of the temperate and 
frigid regions. The number of vegetable species in the frigid zone is 
small; the trees are few and dwarfish, and as we advance towards 1 he 
poles finally disappear. But mosses, lichens, ferns, creeping plants, f n<9 
some berry-bearing shrubs thrive during the short summer. 

3. Vegetation of the Temperate Zones. In the high latitudes are the 


14 


INTRODUCTION. 


pine and the fir, which retain their verdure during the rigors of winter. 
To these, on approaching the equator, succeed the oak, elm, beech, 
lime, and other forest trees. Several fruit-trees, among which are the 
apple, the pear, the cherry, and the plum grow better in the higher 
latitudes; while to the regions nearer the tropics belong the olive, lemon, 
orange and fig, the cedar, cypress, and cork-tree. 

Between 30° and 50° is the country of the vine and the mulberry; 
wheat grows in 60°, and oats and barley a few degrees farther. Maize 
and rice are the grains more commonly cultivated in lower latitudes. 

4. Vegetation of the Torrid Zone. The vegetation of the torrid zone, 
where nature supplies most abundantly moisture and heat, is the most 
remarkable for its luxuriance and the variety of its species. The most 
juicy fruits and the most powerful aromatics, the most magnificent and 
gigantic productions of the vegetable creation, are found in the inter- 
tropical regions. There the earth yields the sugar-cane, the coffee-tree, 
the palm, the bread-tree, the immense baobab, the date, the cocoa, the 
cinnamon, the nutmeg, the pepper, the camphor-tree, &c., with so 
many dye-woods and medicinal plants. At different elevations of soil 
the torrid zone exhibits, in addition to its peculiar forms, all the pro¬ 
ductions of the other regions of the earth. 

VII. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 

1. Number and Distribution of Species. The number of species in 
the animal kingdom has been estimated at about 100,000. Each genus 
is generally confined to a particular region or climate, and where the 
same genus is found in different continents the species are different. 
Most of the domestic animals (the horse, cow, dog, sheep, goat, hog, and 
cat) thrive in nearly every variety of climate, although some of them be¬ 
come more or less degenerate in high latitudes. The camel and the 
elephant on the contrary cannot be naturalized in the colder climates. 

2. Zoological Regions. The earth appears to be divided into at least 
eleven zoological regions or districts, of which each is the residence of 
a distinct set of animals; 

(1.) The Arctic region contains several tribes common to the eastern 
and western continents, a circumstance owing doubtless to the com¬ 
munication between them afforded by means of ice. (2.) The tempe¬ 
rate regions of the eastern continent are inhabited by peculiar races 
quite distinct from the kindred tribes of the (3.) corresponding zone 
in the American continent. The equatorial region contains four exten 
sive tracts, widely separated from each other by seas, and each peopled 
by distinct races; these are (4.) the intertropical parts of Asia; (5.) those 
of Africa; (6.) those of America; (7.) the islands which constitute Malay¬ 
sia ; and (8.) Papua and the surrounding islands. (9.) The extensive re¬ 
gion of New Holland forms a distinct zoological province, inhabited by 
several very singular tribes; and the southern extremities (10.) of 
America, and (11.) of Africa, separated from the northern temperate 
regions of their respective continents by the heats of the torrid zone, are 
each distinguished by peculiar races. 

3. Animals of Islands. The animals of islands situated near conti¬ 
nents are in general the same as those of the neighboring mainland. 
Small islands lying at a great distance from continents are nearly or 
quite destitute of quadrupeds, except such as appear to have been car¬ 
ried to them by man 


INTRODUCTION. 


15 


VIII. MAN. 

1. Man, at birth the most helpless of animals and seemingly the 
most exposed to the accidents of nature, is yet the most universal and 
independent of the animal creation. Gifted with the divine powers of 
reason and speech, he is separated by a wide gulf from the mere ani¬ 
mal nature; yet physically considered he stands at the head of the 
animal kingdom. The human race forms but one species; yet exhibits 
those physical diversities which constitute varieties. 

2. Varieties of the Human Race . The physical differences which 
exist in the human family, are diversity of complexion ; difference of 
stature and shape ; varieties of form in the skull; color and nature of 
the hair ; &c. Some naturalists, taking complexion as the basis of their 
division, distinguish the human race into three varieties: 1. the white or 
Caucasian ; 2. the yellow or Mongolian ; and 3. the black or Ethiopian. 
Others adopt the form of the skull as the characteristic, and make 
five varieties: i. The Caucasian including the European nations and 
some of the Western Asiatics, in which the head is almost round, 
the face oval, and the features not very prominent; ii. The Mongo¬ 
lian in which the head is almost square, the cheek-bones prominent, 
and the face broad and flattened; hi. The Ethiopian or Negro in which 
the head is narrow, the forehead convex, the nostrils wide, the jaws 
lengthened, the lower part of the face projecting, the nose spread and 
flat, and the lips thick ; iv. The American in which the cheek-bones 
are prominent, the face broad, the forehead low, and the eyes deeply 
seated; v. And the Malay in which the forehead is slightly arched, 
the upper jaw projecting, and the features in many respects approach¬ 
ing those of the second and fourth varieties, 

3. Languages. Some writers have endeavored to arrange the 
human tribes into classes or families, according to the relations of their 
languages ; comprising under the name of family those nations whose 
languages are closely connected in grammatical structure or in the ety¬ 
mology of their roots. Thus the German, Swedish, Danish, Dutch and 
English languages bear a close resemblance to each other, and the na¬ 
tions speaking those languages are considered as kindred tribes, forming 
a family of nations to which has been.given the name of the Teutonic 
family. The whole number of known languages is about 2,000. Of 
these fifteen are spoken or understood over a wide extent of country 
or by a great number of individuals: viz : the Chinese, Arabic, Turkish, 
Persian, Hebrew, Sanscrit, German, English, French, Spanish, Portu¬ 
guese, Russian, Greek, Latin, and Malay. 

4. Population of the Globe. Very different estimates have been made 
of the entire population of the globe; a regular enumeration has been 
made only in a few states, and the whole number of individuals in 
some has been calculated from a consideration of the known number 
of males, or of men capable of bearing arms, or of taxable polls, &c. But 
these data are not possessed in regard to many countries, and there are 
extensive regions of the world quite unknown to us. Accordingly the 
most trustworthy estimates of late writers differ considerably on this 
subject, some calculating the number of individuals of the human race 
at 1,000 millions, and others at 650 or 700 millions. Supposing the 
population of the globe to be rather less than 750 millions, the follow¬ 
ing table exhibits an estimate of its distribution in the five great divi¬ 
sions of the world. 


16 


INTRODUCTION. 


Old World or Eastern Continent 
Europe - 

Asia - - - 

Africa - 

New World or Western Continent 
Oceania. - 


Pop. 

630 , 000,000 

230 , 000,000 

390 , 000,000 

60 , 000,000 

40 , 000,000 
- 20,000,000 


IX. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 


1. Government. The government of a state is the body or bodies of 
men, to which are entrusted the power of making and executing the 
laws, the management of the public concerns, and the defence and 
promotion of the general welfare. 

2. Powers and Branches of Governments. The most important 
powers of a government are, that of making laws or the legislative 
power; that of interpreting or applying them to individual cases, or the 
judicial power; and that of executing them or the executive power. 
Each of these powers is, in many states, confided to a distinct body, 
and the government is, therefore, divided into three independent bran¬ 
ches, the legislature, the judiciary, and the executive. 

3. Forms of Government. There are various forms of government dif¬ 
fering in their character and appellation, according to the disposition 
of the powers of government in few or many hands, and the organiza¬ 
tion of the different branches; 

i. A monarchical government is one in which the supreme power is 
exercised by a single individual; if the sovereign succeeds his prede¬ 
cessor by right of inheritance, it is a hereditary monarchy ; if he is 
chosen by the nation, or certain privileged classes, or dignitaries, it is 
an elective monarchy; 

n. When the sovereign has no law but his own will, and can dispose 
at pleasure of the lives, persons, and property of his subjects, the gov¬ 
ernment is a despotism; if the sovereign unites all powers in himself, 
but is bound by the laws, the government is an absolute monarchy ; t 

in. When the authority of the head of the state is restricted by the 
concurrent authority of the representatives of the nation or of certain 
privileged classes of the nation, the government is called a limited or 
constitutional monarchy; 

iv. A republican government is one in which the supreme power is in 
the hands of the whole body of the people, or is exercised by the principal 
citizens; in the former case, it is called a democracy or democratic repub¬ 
lic ; in the latter an aristocracy or aristocratic republic ; 

v. States are also differently denominated according to the title of the 
sovereign, without regard to the form of government; thus a monarchy 
is styled an empire, kingdom, duchy, principality, electorate, landgravi- 
ate, &c., according as the head of the state bears the title of emperor, 
king, duke, prince, elector, landgrave, &c. 

4. Colonies. Colonies are establishments founded by states, or some¬ 
times by individuals in foreign countries, for commercial or benevolent 
purposes ; and subject to the authority of the mother-country. Factories 
are trading stations established in foreign countries. Colonies founded 
by the transportation of convicted criminals are called penal colonies. 


X. RELIGION. 

1. Vaneiies of Religious Systems. All the various religious systems, 
professed by different nations, may be reduced to two great classes, the 



INTRODUCTION. 


17 


one comprising those which acknowledge the existence of a supreme 
God, the creator, preserver, and ruler of all things, and the other includ¬ 
ing those, which do not recognise the existence of a supreme intelligence. 

2. Fetichism, Sabeisjn. To the latter class belong the innumerable 
forms of superstition which prevail among ignorant and barbarous 
tribes. Fetichism is the worship of fetiches, that is of various living or 
inanimate objects of nature ; the elements, rivers, fire, trees, and what¬ 
ever else the credulous savage sees endowed with powers of good or 
evil, become the objects of gratitude or fear and worship. Different 
forms of fetichism prevail among the negro tribes of Africa, in Aus¬ 
tralia, Polynesia, and in some parts of Asia and America. The sacrifice 
of human victims ofcen forms a part of its horrid rites. Sabeiem is the 
worship of the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars ; this is an an¬ 
cient form of religious faith, but has ceased to prevail very extensively. 

3. Judaism. Judaism acknowledges no revelation, but that made to 
the Hebrews by Moses and the prophets. The Jews, are the descend¬ 
ants of the ancient Hebrews, and though dispersed over all parts of the 
world they preserve their ceremonies and faith. Their sacred books 
are the books of the Old Testament, written originally in Hebrew; they 
still expect the coming of the Messiah promised by their prophets, and 
observe the seventh day of the week or the Sabbath. Since their dis¬ 
persion they have ceased to offer the sacrifices prescribed by the law, 
and instead of their ancient priests or Levites, they have substituted 
Rabbins or learned men, who expound the law in the synagogues. 
Among the Jewish sects are the Talmudists, so called because they re¬ 
ceive the Talmud, a collection of traditions and comments upon their 
sacred books; the Caraites, who reject the absurd traditions and super¬ 
stitious follies of the Talmud; the Rechabites, who live in the oases near 
Mecca, and receive only the earlier books of the Old Testament; and 
the Samaritans, who still offer sacrifices on Mount Gerizim. 

4. Christianity. Although founded on Judaism, and originating 
among the Jews, Christianity teaches that the Messiah, promised by 
the Jewish prophets, has come, and brought a new revelation to men, 
and that Jesus Christ is this Messiah ; the New Testament contains the 
revelations of this divine teacher. 

5. Mahometanism. Islamism or Mahometanism was founded by 
Mahomet or Mohammed, an Arabian, who, admitting the divine mis¬ 
sion of Moses and Jesus Christ, and acknowledging the sacred character 
of the Old and New Testaments, claimed to be charged with new 
revelations from God. Islamism teaches the immortality of the soul, 
a future judgment, &c.; it prescribes prayer five times a day; fre¬ 
quent ablutions; fasting during the month ramazan; yearly alms, to 
the amount of the fortieth of one’s personal property; pilgrimage to 
Mecca, and some other rites; the temples are called mosques, and 
divine service is performed in them every Friday. 

The sacred book of the Mahometans is the Koran, an Arabic word 
signifying the Book; it is written in Arabic. The principal Mahome¬ 
tan sects are the Sonnites, who acknowledge the authority of certain 
traditions and commentaries on the Koran ; the Shiites, including the 
Nosairians, Ismaelians, Druses, &c., who reject these traditions ; the 
Yezids whose religious system consists of a mixture of Christianity 
and Mahometanism; and the Wahabites, an Arab sect, which arose 
during the last century, and has endeavored to effect a reformation 


18 INTRODUCTION. 


of Islamism by purging it of human corruptions and restoring its 
primitive simplicity. 

6. Brahmanism. Brahmanism recognises the existence of a supreme 
intelligence, Brahm, but teaches that he governs the world through the 
medium of numerous subordinate deities. The principal of these are 
Brahma, the Creator, who presides over the land ; Vishnu, the Preserv¬ 
er, presiding over water; and Siva, the Destroyer, who presides over 
fire ; these three persons are, however, but one God, and form the Trim- 
ourti or Hindoo Trinity. The Hindoos, who profess this faith, have 
several sacred books, called Vedas, written in Sanscrit, and forming 
their code of religion and philosophy; they teach the metempsycho¬ 
sis or transmigration of souls, and the immortality of the soul, and pre¬ 
scribe a great number of fasts, penances, and rites. Pilgrimages, vol¬ 
untary death, self-torment, ablutions, &c. are practised, and the females 
of the two higher castes are required to burn themselves on the dead 


bodies of their husbands. 

7. Buddhism. Buddhism resembles Brahmanism in many points; 
it is the prevailing religion in Thibet, Ceylon, the Birman empire, and 
Annam ; and is professed by a portion of the people of China, Corea, 
and Japan. Buddhism teaches that the universe is inhabited by sev¬ 
eral classes of existences, partly material and partly spiritual, which rise 
by successive transmigrations to higher degrees of being, until they 
arrive at a purely spiritual existence, when they are termed Buddhas. 
These holy beings descend from time to time upon earth in a human 
form to preserve the true doctrine among men; four Buddhas have 
already appeared, the last under the name of Shigemooni or Godama. 

8. JVanekism. Nanekism or the religion of the Seiks, founded by 
Nanek in the fifteenth century, is a mixture of Mahometanism and 
Brahmanism. The Seiks adore one God, believe in future rewards 
and punishments, and reject the use of images as objects of worship; 
they receive the Vedas and the Koran, as sacred books, but think that 
the Hindoos have corrupted their religious system by the use of idols. 

9. Doctrines of Confucius. The Doctrine of the Learned, or the 
Religion of Confucius is the received religion of the educated classes 
of China, Annam, and Japan ; it uses no images, and has no priests, the 
ceremonies being performed by the civil magistrates. The rites, such 
as the worship of the heavens, stars, mountains and rivers, genii, and 
souls of the departed, are esteemed merely civil institutions. 

10. Magianism. Magianism or the Religion of Zoroaster, teaches the 
existence ofa supreme being, Zervan or the Eternal, subordinate to whom 
are Ormuzd, the principle of good and Ahriman, the principle of evil, 
who wage a perpetual warfare ; numerous inferior deities and genii take 
part in this struggle, in which Ormuzd will finally prevail. The sacred 
books of the Magians are called the Zendavesta. The ceremonies con¬ 
sist chiefly in purifications, ablutions, and other rites, performed in the 
presence of the sacred fire, the symbol of the primeval life; hence 
the Magians are erroneously called fire-worshippers. 

11. The numbers of the adherents of each religious system have 
been estimated as follows; 


Christianity. 

Roman Catholics 
Greek Catholics 
Protestants 

Total - 


139 , 000,000 

62 , 000,000 

59 , 000,000 

260 , 000,000 


Judaism 
Mahometanism 
Brahmanism 
Buddhism 
Other Religions 


4 , 000,000 

96 , 000,000 

60 , 000,000 

170 , 000.000 

147 , 000,000 



DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 



19 


I. MAINE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Maine, the most northern and east¬ 
ern state of the Union, is bounded N. by Lower Canada; E. by New 
Brunswick, from which it is separated in part by the St. Croix; S. by 
the Atlantic ocean, and W. by Lower Canada and New Hampshire. It 
lies between 43° 5' and 48° 12' north latitude, and between 66° 5CK 
and 70° 55' west longitude,* having a superficial area of about 33,000 
square miles. 

2. Mountains. The Highlands, that separate the waters which fall 
into the St. Lawrence from those which empty themselves into the At¬ 
lantic ocean, extend from the northern part of New Hampshire to the 
northeastern extremity of Maine. After supplying the sources of the 
Kennebec, the Penobscot and the St. John’s, they gradually sink down 
to Cape Rozier on the gulf of St. Lawrence. This range is called the 
Main Ridge, Height of Land, or Northeastern Ridge, and some of its 
peaks rise to the height of 4,000 feet; where it is crossed by the new 
road from Hallowel! to Quebec, its elevation is about 2,000 feet. 

The mountains within the state lie scattered oyer the country in ir¬ 
regular groups, but exhibit in some places the form of spurs from the 
great Alleghany range. Katahdin mountain is a rugged and insulated 
peak, 5,385 feet high, lying between the eastern and western branches 
of the Penobscot. 

3. Valleys. The valleys of the Kennebec and Penobscot, with their 
various ramifications, traverse nearly the whole state. The Kennebec 
valley is much diversified, and exhibits a very uneven surface. In the 
southern part, the hills are of moderate elevation; in the north they are^ 
higher. Towards the coast, the valley is narrow, and the hills press* 
upon the margin of the river; farther inland, the heights recede from 
the stream, and leave in many places level alluvial tracts along the 
banks, rising into broad rounded swells at a distance from the river. 

The valley of the Penobscot does not differ in its general features 
from the valley of the Kennebec. Near the coast its surface is elevated 
and broken. Proceeding northward to nearly the head of tide water, it 
sinks and expands rather suddenly into a gently undulating country. 
Farther up, it becomes still more level, and in the northern part grows 
again somewhat undulating. 

4. Rivers. The Saco rises in the White Mountains in New Hamp¬ 
shire, enters Maine at Fryeburg, and flows in an irregular course S. E. 
to the sea; it is 160 miles long, and has numerous falls, which afford 
excellent mill sites. It is navigable for ships to Saco, six miles from its 
mouth. 

* The northeastern boundary of the United States, or a part of the boundary be¬ 
tween Canada and Maine, and Maine and New Brunswick, is yet undecided, and is 
a subject of controversy between Great Britain and the United States. The words 
of the treaty of 1783, which put an end to the war of the revolution, are as follows: 

* From the northwest angle of Nova Scotia, viz. that angle which is formed by a 
line drawn due north from the source of the river St. Croix to the high lands, along 
said high lands which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St. 
Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic ocean, to the northwesternmost 
head of the river Connecticut.’ This part of the country was imperfectly known at 
the time of making the treaty, and the dividing ridge of high lands is by the Ame¬ 
ricans assumed to be in 48° of north latitude, while by the English it is placed in 
about 46° 30'. 


20 


MAINE. 


The Androscoggin rises among the Highlands which form the N. W. 
boundary of Maine, and descending through a succession of lakes, 
enters New Hampshire at Errol; it re-enters Maine at Gilead, and flows 
E. and S. till it joins the Kennebec at Merrymeeting Hay. Its length 
is 140 miles; the whole course is broken by rapids and falls. 

The Kennebec rises near the source of the Androscoggin, and flows 
nearly S. to the sea: falls and rapids render the navigation difficult 
above the tide at Augusta, to which place it is navigable for vessels of 
100 tons, and to Bath, twelve miles from the sea, for ships. It is about 
200 miles in length. 

The Penobscot is the largest river in the state; the western or main 
branch rises in the northwestern Highlands, and, after flowing through 
lake Chesuncook, unites, about 120 miles from the sea, with the eastern 
branch, which rises to the N. E. of Katahdin. Its whole length is 250 
miles, and it is navigable for large vessels to Bangor, 52 miles from the 
sea. The central position of the Penobscot, the facility of communica¬ 
tion between it, and the w r aters of the Kennebec, the St. John’s, and the 
St. Croix, and its susceptibility of improvement render it of great im¬ 
portance to the state. 

The St. Croix, or Schoodic forms part of the eastern boundary of 
Maine, and flows into Passamaquoddy bay. The navigation of this, 
as that of the other rivers of Maine, is much interrupted by falls. The 
St. John’s rises in the northern part of Maine, and with its numerous 
branches waters a tract of about 10,000 square miles in extent. But 
as the lower part of its course is in New Brunswick, it will be described 
under that head. 

5. Lakes. Moosehead lake, the largest in New England, is 50 miles 
long and 10 or 15 broad. Umbagog lake partly in N. Hampshire, but 
mostly in this state, is 18 miles long, and 10 broad. Chesuncook lake is 
20 miles long and three broad. Sebago lake, near Portland, is 12 miles 
in length. 

6. Islands. Most of the coast is thickly strewn with islands. The 
largest is Mount Desert, on the W. side of Frenchman’s Bay; it is 15 
miles long and 12 broad. Many islands lie in Penobscot bay, as Long 
Island, the Fox Islands, and Deer Isle on the E. side of the bay. 

7. Bays. This state has many spacious bays and fine harbors. Pe¬ 
nobscot Bay, the largest, is 30 miles in extent from N. to S. Its width 
is 18 miles: it affords great facilities for navigation, and presents a 
variety of beautiful landscapes. Casco Bay, between Cape Elizabeth 
and Cape Small Point, extends 20 miles, and contains more than 300 
islands, most of which are under cultivation. Passamaquoddy Bay, 
forming a part of the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, is 
6 miles in length, and twelve wide. Small harbors are numerous, and 
the shores are rocky and bold. 

8. Climate. The winters are severe. In the interior, and even 
within 10 miles of the sea-coast the ground is usually covered with 
snow three or four months in the year, and in the forests of the central 
parts nearly five months. In the mountainous regions the snow is often 
5 feet deep. Along the sea-coast the winters are irregular. The sum¬ 
mers are hot, but not sufficiently long to be altogether favorable to the 
cultivation of maize. In most parts of Maine, however, the vegetable 
productions of the northern states thrive, though early frosts sometimes 
do great damage to the crops. The air is pure and healthy, but during 


MAINE. 


2L 

the spring and early part of summer, the thick fogs in the eastern parts 
are disagreeable; the northeasterly winds which are prevalent during 
this season, constitute one of the worst features of the climate. The 
spring is commonly rainy, and the winters tempestuous; but during 
summer, the air is serene., The coldest wind is that from the N. W.; 
the uncommon keenness of which is indeed well known over all New 
England. 

9. Soil. The fertility of the soil in the most favorable situations, is 
thought to equal that of any part of the Northern States; its quality, 
however, is not uniform. On the coast it is generally poor ; between 
the Kennebec and Penobscot, it is excellent; among the mountains in 
the N. W. it is very inferior. 

10. Natural Productions. White pine abounds in the northern 
part, and White and Red oak are found on the coast; hemlock and 
spruce, beech, maple, ash and birch are plenty; the butternut and wal¬ 
nut are more rare. The apple, pear, plum and cherry thrive, but the 
peach is seldom successfully cultivated. Much of the land is well 
adapted to grazing, and great numbers of cattle are raised. 

11. Minerals. Iron is found in all parts of the state. Lime is 
abundant particularly at Thomaston and Camden, where it is burnt in 
great quantities for exportation. In some places it affords a fine marble. 
Granite abounds in many parts of the state, and between the Kennebec 
and St. John’s slate occurs extensively. 

12. Face of the country. The surface is in general moderately 
hilly; in some places it rises into mountains of considerable elevation. 
Near the coast, and along most of the rivers, there are small plains, and 
the surface of the rest of the state is highly diversified. 

13. Divisions. This state is divided into ten counties: 


Counties. 

County towns. 

Oxford, 

Paris. 

York, 

York and Alfred. 

Cumberland, 

Portland. 

Kennebec, 

Augusta. 


f Wiscasset. 

Lincoln, 

< Topshain. 


C Warren. 

Somerset, 

Norridgewoek. 

Penobscot, 

Bangor. 

Waldo, 

Belfast. 

Hancock, 

Castine. 

Washington, 

Machias. 


The seat of government is Augusta. 


14. Canal. The Cumberland and Oxford Canal, completed in 
1829, extends from Portland to Sebago lake. It is 20 miles in length, 
and by a lock in Songo river, the navigation is continued 30 miles 
further. 

15. Towns. The counties in this and the other New England states 
are subdivided into townships, which are commonly called towns. 
They are incorporated by the legislatures of the respective states, and 
have a distinct police, conducted by officers elected annually by the in¬ 
habitants. The states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
Indiana, and Michigan and Arkansaw Territories, are also subdivided 
into townships; in the other states, in which no such subdivision is 


22 


MAINE. 


known, the word town is used in its proper sense for a collection of 
houses. 

The principal town in Maine is the city of Portland, with a popula¬ 
tion of 12,601. It lies on Casco bay, and has a safe and capacious har¬ 
bor, which is defended by several forts. The inhabitants carry on an 
extensive coasting and foreign trade, and are largely concerned in the 
fisheries. The city is generally well built, and contains a court-house, 
custom-house, six banks, fifteen churches, and other public buildings. 

The second town in the state is Thomaston, on Penobscot bay. 
Great quantities of limestone are found here, and most of the lime 
exported from Maine, is manufactured at Thomaston. Marble of ex¬ 
cellent quality is also quarried. A state-prison has been built here on 
the plan of the Auburn and Sing-Sing prisons. Population of the 
town 4,221. 

Hallowell is a flourishing town, situated on both sides of the Kenne¬ 
bec, about 45 miles from its mouth. Vessels of 150 tons can come up to 
the wharfs; beef, pork, ashes, grain, &c. are the chief articles of ex¬ 
port. The population is 3,964. 

Two miles further up the river, on the W. bank, lies Augusta, the 
capital of the state. It contains the State House, a handsome granite 
edifice, and on the other side of the river, across which is a bridge of 
two arches, is a United States arsenal. Population 3,980. 

Thirty miles below Augusta, and on the same side of the Kennebec, 
is Bath, one of the principal commercial towns in the state. It is at the 
head of ship navigation, and the river is seldom frozen over here. 
Much ship-building is done at Bath. Population 3,773. 

Brunswick on the Androscoggin, has several manufactories and a 
number of valuable mills, for which the fall of the Androscoggin affords 
good sites. Bowdoin College, the principal literary seminary in Maine, 
is at Brunswick. Population 3,547. 

In the southwestern part of the state are York, on the coast, with 
3,485 inhabitants, and Saco, about 6 miles from the mouth of the river 
of the same name. The falls at Saco have a descent of 42 feet, and 
afford excellent .seats for mills and manufacturing establishments. The 
town is also favorably situated for commerce, the river being navigable 
for ships to this point. Population 3,219. 

There are several flourishing towns on the Penobscot, to the facilities 
of communication afforded by which they are chiefly indebted for their 
prosperity. The city of Bangor, at the head of tide water, has above 
6,000 inhabitants, and carries on an active and increasing commerce, 
although the navigation below it is sometimes interrupted by ice. Bel¬ 
fast, near the mouth of the river, has a good harbor and great maritime 
advantages. Population 3,077. Castine on the E. side of Penobscot 
bay, has an excellent and capacious harbor. Placed at the entrance of 
the Penobscot, it commands that important river. Population 1,155. 

At Gardiner, a pleasant town four miles from Hallowell, there are 
numerous mills. Population 3,709. At Waterville, 18 miles above 
Augusta, on the Kennebec, there is a Baptist college. 

Eastport, the most easterly town in the United States, is situated on 
an island in Passamaquoddy bay, Lon. 66° 56' W. Calais on the St. 
Croix, and Lubec on the main land opposite Eastport, constitute with 
Eastport the port of Passamaquoddy. Eastport has a large and com¬ 
modious harbor, and a flourishing commerce. Population 2,450. 


MAINE. 23 

Machias, consisting of two villages, contains various mills. Popula¬ 
tion 2,775. 

16. Agriculture. The agricultural products are maize, wheat, oats, 
barley, rye, pease, beans, potatoes, flax, hops, &c., which form impor¬ 
tant articles of exportation. In general a negligent mode of agriculture 
is pui*sued, but there are some skilful and judicious cultivators, and the 
agricultural processes are improving. 

17. Commerce. The inhabitants are extensively engaged in commer¬ 
cial operations. The exports consist chiefly of timber, masts, boards, 
staves, wood and bark, dried and pickled fish, beef, pork, butter and 
cheese, cider, candles, soap, shoes and boots, bricks, lime and marble. 
Cargoes of ice have also been carried to the West Indies, and the south¬ 
ern ports. Maine is the third state in the Union, in point of shipping, 
which amounts to 150,000 tons. The annual value of imports is about 
$ 1,200,000; of exports $ 1,000,000. 

18. Manufactures. The manufactures of the state are neither nume¬ 
rous nor extensive; among them are woollen and cotton goods, candles 
and soap, nails, spirits, &c. 

19. Fisheries. Cod, herring, mackerel, alewives, salmon and other 
fish are taken, and constitute an important article of exportation. The 
cod fishery is pursued on the Labrador coast, and on the banks of New¬ 
foundland, in vessels, which are employed during the winter season in 
the coasting trade. 

20. Forests. The extensive forests of the interior furnish great 
quantities of timber and fuel. The felling of timber is generally per¬ 
formed in winter; the trees are cut into logs of about 18 feet in length, 
which are easily dragged over the snow to the banks of the nearest 
stream, and left to be carried down by the current on the breaking up 
of the ice. At the mills they are collected by the owners, who had pre¬ 
viously marked them, and converted into boards, &c. The persons 
employed in this business are called lumberers or river-drivers, and are 
exposed to great hardships. The upper streams being narrow and 
crooked, are sometimes clogged up by the logs, which are prevented 
from descending by rocks or other obstructions. Such a mass is called 
a jam, and can be broken up only by cutting away the foremost logs. 
The operation is^often dangerous, as the whole accumulated volume of 
water rushes down with great violence, sweeping away thousands of 
logs before it. 

21. Population. The inhabitants are for the most part industrious, 
frugal and enterprising; their principal occupations are agriculture, 
commerce and fishing. The whole population amounted in 1830 to 
399,462, nearly all of which is in the southern part of the state, within 
100 miles of the coast. The central and northern parts are in a great 
measure uninhabited. There are about 300 Indians on the Penobscot 
river, 12 miles above Bangor, and about 50 families on the western side 
of Passamaquoddy bay. They have embraced Christianity, and are of 
the Roman Catholic religion. Although they have abandoned their 
savage manners, they still retain many of their peculiar customs. 

22. Government. The government of Maine consists of a Governor, 
an Executive Council, a Senate and House of Representatives. The 
Governor and members of the Legislature are chosen annually; all in¬ 
habitants of twenty-one years of age are voters. The Legislature meets 
once a year at Augusta. 


24 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


23. Religion. Among the various religious denominations, the Bap¬ 
tists and Methodists are the most numerous; next in point of numbers 
are the Calvinistic Congregationalists. There are also some Quakers, 
Unitarian Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, Sande- 
manians and Universalists. 

24. Education. Among the institutions for education are Bowdoin 
college at Brunswick, to which is attached a medical school; Waterville 
college, under the direction of the Baptists; the Maine theological sem¬ 
inary at Bangor, founded by the Congregationalists; the Wesleyan 
theological seminary at Readfield, and twenty-eight incorporated acade¬ 
mies, most of which have received assistance from the state. Each 
town is required to expend at the rate of forty cents for each inhabitant, 
for the support of common schools. About three fourths of the popula¬ 
tion between the ages of four and twenty-one years, usually attend the 
schools. 

25. History. The first permanent settlement was made at Bristol, in 
1625. The province was afterward granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, 
but in 1652 it was placed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, of 
which it continued to form a part until 1820, when it was erected into 
an independent state. 

II. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. New Hampshire is bounded N. by Low¬ 
er Canada; E. by Maine; S. by Massachusetts; and W. by Connecticut 
river, which separates it from Vermont. It extends from 42°41'to 45° 
2(Y N. latitude, and from 70° 40' to 72° 28' W. longitude; being 168 
miles in length from N. to S. and 90 in breadth. It comprises an area 
of 9,491 square miles. 

2. Mountains. Between the Merrimack and Connecticut in the 
S. W. part of this state there extends a ridge from S. to N. called the 
White Mountain Ridge ; the loftiest summits of this are Monadnock, 
3,254 feet high, Sunapee, Kearsarge, Carr’s Mountain and Moosehillock. 
This last is 4,636 feet high. Towards the N. of the state, these emi¬ 
nences rise to a much higher elevation, and are known by the name of 
of the White Mountains. 

These are the loftiest mountains in the U. States to the east of the 
Mississippi, and extend about twenty miles from S. W. to N. E. with a 
base about ten miles in breadth. The highest summit, Mount Wash¬ 
ington, is 6,428 feet above the level of the sea, and several other peaks 
are about 5,000 feet in height. They are covered with snow nine or 
ten months in the year, and their white summits are visible from a great 
distance; whence their name. The White Mountains are the prolonga¬ 
tion of the Blue Ridge, or great eastern chain of the Alleghany Moun¬ 
tains, of which the Catskill Mountains in New York, and the Green 
Mountains also form links. Mount Washington is composed of huge 
rocks of granite and gneiss; round the base is a forest of heavy timber, 
which is succeeded by a belt, 80 rods in width, of stunted fir trees, from 
ten to fifteen feet high. Above this belt is a growth of low bushes, and 
still further up the surface is covered only with a shroud of dark-color¬ 
ed moss. The view from the highest summit is grand and picturesque. 
The Notch is a remarkable chasm, two miles in length, and where 
narrowest only 22 feet wide. On both sides rise steep precipices. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


25 


between which flows one of the head branches of the Saco river, this 
chasm being the only passage through the great mountain bulwark. 
Within the Notch there are several beautiful cascades, formed by the 
descent of a brook called the Flume, down one of its sides, and the 
whole appearance is wild and solemn. In 1826 a violent fall of rain 
produced a slide or avalanche of earth, rocks, and trees from the side 
of the mountain, which swept away every thing before it, choking up 
the streams, and filling the valley with ruin. A family of eleven per-> 
sons living in the Notch House, attempted to escape by flight, but were 
overwhelmed by the torrent. 

3. Valleys . The valley of the Connecticut will be hereafter describ¬ 
ed : the only one beside, necessary to mention, is the valley of the Mer¬ 
rimack, which consists of sandy plains, covered with pine and black 
timber. It is narrower than the Connecticut valley, and is often con¬ 
tracted to the shores of the stream by rocky hills. 

4. Rivers. The principal river is the Connecticut, which forms the 
boundary between this state and Vermont. As the course of this 
beautiful stream is also partly in Massachusetts and Connecticut, it will 
be more appropriately described under the head of New England. 

The Merrimack rises in New Hampshire, and has two principal 
branches; one of them being the outlet of Lake Winnipiseogee. The N. 
or longer branch is called the Pemigewasset, and has its source near the 
Notch of the White Mountains. At its junction with the outlet of the 
lake, this stream takes the name of Merrimack, and flowing south, enters 
Massachusetts, through which it runs E. to the sea. Its whole course 
is about 200 miles. There are numerous falls in the New Hampshire 
portion. The Merrimack rises on nearly the same level with the Con¬ 
necticut, but reaches the sea in running half the extent of the latter, and 
consequently has double the declivity of the Connecticut in a given 
space ; its current is therefore more rapid. The Merrimack is a beau¬ 
tiful stream; its waters are pure and salubrious, and on its borders are 
situated some of the most flourishing towns in New Hampshire. Its 
width varies from 50 to 120 rods, and it is crossed byeight bridges in 
this state; it receives many minor streams, and rivers, which form the 
outlets of several small lakes. Its obstructions have been partly reme¬ 
died by locks at different places, and there is a boat navigation of about 
40 miles in this state, extending to Concord. 

The Piscataqua, the only considerable river of which the whole 
course is in New Hampshire, is formed by the junction of the united 
waters of the Salmon Fall and Cocheco, from the north, with those of 
several smaller streams from the west. It is only from this point to 
the sea, a distance of about ten miles, that it bears the name of Pis¬ 
cataqua; but the head waters of the Salmon Fall river, its principal 
tributary, are forty miles from the sea. Piscataqua harbor is one of the 
finest in the United State®* 

5. Lakes. Lake Winnipiseogee, nearly in the centre ot the state, is a 
picturesque sheet of water, about twenty three miles in length and va¬ 
rying from two to ten in breadth. Its bosom is sprinkled with upwards 
of three hundred pretty islands, and its shores are indented with beauti¬ 
ful bays, formed by gentle declivities projecting into the lake, and slop¬ 
ing gracefully down to its waters. The lake is four hundred and seventy 
two foot above the level of the sea; it receives several small streams, but 
it is chiefly fed by springs. Its depth in some parts has not been fathom 

B 


26 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


ed; it abounds in excellent fish, and its water is remarkably pure. A 
river of the same name runs from the lake into the Merrimack. Squam 
Lake, two miles to the northwest, and Lake Ossipee, to the northeast of 
Winnipiseogee, are also pretty sheets of water, covering between six 
thousand and seven thousand acres. The formei* abounds in trout, and 
is surrouned by high hills, and studded with islands. 

6. Islands. The Isles of Shoals belong partly to New Hampshire and 
partly to Maine. They lie about eight miles out at sea, between Ports¬ 
mouth and Newbury port, and are hardly more than a cluster of rocks 
rising above the water. For more than a century previous to the revo¬ 
lution, they were quite populous, containing at one time six hundred 
inhabitants, who found there an advantageous situation for carrying on 
fisheries. To this day, the best cod are those known under the name 
of Isle of Shoals dun fish. From three to four thousand quintals were 
once annually caught and cured here, but the business has latterly de¬ 
clined. The inhabitants are about one hundred; they live solely by 
fishing, and in connexion with those of the shore in their immediate 
neighborhood, who follow the same mode of life, are the most rude and 
uncivilized beings in New England, except the Indians. Efforts have 
recently been made to improve their condition, and they have now a 
meeting house, school, &c. 

7. Climate. The climate is severe, but healthy. Morning and 
evening fires become necessary about the beginning of September. 
Cattle are housed in the beginning of November, and in the course of 
this month, the earth and rivers are generally frozen and covered with 
snow. The open country is usually clear of snow in April, but in the 
woods and northern parts, it often lies till May. 

The spring is wet and foggy, but the summer is beautiful, and the 
progress of vegetation very rapid; the number of fair days throughout 
the year, compared to the cloudy, is three to one. 

8. Soil. The best lands in New Hampshire are on the borders of the 
large rivers, where, being occasionally covered by the waters, they are 
fertilized by the rich sediment which these deposite. The hilly land 
has a moist and warm soil, affords fine pasturage, and supports great 
numbers of cattle and sheep. Where the land lies in large round swells, 
the tops and sides of these heights have a fertile soil, while the land in 
the valleys between is generally cold and poor. On the Connecticut 
are thousands of acres, with not a stone to be seen, yielding rich crops 
of corn and hay, and except the wild region in the north, the land is 
generally susceptible of cultivation. 

9. Mineral Productions. A fine grained granite is found in many 
places, as at Concord, Boscawen, and Hopkinton, which affords excel¬ 
lent materials for building. New Hampshire is often called the granite 
state, from this circumstance Copper is found at Franconia, and iron 
at Franconia and Lisbon, both of excellent quality Plumbago or black 
lead, has been discovered in several pW es , particularly at Bristol. Soap¬ 
stone is quarried and wrought at Francesiown and Oxford • and lime¬ 
stone occurs in various parts of the state. 

10. Productions of the Soil. This state was originally an entire 
forest; the mountainous regions being covered with oak, maple, beech 
walnut, hemlock, fir, pine, &c.; and the plains and valleys with the 
elm, cherry, ash, poplar, hornbeam, birch, sumach, locust, &c. The 
White pine sometimes attains to the height of 200 feet, with a straight 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


27 


trunk, of 6 feet and upwards in diameter. The sap of the rock maple, 
which also grows to a great height, yields excellent sugar; that of the 
red and white maple likewise produces sugar, but in less quantity. 
Some valuable culinary and medicinal plants and roots are found here, 
among which are ginseng, lobelia, &c. 

11. Face, of the country. With the exception of a small tract 20 or 
30 miles in width along the coast, which is level or nearly so, this state 
presents a surface broken up into every diversity of hill, valley and 
mountain. The hills increase in height as they recede from the sea, 
till they swell in to the lofty grandeur of the White Mountains. New 
Hampshire is the most mountainous state in the Union, and from the 
wild sublimity of its lake, mountain and river scenery, has been de¬ 
nominated the Switzerland of America. 

12. JVatural Curiosities. Bellows Falls form a remarkable cataract 
in the Connecticut, at the village of Bellows Falls, 5 miles from the 
town of Walpole. The breadth of the river above the fall, is from 16 
to 22 rods; a large rock divides the stream into two channels, each 
about 90 feet wide at top. When the water is low, the E. channel 
appears crossed by a bar of solid rock, and the whole stream falls into 
the W. channel, where it is contracted into the breadth of 16 feet, and 
flows with great swiftness. There are several pitches, one above 
another in the length of half a mile ; the descent in this whole course 
is 42 feet. Notwithstanding the velocity of the current, salmon pass up 
this fall. 

Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimack, consist of 3 successive pitches, 
falling nearly 50 feet. There are falls also at Barrington, and caverns 
in Chester. At Franconia is a singular eminence called the Profile 
Mountain, being a rugged peak 1000 feet in height; a side view exhib¬ 
its a profile of the human face, every feature of which is distinct. 

13. Divisions. The state is divided into 8 counties, which with the 
county towns are as follows: 

Counties. 

Coos, 

Grafton, 

Merrimack, 

Sullivan, 

Cheshire, 

Hillsborough, 

Strafford, 

Rockingham, 

Population in 1830, 269,533. 

14. Canals. Several canals have been constructed round the falls 
of the Merrimack ; Bow canal, half a mile in length, passes a fall of 25 
feet; Hooksett canal, 50 rods in length, passes Hooksett falls with a 
lockage of 16 feet; Amoskeag canal passes a fall of the same name with 
a lockage of 45 feet, and Union canal overcomes 7 falls. 

15. Towns. Portsmouth is the principal town and the only sea-port 
in the state, which has a coast of only 18 miles. It lies on the Piscata- 


County towns. 
Lancaster. 

$ Haverhill. 

\ Plymouth. 
Concord. 
Newport. 
Keene. 
Amherst. 
f"Dover. 

J Gilmanton, 

1 Gilford. 
^Rochester. 

C Portsmouth. 

( Exeter. 


28 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


qua, about 3 miles from the ocean, with one of the finest harbors in the 
world. There are 40 feet of water in the channel at low tide, and the 
harbor, which is completely land-locked, is protected from storms, and 
easily accessible for vessels of the largest size. It is naturally almost 
impregnable, and is defended by several forts. Portsmouth is pleasant¬ 
ly situated, and well built; most of the population is collected on an 
elevation near the harbor, and descending towards it. Two wooden 
bridges across the Piscataqua, connect Porstmouth with Kittery in 
Maine. There are here 7 churches, a court-house, custom-house, 7 
banks, one of which is a branch of the bank of the United States, insur¬ 
ance offices, &c. On Continental Island there is a navy-yard belong¬ 
ing to the Federal government. Population of Portsmouth, 8,082. 

Concord, the seat of government, is principally on the west bank of 
the Merrimack, 45 miles N. W. of Portsmouth. It contains the state 
house and state-prison of granite, a court-house and several churches 
and banks. There are two bridges across the Merrimack here. Much 
of the trade of the upper country, centres in Concord, from which boat 
navigation extends through Middlesex canal to Boston. Population, 
3,727. 

Dover, 10 miles N. W. of Portsmouth, on the Cocheco, which is here 
navigable for vessels of 80 tons, has extensive manufactories of cotton 
and iron, with bleacheries and calico printing works. Dover contains 
a court-house, jail, 7 churches, &c. Population, 5,449. 

Somersworth, comprising the village of Great Falls, has 5 or 6 exten¬ 
sive cotton and woollen mills. Population, 3,090. 

Dunstable, in which is the manufacturing village of Nashua, has 
2,414 inhabitants. 

Exeter, on the river Exeter, a branch of the Piscataqua, which 
affords excellent mill sites ? has extensive manufactories, an academy, 
court-house, &c. Population, 2,759. 

Gilmanton, Hanover, which contains Dartmouth college, Haverhill, 
Keene and Amherst are' towns of some importance. 

16. Agriculture. New Hampshire is chiefly an agricultural state. 
Maize, wheat, rye, oats, barley, flax, grass, &c. are the common products 
of the earth, and pork, beefj mutton, poultry, butter and cheese are ex¬ 
ported. On the interval lands which border the rivers, wheat often 
yields 20 or 30 bushels to the acre, though generally from 15 to 20 is 
considered a good crop; maize will average 30 or 40 bushels, and po¬ 
tatoes 200 or 300. Apples, plums, pears, cherries, &c. grow in abun¬ 
dance. 

17. Commerce. The exports from the north part of the state, go to 
the markets in Maine, and a great portion of those from the middle and 
southern parts are carried to Newburyport, Boston and Hartford. The 
commerce of New Hampshire therefore, strictly speaking, is confined 
to the single port of Portsmouth. The staple commodities are lumber, 
provisions, horses, neat cattle, pot and pearl ashes, flax seed, &e. 

18. Fisheries. 60 or 70 vessels, from 20 to 75 tons each, besides 
smaller craft, are employed during the fishing season, from the first of 
March to the latter part of November, in the bank and mackerel fishe¬ 
ries. These vessels take from 38,000 to 45,000 quintals of cod and 
pollock, and 6,000 barrels of mackerel yearly. 

19. Manufactures. There are some extensive manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments in the state. The Cocheco manufacturing company at Do- 


VERMONT. 


29 


ver, with a capital of one and a half million dollars, have 4 large cotton 
mills, carrying 24,320 spindles. Nearly 1,000 operatives are employ¬ 
ed ; upwards of 5,000,000 yards of cloth are produced annually, and 
4,000,000 bleached and printed. The Great Falls company at So¬ 
mers worth, near Portsmouth, with a capital of $ 1,000,000, have 5 
large cotton and woollen mills; the cotton mills contain 31,000 spindles, 
and produce 6,000,000 yards of cotton cloth a year. In the woollen 
mills are manufactured large quantities of broadcloth and ingrain car¬ 
peting of excellent quality. There are 60 cotton, 32 woollen, 15 paper 
and 19 oil mills in the state. 

20. Education. Dartmouth college, with which a medical school is 
connected, is in Hanover. There are 35 incorporated academies in the 
state, of which Phillips Academy at Exeter is the best endowed. The 
state has a literary fund, the income of which, together with a sum an¬ 
nually raised by taxes, is appropriated to the support of free schools. 

21. Religion. The most numerous sect is that of Calvinistic Congre- 
gationalists; the Baptists, most of whom are Calvinistic, and Methodists 
are also numerous. There are also Presbyterians, Christians, Quakers 
or Friends, and a few Universalists, Unitarians, Episcopalians, Roman 
Catholics, Shakers and Sandemanians. 

22. Government. The legislature consists of a senate of 12 members, 
chosen in districts, and a house of representatives chosen in townships, 
and is styled the General Court. The executive consists of a Governor 
and an executive council. All these officers are chosen annually by 
the people; all male inhabitants of 21 years of age paying taxes are 
voters. 

23. History. New Hampshire was first granted to John Mason and 
Ferdinando Gorges, in 1622. The first settlements were made at Dover 
and Portsmouth, in 1623. In 1641, all the settlements by a voluntary 
act submitted to Massachusetts, and were comprehended in the county 
of Norfolk, which extended from the Merrimack to the Piscataqua. In 
1679, a new government was established, and New Hampshire was 
made a royal province by commission from Charles II. The first 
General Assembly met at Portsmouth in March, in 1680. The union 
with Massachusetts was renewed in 1689, but a separation took place in 
1692. From 1699 to 1702, the province was connected with Massa¬ 
chusetts and New York, and from 1702 to 1741, with Massachusetts 
alone, after which it remained a separate government. This state suf¬ 
fered much from the early Indian wars. 

III. VERMONT. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Vermont is bounded N. by Lower Can¬ 
ada, E. by the river Connecticut which separates it from New Hamp¬ 
shire, S. by Massachusetts, and W. by New York, from which it is 
mostly separated by Lake Champlain. It lies between 42° 44' and 45° 
N. Lat. and between 71° 33' and 73° 26' W. Lon., being 157 miles in 
length and from 35 to 90 in breadth. Its surface is estimated to be 
acout 9,000 square miles. 

1. Mountains. The Green Mountains, which extend through the 
state from north to south, are a continuation of the great eastern chain 
of the Alleghanies, called the Blue Ridge. In the southern half of the 
state they form one lofty ridge in which there is no opening. In the 


VERMONT. 


30 

centre of the state, this ridge is divided into two, of which the one call¬ 
ed the Height of Land, runs northeasterly to Canada, and the other 
taking a northwesterly direction sinks down in the northern part of the 
state. The former divides the streams of lakes Champlain and Mem- 
phremagog, from the tributaries of the Connecticut; while the latter, 
though loftier, presents a more broken outline, and is cut through by 
several rivers. The ridge which traverses the southern portion of the 
state is the dividing line between the waters that flow into the Hudson 
and those that empty themselves into the Connecticut. The Green 
Mountains are from 10 to 15 miles wide, much intersected with valleys, 
and they derive their name from their perpetual verdure, then- sides being 
covered with small evergreen trees and shrubs, and their summits with 
green moss and winter grass. There are many fine farms among the 
mountains, and much of the land upon them is excellent for grazing. 
The highest summits are Mansfield Mountain, 4,279 feet above the level 
of the sea; Camel’s Rump 4,188 feet high, both in the northwestern 
ridge, and Killington Peak, 3,675 feet. Ascutney, a single elevation 
near Windsor, is 3,320 feet above tiderwater. 

3. Rivers. The Connecticut forms the western boundary of Ver¬ 
mont. All the rivers within the state are small, and have their sources 
in the Green Mountains, whence they descend by short courses to lakes 
Memphremagog and Champlain, or to the Hudson or Connecticut. 
The principal streams are the Pasumsic and White River, falling into 
the Connecticut, and the Misisque, Lamoile, Otter Creek and Onion 
rivers emptying themselves into Lake Champlain. 

4. Lakes. Lake Champlain, between New York and Vermont, 
extends from Whitehall in New York, a little beyond the Canada line. 
It is about 130 miles long from N. to S., and varies in breadth from 1 
to 15 miles, covering an area of 600 square miles. It is sufficiently 
deep for the largest ships, but is commonly navigated by vessels of 80 
or 90 tons. It is commonly frozen over, so as to be passed on the ice 
for several months. Salmon, sturgeon, trout, pickerel and other fish 
are found here. It receives the waters of Lake George, and discharges 
itself by the river Sorel into the St. Lawrence. The shores are diver¬ 
sified and pleasant, and are adorned with several considerable towns, 
and pretty villages. Lake Memphremagog lies principally in Lower 
Canada. 

5. Islands. The principal islands in Lake Champlain are North 
Hero, South Hero and Lamotte; beside which there are upwards of 
50 smaller islands. 

6. Climate. The climate of Vermont is variable and cold, but health¬ 
ful. The range of the thermometer is from 27° below zero, to 100° 
above. The winter may be considered to last from the beginning of 
December till April, during which time the ground is generally covered 
with snow. During April and May the weather is mild with frequent 
showers. Through the summer it is fair and serene, and although the 
heat of the day is sometimes excessive, the nights are always cool. 
Throughout September and October the finest weather prevails, with 
gentle winds and a clear sky. Frosts appear early in September. 

7. Soil. The soil is generally rich and loamy. On the borders of 
the rivers are fine tracts of interval land, which consist of a deep, black 
alluvial deposit, these are sometimes a mile in width, and are very pro¬ 
ductive in maize, grain, grass and garden vegetables. The uplands are in 



VIEWS IN THE UNITED STATES 



WHITE MOUNTAINS, N. 


HAMPSHIRE. 



W1NIPISEOGEE LAKE 















































VIEWS IN TI-IE UNITED STATES 



KATT SKILL 


FALLS, N. 




II A PIUS AT NIAGARA 






























































































































































VERMONT. 


31 


many places scarcely inferior to the intervals, and are in general suffi¬ 
ciently free from stones to admit of easy cultivation. The hills and 
mountains which are not arable on account of their steepness, or the 
rocks, afford the best of pasturage for sheep and cattle. There is hard¬ 
ly any part of the country better adapted to the rearing of horses, horn¬ 
ed cattle and sheep, than the mountainous parts of this state. Wheat 
is raised more abundantly on the western side of the mountains, than 
on the eastern. The soil and climate of all parts are favorable to the 
growth of the apple and other fruits. The greater part of the state is 
better fitted for grazing, than tillage. Springs and brooks are very nu¬ 
merous, and almost every part of the state is plentifully supplied with 
running water. 

8. Minerals. Iron is abundant, and lead, zinc, copper and manga¬ 
nese are found. Sulphuret of iron or pyrites, from which copperas is 
manufactured, occurs at Strafford and Shrewsbury. Marble of good 
quality abounds in various places, as Middlebury, Swanton, Benning¬ 
ton, &c. At Monkton, near Burlington, there is an extensive bed of 
kaolin or porcelain earth. Novaculite or oil-stone, is quarried and 
made into whetstones, and quarries of slate are wrought near Brattle- 
borough. 

9. Face of the country. The surface is generally uneven, and highly 
diversified. The land slopes toward the Connecticut and Lake Cham¬ 
plain, from the ridge already described as occupying the centre of the 
state. Adjoining the rivers are some considerable plains, but the greater 
proportion of the surface is formed by the elevated country. 

10. Mineral Waters. There are some mineral springs impregnated 
with sulphur or iron which are resorted to by invalids. 

11. Vegetable Productions. The principal indigenous forest trees, 
are the hemlock, spruce and fir, which are found upon the mountains; 
the oak, elm, pine, butternut, sugar-maple, beech and birch which oc¬ 
cupy the meadows, and the cedar which abounds in the swamps. 
Wheat is most raised west of the mountains, but fruit trees, especially 
apples, flourish in all parts. 

12. Divisions and Population. Vermont is divided into 13 counties, 
which with their chief towns are as follows; 


Counties. 

County towns. 

Addison, 

Middlebury. 

Bennington, j 

i Bennington. 

► Manchester. 

Caledonia, 

Danville. 

Chittenden, 

Burlington. 

Essex, 

Guildhall. 

Franklin, 

St. Albans. 

Grand Isle, 

North Hero. 

Orange, 

Chelsea. 

Orleans, 

Irasburg. 

Rutland, 

Rutland. 

Washington, 

Montpelier. 

Windham, * 

) Newfane. 
►Windsor. 

Windsor, 

Woodstock. 


Population of the state in 1830, 280,679. 

13. Towns. The capital is Montpelier, a small town with 1,792 in¬ 
habitants, situated near the centre of the state, and containing the state- 


32 


VERMONT. 


house, a court-house, jail, academy and bank. It lies at the confluence 
of the two head branches of the river Onion. 

Burlington, on Lake Champlain, is the largest town in the state. It 
is pleasantly situated, and has a fine harbor. It is the principal com¬ 
mercial place on the lake, and is a port of entry for foreign shipping. 
Here are the county buildings, a college, 2 banks, an academy, and 
various manufactories. Population, 3,526. 

Bennington, near the southwest corner of the state, has a court-house, 
academy, several manufactories and a marble quarry. Population, 
3,419. During the revolutionary war, General Stark captured a body 
of British troops here, Aug. 16th. 1777. 

Middlebury, on Otter Creek, contains a college, academy, jail, court¬ 
house, &c. A quarry of marble is wrought here. Population, 3,468. 

Windsor is a pretty town on the the Connecticut; it contains a state- 
prison, court-house, academy, &c. and some manufactories. Mount 
Aseutney Separates it from Weathersfield. Population, 3,134. 

Brattleborough is a thriving town on the Connecticut, with 2,141 
inhabitants. 

14. Commerce. Lake Champlain affords facilities for a considerable 
trade between Vermont, and New York and Canada. Great numbers 
of cattle, horses and sheep are sent out of the state. Pot and pearl 
ashes, bar and cast iron, maple sugar, lumber, marble, beef, pork and 
cheese are among the exports. 

15. Agriculture. Agriculture and grazing form the chief employ¬ 
ment of the people. Wheat, maize, rye, oats and barley are raised. 

16. Manufactures. Water power is abundant in most parts of the 
state, and has been applied to some extent to the manufacture of wool¬ 
len, cotton and iron; domestic fabrics of linen and woollen are produced 
in almost every family, and several million pounds of maple sugar are 
made annually. There are manufactories of copperas at Strafford and 
Shrewsbury. The native sulphuret of iron, after being broken to 
pieces, is thrown into heaps 6 or 8 feet high, and left for some time ex¬ 
posed to the action of the air. In this w ay a decomposition takes place, 
and the sulphate of iron or copperas is formed, which is afterwards 
separated from the earthy matter of the ore. During the process of 
decomposition, a gas arises, which destroys the leaves of trees in the 
vicinity of the heap. 

17. Government. The legislature of Vermont is comprised in a house 
of representatives called the General Assembly. There is no senate; 
each town has one representative. The executive officers are a Gov¬ 
ernor, Lt. Governor, and a council of 12, chosen annually by general 
ballot; all residents in the state of one year’s standing are voters. There 
is also a council of censors chosen every 7 years; they are 13 in num¬ 
ber, and hold then* office for a year; their duty is to inquire whether 
the constitution has been preserved inviolate during the period preced¬ 
ing their appointment, and whether the legislative and executive 
branches have done their duty, and to suggest alterations in the consti¬ 
tution. The legislature meets at Montpelier. 

18. Canals. Several short canals have been constructed on the 
western bank of the Connecticut, for the purpose of overcoming the 
obstructions to the navigation of the river. The principal is at Bellows 
Falls, opposite Walpole, which is half a mile long, and overcomes a fall 
of 50 feet. There are others at the Waterqueechy, and at White River. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


33 


]9. Religion. The most numerous sect is that of Congregational- 
ists. The Baptists and Methodists are also numerous, and there are 
some Episcopalians, Unitarians, Christ-ians and Universalists. 

20. Education. There are 2 colleges in the state, upwards of 30 in¬ 
corporated academies and county grammar schools, and about 2,400 
district schools. The latter are supported in part by a tax, and in part 
by the proceeds of the literary fund. The colleges are at Burlington and 
Middlebury; the former is styled the University of Vermont. There is 
a medical school connected with each institution; that connected with 
Middlebury college is at Castle ton. 

21. History. Vermont was first explored by the French settlers of 
Canada, but the earliest settlement within the territory was made by the 
English of Massachusetts, who in 1724, more than 100 years after the 
discoveries in the northern parts by Champlain, established themselves 
at Fort Dummer, on the Connecticut. Six years after this, the French 
advanced from Canada up Lake Champlain, and settled at Crown 
Point, and on the eastern shore of the lake. The claim to the country 
was afterwards disputed by New Hampshire and New York. The 
British Parliament decided in favor of the latter state, but much confu¬ 
sion and altercation were caused by the conflicting grants of land made 
by the New Hampshire and New’ York governments. The disputes 
thus occasioned, remained unsettled during the revolutionary war, after 
which New York compounded for her claim, and Vermont became an 
independent state. She was received into the Union in March, 1791. 


IV. MASSACHUSETTS. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Massachusetts is bounded N. by New 
Hampshire and Vermont; E. by the Atlantic Ocean; S. by Rhode 
Island and Connecticut, and W. by New York. It lies between 41° 
15' and 42° 52' N. Lat.; and between 69° 50' and 73° 20' W. Lon. Its 
greatest length from E. to W. is about 190 miles, and its greatest breadth 
90; superficial area estimated at about 7,800 square miles. Population 
in 1830, 610,408. 

2. Mountains. The Green Mountains enter the W. part of Massa¬ 
chusetts from the north, forming the Iloosac and Tagkannuc, or Taconic 
ridges, which run nearly parallel to each other S. into Connecticut. 
The Tagkannuc ridge is near the western boundary of the state; its most 
elevated peaks are Saddle Mountain in the N., 4,000 feet high, and Ta¬ 
conic mountain in the S., 3,000 feet. The Iloosac ridge has no sum¬ 
mits much above half these elevations. It divides the waters of the 
Connecticut from those of the Ilousatonic. The White Mountain 
range enters this state from New Hampshire a little to the E. of the 
Connecticut, and, running southerly, divides below Northampton into 
the Mount Tom and Lyme ranges. Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke 
are peaks in this range; the first 3,200, and the second 910 feet above 
the level of Connecticut river, which flows between them. Wachusett, 
a single mountain toward the E., is 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

3. Valleys. The valley of the Connecticut, which, varying in width, 
extends through the state from N. to S., consists for the most part of 
a sandy alluvion. The lower flats are fertile, producing rich crops of 
maize, rye, oats, barley and hay. In the vicinity of Hadley in this 

3 b* 


34 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


valley are extensive fields of broom eorn, and the manufacture of this 
article into brooms, absorbs a considerable portion of the labor of the 
towns in the neighborhood. A portion of this valley is occupied by 
sandy tracts, which yield light crops of rye and maize. Some of these 
plains are covered with low pine forests. The valley of the Housatonic 
extends nearly in the same direction with that of the Connecticut, and 
consists of alluvial tracts of the same description. The valley of the 
Hoosac is in the N. W.; it consists of an almost uninterrupted succes¬ 
sion of interval, about a mile in width, extremely rich, and ornamented 
with the liveliest verdure. The waters of this stream are remarkably 
limpid, and wind their way along this valley, through luxuriant mead¬ 
ows and pastures, green to the water’s edge, and fringed with willows, 
or crowned with lofty trees. 

4. Rivers . The Connecticut enters the western part of this state, and 
flows S. into Connecticut. The tract which it waters in Massachusetts 
is 50 miles in extent, but its course is meandering. In this distance it 
receives Deerfield and Westfield rivers from the W., and Miller’s and 
Chickapee rivers from the E. The Housatonic rises in the N. W. cor¬ 
ner of the state, and flows S. into Connecticut; receiving the waters of 
the valley between the Hoosac mountains on the E. and the Taconic 
range on the W. The Merrimack enters the state in the N. E., and 
flows easterly 50 miles to the sea at Newburyport; in this course it re¬ 
ceives the Concord and Shawsheen rivers from the S. The Merrimack 
is navigable for vessels of 200 tons to Haverhill, 15 miles from its 
mouth; to this point the tide extends; at some distance above are 
rapids; at its entrance into the sea it expands to a mile in width and 
forms the harbor of Newburyport. 

5. Islands. Nantucket, 20 miles S. of the main land at Cape Cod, is 
an island of triangular form, about 15 miles long and 11 broad in the 
widest part. It is little more than a heap of sand without a tree of na¬ 
tive growth upon it, yet it maintains a numerous population, distin¬ 
guished for activity and enterprise. The island affords some pasturage, 
and cows and sheep in considerable numbers are raised; the land being 
held in common, they feed in one pasture to the amount of many thou¬ 
sands. The climate of this island is much milder than that of the 
neighboring continent; and the soil, though sandy, bears fruits and grass. 
S. E. of this island, out of sight of land, lie Nantucket shoals, a danger¬ 
ous reef of sand, 50 miles in extent. 

Martha’s Vineyard, to the west of Nantucket, is about 20 miles long, 
and from 2 to 10 broad. The soil is for the most part poor, but many 
sheep and cattle are raised, and the people are much employed as pilots, 
or in the fisheries. The Elizabeth islands are 16 small islands, forming 
the southeast side of Buzzard’s Bay. Plum island, off Newburyport, 
9 miles long and one broad, is much resorted to in summer by the 
people of the neighborhood. 

6. Bays. Massachusetts Bay, between Cape Ann on the north, and 
Cape Cod on the south, is about 70 miles in length from N. to S., and 
comprises Boston Bay and Cape Cod Bay. On the southern coast of 
the state is Buzzard’s Bay, about 30 miles deep. 

7. Shores, Capes and Peninsulas. In the N. part of the state, the 
shore is rocky and bold. Cape Ann, the northern limit of Massachu¬ 
setts Bay, is a rocky promontory, 15 miles in length, containing several 
good harbors. The peninsula of Cape Cod, in the S. E. part of tho 

tate, is about 75 miles long, and from 5 to 20 miles broad. The greater 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


35 


part of the peninsula consists of hills of white sand, destitute of vegeta¬ 
tion, or producing only whortleberry bushes, low pitch-pine shrubs, or 
coarse wild grass, and blown about by the wind. The houses are built 
upon stakes driven into the ground, with open spaces between for the 
sand to drift through. The Cape, notwithstanding, is well inhabited, 
and supports a population of 28,000. In the S. W. part, the inhabit¬ 
ants live by agriculture and trading; in the N. altogether by fishing. 
The cape is beset with dangerous shoals, and has long been the dread 
of mariners. 

The peninsula of Nahant, a few miles N. of the harbor of Boston, is 
connected with the main land by Lynn beach, 2 miles in length. Na- 
hant is a favorite place of resort during the heat of summer. 

8. Climate. The cold is generally severe for a short time in winter; 
frosts occur in October, and snow often falls in November; but the 
winter cannot be considered to be fairly set in till December. The 
rivers and lakes are commonly frozen over for 2 or 3 months, and the 
harbors on the coast are sometimes closed for a short time by ice. The 
ice in the rivers breaks up early in March, but snow often falls in that 
month. Damp and cold winds from the northeast prevail in April and 
somewhat later; in the course of May the heavens become clear, and 
the weather settled. The heat is excessive for a few days in sum¬ 
mer, but the nights are cool, and for a great part of the time the air is 
temperate, clear and elastic. 

9. Vegetable Productions and Soil. The soil is various, but for the 
most part is well adapted to grazing or tillage, and produces nearly all 
the fruits of temperate climates. The productions are not materially 
different from those of the other New England states. 

10. Mineral Productions. Sienite and granite abound in the eastern 
and middle parts of the state, and are much used for building. Marble 
and limestone are found in inexhaustible quantities in Berkshire county. 
Iron occurs in various places, and anthracite exists in the interior. 

11. Face of the country. The mountainous region occupies the 
western part of the state, still that district cannot be called in general 
an elevated country. The middle and northeastern parts are lower, 
but hilly and broken. The southeast is the lowest part, and is in gen¬ 
eral level and sandy. 

12. Divisions. Massachusetts is divided into 14 counties: viz. 


Counties. 

Berkshire, 

Franklin, 

Hampden, 

Hampshire, 

Worcester, 

Dukes, 

Nantucket, 

Barnstable, 

Bristol, 

Norfolk, 

Plymouth, 

Suffolk, 

Middlesex, 

Essex, 


County towns. 
Lenox. 
Greenfield. 
Springfield. 
Northampton. 
Worcester. 
Edgarton. 
Nantucket. 
Barnstable. 
New Bedford. 
Taujiton. 
Dedham. 
Plymouth. 
Boston. 

\ Cambridge. 
Concord. 
Salem. 
Newburyport, 
Ipswich. 


36 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


13. Canals. Middlesex canal, uniting Boston harbor with the Mer¬ 
rimack at Chelmsford, was completed in 1808. It is 27 miles long, 
and 30 feet wide at the surface. Blackstone canal, completed in 1828, 
extends from Worcester to Providence, a distance of 45 miles. Hamp¬ 
den and Hampshire canal, in continuation of the Farmington canal 
from Southwick to Northampton, is 20 miles long. Pawtucket canal 
at Lowell, serves at once to overcome Pawtucket Falls in the Merri¬ 
mack, and to supply extensive waterworks. It is ]£ mile in length 
and 90 feet wide. South Hadley canal, and Montague canal were con¬ 
structed for passing falls in the Connecticut. 

14. Railways. The Quincy railroad, constructed for transporting 
granite from the quarry to the river Neponset, is 3 miles long. The 
Boston and Lowell railroad, now in progress, will be 25 miles in 
length, and constructed in a solid style of stone and iron; it is calculat¬ 
ed for locomotive steam-engines. The Boston and Worcester, and the 
Boston and Providence railways, each 43 miles in length, are also in 
progress. 

15. Towns. Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, is the largest city 
in New England, and the fourth in the United States, having, in 1830, 
a population of 61,392 souls. It is pleasantly situated upon a small 
hilly peninsula on Boston Bay, with a safe and commodious harbor, 
deep enough to admit the largest ships, and capable of containing 500 
vessels at once. Nearly 40 small islands are scattered over the bay, 
which serve at once to protect the inner harbor from the winds, and to 
give the charm of variety to the prospect of the sea. Several forts 
erected on these islands, command the approaches to the city. The 
peninsula is connected with Roxbury on the main land by a narrow 
isthmus, which has been much widened by artificial constructions, 
with Brookline by a solid causeway of earth; and with Cambridge, 
Charlestown and South Boston, the latter of which is included within 
the city limits, by 6 wooden bridges. Lat. 42° 20' N. Lon. 71° 4' W., 
436 miles N. E. of Washington. 

The streets of Boston are for the most part narrow and crooked, but 
the houses are well built, chiefly of brick or stone, and the whole city 
is perforated by subterranean sewers, which contribute greatly to the 
cleanliness of the crowded streets. The Common, 45 acres in extent, 
surrounded by alleys of fine elms, constitutes a delightful promenade. 
On the highest eminence in the city, 100 feet above the tide, stands the 
State House, a brick building of 173 feet front, surmounted by a dome 
and a circular lantern. From the top, 100 feet high, the view is one of 
the finest in the world. The ocean in the distance, the harbor dotted 
with green islands and covered with sails, pretty villages, with their 
graceful spires embosomed in trees, and picturesque hills, encircling the 
whole, combine to give variety and beauty to the scene. Faneuil Hall 
Market is a handsome granite building, 2 stories high and 536 feet long. 
Faneuil Hall, to the west of the market, is used for holding public meet¬ 
ings of the citizens; the old State House in State street, now called 
City Hall, was the scene of many interesting events in the revolution. 
Other public buildings are the Hospital, Court-houses, Houses of Indus¬ 
try and Correction, the Institution for the Blind, 41 churches, 3 theatres, 
&c. There are in Boston 26 banking institutions. 

The bridges are remarkable for their length; that running to Cam- 
bndgeport is 3,483 feet long, and Craigie’s bridge, running to Lech- 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


37 


mere Point, is 2,740 feet; the causeway, or Mill darn before mentioned, 
is 8,000 feet in length, and, together with a cross dam of the same con¬ 
struction, forms 2 basins, one of which being filled by every tide, 
furnishes a perpetual water power for carrying a number of mills. The 
wharfs of Boston are also worthy of notice. Long wharf is 1,650 feet 
long, and Central wharf, containing 54 warehouses in a single pile, is 
1,240 feet long and 150 wide. The largest ships are thus enabled to 
% come up to the doors of the warehouses. The Medical College of Har¬ 
vard university is in Boston. The Athenaeum has a library of 30,000 
volumes and a gallery of paintings. There are several scientific and 
learned societies here. 

Boston retained the denomination of a town, and continued to be 
governed by a body of Selectmen, according to the ancient New Eng¬ 
land custom, till 1821. From that period its concerns have been direct¬ 
ed by a city government, consisting of a Mayor, 8 Aldermen, and a 
Common Council of 48 members, all chosen annually in January. In 
connexion with the town of Chelsea on the opposite side of the harbor, 
Boston forms the county of Suffolk, which is represented in the Senate 
of Massachusetts by 6 Senators. The city sends 1 representative to 
Congress. Its yearly expenditures amount to 300,000 dollars, of which 
53,000 are appropriated to the support of schools; 80,000 for repairing 
streets; 30,000 for the poor. The free schools are a Latin grammar 
school, open to all boys between 9 and 15 years of age; a High school 
in which are taught mathematics and other select branches of know¬ 
ledge; 9 grammar and mating schools: 57 primary schools, and one 
African school. There are also numerous private schools for children 
of both sexes. 

As a commercial city, Boston is inferior only to New York, in the 
amount of its business. Its imports amount to about $ 14,000,000 an¬ 
nually, and its exports to about $ 10,000,000. 

Charlestown is in point of locality a suburb of Boston, and is con¬ 
nected with the city by 3 bridges. The more compact part of the town 
is built on a peninsula, the centre of which is occupied by Bunker Hill. 
It is an irregular town, but the views of the city, harbor and neighbor¬ 
ing country from the elevated parts, are exceedingly beautiful. The 
Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk of gray granite, and its height is 
to be 220 feet; the base is 50 feet square. The United States Navy 
Yard, at Charlestown, occupies nearly 60 acres of ground, and com¬ 
prises a great number of store-houses, arsenals, magazines and barracks. 
The graving or dry dock is a noble piece of workmanship, built of 
hewn granite in the most solid manner. On the western side of the 
peninsula, stands the Massachusetts State Prison. Nearly all the build¬ 
ings are of stone, and a great part of the convicts are employed in ham¬ 
mering stone for building; others work at shoemaking, tailoring, smith’s 
work, &c. 

There are an insane hospital, and an Ursuline convent in Charles¬ 
town. Population, 8,787. 

Cambridge connected with Boston by 2 bridges, has some manufac¬ 
tories, among which the glass works at Lech mere Poin t are the most 
extensive in the United States. Harvard University is in this town. 
Population, 6,071. 

Salem, the second town in the state for population, wealth and com¬ 
merce, lies on a peninsula formed by 2 inlets of the sea. The harbor 


38 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


is not of sufficient depth for the largest vessels. The streets of Salem 
are narrow, and the houses mostly of wood. It contains an Athenaeum 
with a library of 5,000 volumes, 9 banks, and 15 churches. The Marine 
Museum is a valuable collection of curiosities. The commerce of the 
town is extensive, though not so much so as formerly. The East India 
trade, which has been very successfully prosecuted by the Salem mer¬ 
chants, is the most important branch. Population, 13,886. A bridge 
1,500 feet in length connects it with Beverley, which has a population 
of 4,079, principally occupied with the fisheries. 

New Bedford, the fourth town in the state, lies on Buzzard’s Bay, and 
is a flourishing place, with a population, in 1833, of 9,260 souls. It 
owes its prosperity to the whale fishery, in which the inhabitants are 
largely concerned. Nantucket, on the island of the same name, is also 
extensively engaged in the same lucrative business. Population, 7,202. 

Newburyport is a handsome town, near the mouth of the Merrimack. 
Its commerce has been more extensive, than it is at present. Ship¬ 
building, the fisheries and some manufactures are now carried on here. 
Population in 1830,6,388. Gloucester, on Cape Ann, with a population 
of 7,513, and Marblehead near Salem, with 5,150 inhabitants, are con¬ 
siderable fishing towns. 

Lowell, on the Merrimack, 15 miles above Haverhill, is a large and 
flourishing town, and has grown up in consequence of its manufacto¬ 
ries, with astonishing rapidity within a few years. The situation is well 
adapted to manufactories, and commands the whole water power of the 
Merrimack, with a fall of more than 30 feet. The town continues 
rapidly to increase, and is built with great regularity. The Middlesex 
canal leaves the Merrimack at this place; but a more expeditious com¬ 
munication with the capital will soon be afforded by a rail-road between 
Lowell and Boston. There are now 9 manufacturing companies here, 
with a total capital of $ 7,000,000. Population in 1830, 6,474; at pre¬ 
sent about 12,000. 

Fall River village, in the township of Troy on Taunton River, con¬ 
tains 13 cotton factories, iron works, a satinet factory, &c., with a popu¬ 
lation, in 1833, of about 5,000 souls. The population of the rest of the 
township is 4,159. 

Taunton is also a considerable manufacturing town. It has 7 cotton 
factories, a rolling and slitting mill, 1 forge, nail factories, calico printing 
works, 2 breweries, a Britannia ware factory, &c. Population, 6,042. 

Lynn, noted for its manufacture of shoes, 6,138 inh.; Plymouth, 
4,758, as the first permanent settlement made in New England; and 
Concord and Lexington as the scene of the first fight of the revolution¬ 
ary war, are in the eastern part of the state. 

In the interior are several towns worthy of notice. Worcester, near 
the centre of the state, is a beautiful and thriving town. The Library 
of the Antiquarian Society, containing 6,000 volumes, is here. The 
Blackstone Canal, leading from Worcester to Providence, assists the 
trade of the place. A State ..Insane Asylum has just been erected. 
Population, 4,172. 

Pittsfield, near the western limit of the state, is a pleasant town, with 
manufactories of cloth, muskets and drums. Here are extensive bar¬ 
racks; and an hospital belonging to the United States. Population, 
3 , 570 . 

Springfield, on Connecticut river, stands at the foot of a hill, and con- 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


39 


sists chiefly of a single street, 2 miles long. The houses are built with 
great neatness and uniformity. On the top of the hill, is the United 
States armory, comprising an arsenal, barracks, forges and workshops 
for the manufacture of muskets. About 260 workmen are here em¬ 
ployed. The number of muskets annually manufactured is 16,500. 
The whole number made since the commencement of the business, 
in 1795, is above 300,000. Within the limits of this town is Springfield 
Factory Village, on Chickapee River. Here are manufactories of cotton 
which produce 11,000-yards daily. The town has also very extensive 
paper mills. Population of Springfield, 6,784. 

Northampton, on the Connecticut, above Springfield, is one of the 
most beautiful of the New England towns, and is much visited by 
travellers. Mount Holyoke overlooks the town, and the surrounding 
country affords the finest scenery Northampton has 3 woollen man¬ 
ufactories. Population, 3,613. 

16. Agriculture. Massachusetts is the most highly cultivated state 
in the Union. Great attention is paid to farming as a science; and the 
exertions of the various agricultural societies in disseminating informa¬ 
tion, and offering encouragements in the shape of premiums, have had 
the best effect in promoting skilful and thrifty husbandry among the 
farmers. The state government has appropriated considerable sums in 
aid of these efforts. The farms consist generally of 100 to 200 acres, 
and are almost universally the property of the cultivators. Cattle 
shows and exhibitions of various productions of the soil, and speci¬ 
mens of manufactures, with distributions of prizes, take place every 
year in different parts of the state. The best breeds of foreign cattle 
have been introduced, and every disposition prevails to favor and pro¬ 
mote this essential branch of national industry. 

17. Commerce. Massachusetts has the first rank in the United 
States for commerce, after New York. In amount of shipping, it sur¬ 
passes even that state, although the foreign trade of New York is great¬ 
er. The commerce of Massachusetts is carried on with all parts of the 
world. Most of the East India trade of the state is confined to Boston 
and Salem. Annual value of the imports $ 18,000,000; of the exports, 
$ 12,000,000. The shipping amounts to 342,000 tons. 

18. Manufactures. Massachusetts is the second state in the Union 
in respect to manufactures. There are about 250 incorporated manu¬ 
facturing companies in the state, and, beside the establishments in the 
towns already mentioned, there are extensive woollen and cotton facto¬ 
ries, bleacheries, &c. at Waltham, Ware, Amesbury, Millbury, South- 
bridge, Dudley, &c. Among the most important articles after iron, 
cotton, and woollen, are glass, hats, shoes, leather, cordage, salt, and 
paper. There are in the state, upwards of 17,500,000 square feet of 
salt works, mostly in Barnstable county, in which the salt is obtained 
from sea-water by solar evaporation. 

19. Fisheries. A large amount of shipping is employed in the mack¬ 
erel, cod and whale fisheries. The latter is prosecuted chiefly in the 
South Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, from Nantucket and New 
Bedford. The cod fishery is carried on on the N E. coasts of the Unit¬ 
ed States, on those of Labrador and Newfoundland, and on the Banks. 
The mackerel fishery is chiefly carried on along the coast. 

20. Government. The legislative body consists of a Senate and House 
of Representatives, together styled the General Court of Massachusetts. 


40 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


The representatives are chosen in towns, in proportion to the population. 
The senators are chosen in counties; the numbers being proportioned 
to the taxes paid by each county. The executive are a Governor, and 
Lt. Governor, chosen by the people, and a council of 9, chosen by the 
legislature. All resident citizens of a year’s standing, who pay taxes, 
are voters. The legislature meets once a year at Boston. 

21. Religion. The congregational form is that which generally pre¬ 
vails. In 1831, the Congregationalists had 431 ministers, of whom 118 
were Unitarians; the Baptists, 119 ministers; the Methodists, 71 preach¬ 
ers; the Universalists, 4b societies; the Episcopalians, 31 clergymen; 
the New Jerusalem church or Swedenborgians, 8 societies; the Pres¬ 
byterians, 9 ministers; the Roman Catholics, 4 churches, and the 
Shakers, 4 societies. 

22. Education. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest and 
best endowed university in the United States. It has a library of 40,000 
volumes, with a chemical laboratory, philosophical apparatus, anatomi¬ 
cal museum, mineralogical cabinet, botanical garden, &c. Connect¬ 
ed with it are a theological school, with 4 professors; a law school with 
2, and a medical school in Boston with 5. Williams’ College is at 
Williamstown in the northwestern part of the state; the Berkshire 
Medical Institution at Pittsfield is connected with it. Amherst College 
at Amherst was founded in 1821. There are a Theological Seminary at 
Andover under the direction of the congregationalists, with a library of 
11,000 volumes; a Baptist Theological Institution at Newton, and 66 
incorporated academies in the state. Free schools, supported at the 
public expense, by taxes laid by the towns in compliance with the laws 
of the state, are within the reach of .all the inhabitants. 

23. History. The first English settlement in New England, was 
made at Plymouth in 1620, by a company of Puritans, who fled from 
persecution at home. It was their intention to settle in Virginia, but 
either by accident or treachery, they were thrown upon the inhospitable 
shores of New England in an inclement season, and thus laid the 
foundation of Plymouth colony. The colony of Massachusetts Bay 
was founded at Salem in 1628, and Boston was settled in 1630. 

The colony of Massachusetts Bay, and that of Plymouth, or the Old 
Colony as it is called, were under distinct governments till 1692, 
when, by a royal charter, they were united. From this period, the 
governors of the colony were appointed by the king, and the power 
of annulling the colonial laws was assumed as a royal prerogative. 
This regulation continued until the revolution, and the monarchical 
principle thus infused into the Massachusetts democracy, occasioned 
an almost perpetual struggle, between the republican spirit of the peo¬ 
ple and the royal authority. Massachusetts stood ever foremost in op¬ 
position to the oppressive acts of the mother country, and the American 
revolution began at Boston. On the 17th of March, 1776, the British 
were driven from Boston by Washington. 

The colonial form of government continued till 1780, when a con¬ 
vention of delegates established the present constitution. This in¬ 
strument underwent a revision in 1820, but the alterations were not 
material. 


4] 


V. RHODE ISLAND. 


1. Boundaries and Hodent. Rhode Island is bounded N. and E. by- 
Massacliusetts, S. by the Atlantic ocean, and W. by Connecticut. It lies 
between 41° 18' and 42° N. Lat., and between 71° 8' and 72° W. Lon. 
Average length 42 miles, mean width 29; surface 1,225 square miles, 
including the waters of Narraganset bay, which cover about 130 square 
miles. 

2. Mountains and Rivers. There are no mountains in Rhode Island. 
Mount Hope in Bristol, the highest elevation in the state, is only 300 
feet high, but the view from it is pleasing. The rivers are little more 
than mill streams. The Pawtucket and the Pawcatuck are the prin¬ 
cipal. 

3. Islands. Rhode Island in Narraganset Bay, about 3£ by 15 miles, 
is fertile, and well cultivated, and from the salubrity of the air, and 
mildness of its climate, is much resorted to in summer. It contains 
the townships of Newport, Portsmouth and Middletown. Prudence 
and Conanicut in Narraganset Bay, and Block Island, about 10 miles 
from the southern coast, belong to this state. 

4. Bays and Harbors. Narraganset Bay extends more than 30 miles 
into the state, and affords great advantages for ship navigation, having 
many excellent harbors. It is about 10 miles wide at the lower part, 
but a large portion of this space is occupied by the islands already de¬ 
scribed. Ships ascend this bay to Providence, 36 miles above Point Ju¬ 
dith. Newport harbor, in the channel between Conanicut and Rhode 
Island, is one of the finest in the world, being safe, deep, capacious, and 
easily accessible. The entrance is defended by Fort Wolcott on Goat’s 
Island, and Fort Adams on Rhode Island; the latter is a large stone 
castle of great strength. 

5. Climate. This state enjoys a salubrious climate; the winter in the 
maritime parts is sensibly milder, and the seasons are more uniform 
than in the rest of New England; the heat of summer is much allevia¬ 
ted by refreshing sea breezes. In other respects the climate of Rhode 
Island resembles that of Connecticut and Massachusetts. 

6. Soil. The soil is pretty uniform; on the continent it is generally 
a gravelly loam, which is tolerably fertile, but difficult of cultivation. 
Upon the islands, the soil is slaty and productive. There are a few 
pine plains in the state, but very little alluvial land. 

7- Vegetable Productions. There are no extensive forests; but oak, 
walnut and chestnut abound in some parts of the state. 

8. Mineral Productions. Some iron-ore, marble and freestone are 
found in different places, and anthracite occurs in extensive beds, but 
is not at present much used. 

9. Face of the country. Although there are no mountains in the 
state, much of the surface is rough. The southern part is more level. 
About one tenth of the whole surface is water. 

10. Divisions. Rhode Island is divided into the 5 following counties. 


Counties. 


County Towns. 

Providence. 

Bristol. 

Newport. 

East Greenwich. 
South Kingston. 


Providence, 

Bristol, 

Newport, 

Kent, 

Washington, 


Population 97,199, of whom ] 7 are slaves. 


42 


RHODE ISLAND, 


11. Canals and Railways. A pail of Blackstone canal, which has? 
been described in Massachusetts, lies in Rhode Island. Companies 
have been incorporated for constructing rail roads from Providence to 
Norwich and to Stonington. 

12. Towns. The city of Providence, at the head of Narraganset 
Bay, is prettily situated and well built. It is the second city in New 
England, having a population in 1830, of 16,833; in 1833, of about 
20,000. The largest merchant ships can come up to the city, the 
foreign and coasting trade of which are both extensive. Among the 
public buildings, are the state house, 14 churches, the halls of Brown 
University, and the arcade, a granite edifice of 222 feet front. There 
are 4 insurance offices, and 16 banks; 4 cotton manufactories; 3 bleach- 
eries; 4 dye houses ; 7 machine shops, and 4 iron founderies, and nume¬ 
rous other manufactures are carried on here. Steamboats of the largest 
and finest kind keep up a daily communication with New York, during 
a great part of the year, and several lines of stage-coaches, which.run 
to Boston in 6 or 7 hours, are connected with them. 

Newport is pleasantly situated on the declivity of a hill, near the S. 
W. end of Rhode Island. The harbor is one of the finest in the world, 
being capacious, safe and easy of access. Its delightful situation and 
healthful climate render Newport a fashionable resort in summer. It 
was formerly one of the principal towns in the United States; but most 
of its business has been transferred to Providence, and it is now on the 
decline. It is one of the capitals of the state, and contains some public 
buildings. Population, 8,010. 

Bristol is a pretty town on Narraganset Bay, with a good harbor and 
considerable commerce. Population, 3,054. Warwick, 10 miles south 
of Providence, is one of the principal manufacturing towns in the coun¬ 
try. Population, 5,529. Pawtucket, a manufacturing village 4 miles 
north of Providence, is partly in Seekonk, Mass, and partly in North 
Providence, R. I. Population about 4,000. 

13. Agriculture. Agriculture is less attended to than in the neigh¬ 
boring states, commerce and manufactures occupying a larger share of 
attention. Grazing is the chief employment of the husbandman, and 
the finest cattle in New England are raised on the borders of Narrasran- 
set Bay. 

14. Manufactures. Rhode Island is the most manufacturing portion 
of the Union in proportion to its population. The manufactures are 
mostly of cotton; but there are many of woollen, iron, cordage, &c. 
At Newport there is a manufactory of lace. 

15. Commerce. The commerce of the state is flourishing and con¬ 

siderable. The amount of shipping owned here is upwards of 30,000 
tons ; the annual value of the exports is about $ 530,000: of imports 
$ 650,000. F ’ 

16. Government. The people of Rhode Island not having made a 
constitution for themselves, the government is still conducted according 
to the provisions of the royal charter, granted by Charles II. in 1663. 
The official style is the State of Rhode Island and Providence Planta¬ 
tions. The legislature, styled the General Assembly, consists of a Sen¬ 
ate of 10, chosen annually, and a House of Representatives, chosen 
semi-annually, and meets four times a year. The executive power is 
vested in a Governor, who is elected annually. These officers are 


CONNECTICUT. 


43 


chosen by the people; suffrage is universal. Judges and other civil 
officers are appointed annually by the General Assembly. 

17. Religion. The Baptists have 12 ministers in this state; the 
Methodists 10 ; the Congregationalists 12, of whom 2 are Unitarian, and 
there are some Sabbatarians, Friends, Universalists and Roman Catho¬ 
lics. 

18. Education. Brown University, established at Warren in 1764, 
was removed to Providence in 1770. It has 7 instructers, 3 halls, a 
library of 6,000 volumes, and a good philosophical apparatus. There 
are 8 or 10 academies, and 323 free schools with 17,000 pupils, in the 
state. 

19. History. The first settlement in this state was made by Roger 
Williams, who, having been banished from Massachusetts for his re¬ 
ligious tenets, founded Providence in 1636. The island of Rhode Island 

-was settled a few years afterward, and in 1644, Williams obtained a 
charter, by which the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations were 
united under one government. In 1663 a new charter was granted by 
Charles II, which, with some changes, forms the basis of the present 
government. During the revolutionary war Rhode Island was for 
some time occupied by the British forces. This was the last state to 
adopt the Federal constitution, which it did in 1790. 


VI. CONNECTICUT. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Connecticut is bounded N. by Massa¬ 
chusetts ; E. by Rhode Island; S. by Long Island Sound, and W. by 
New York. It lies between 41° and 42° N. Lat., and between 71° 5O' 
and 73° 43' W. Lon.; being 90 miles in length, by 70 in breadth, and 
containing 4,764 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The Housatonic mountains enter the northwest part 
of the state from Massachusetts, and extend in a southerly direction 
along the Housatonic to the coast. This is rather a succession of 
groups and eminences, than a continuous ridge. The Green Mountain 
Range, coming from Vermont and Massachusetts, passes through the 
state from north to south, and terminates in West Rock at New Haven. 
Between this and the Connecticut is the Mount Tom Range, which, 
coming from Massachusetts, also traverses the state, and terminates in 
East Rock at New Haven. On the east side of the Connecticut, is a 
fourth range, which crosses the river at Chatham, and terminates at 
East Haven. 

3. Valleys. The Valley of the Connecticut begins at Middletown, 
and passes N. through the state, being from 10 to 16 miles in width, and 
extending within the limits of this state a length of 30 miles: this is the 
richest agricultural section in the state. The Farmington Valley, ex¬ 
tending from New Haven N. through the state between the Green 
Mountain and Mount Tom ranges, is 50 miles in length, and from 3 to 
5 wide. On the borders of the Housatonic are vales of considerable 
extent, from 1 to 5 miles in breadth, and of a rich soil. 

4. Rivers. The Connecticut enters this state from Massachusetts, 
and flows S. into Long Island Sound. Its mouth is barred with sand, 
but it admits of a sloop navigation to Hartford, 50 miles. Its general 
course after entering the state is S., but at Middletown it bends to the 

S. E., and continues in that direction to its mouth. Farmington River, 


44 


CONNECTICUT. 


which rises in Massachusetts, joins the Connecticut 5 miles above 
Hartford. 

The Housatoilic rises in the western part of Massachusetts, and en¬ 
ters this state near the N. W. corner, after which it runs in a southerly 
and southeasterly course, to the Sound between Milford and Stratford. 
The first part of its course is broken by cataracts, and its entrance is 
barred against large vessels. It has a sloop navigation of 12 miles. 
The Thames, formed by the junction of the Quinebaug, the Slietucket 
and the Yantic, at Norwich, empties itself into the Sound, at New 
London. It is navigable for sloops to Norwich, 14 miles. 

5. Bays. The whole coast of the state lies upon Long Island Sound, 
which is an extensive Gulf or Channel, being 140 miles in length, 
and 25 miles broad in the widest part. It is somewhat narrow at the 
eastern entrance, and expands in the middle. Toward the W. it grad¬ 
ually contracts till it joins the harbor of New York by a narrow and 
crooked strait, called East River. It admits of a free navigation through¬ 
out its whole extent for the largest ships, but in the western strait is 
a dangerous whirlpool at a spot called Hell Gate, where the current is 
contracted by the rocky shores, and, at certain seasons of the tide, the 
navigation is hazardous. 

6. Climate. Roth the face of the country, and the local position of 
this state, correspond so nearly to the adjoining states of Massachusetts 
and Rhode Island, that the difference in the climate can be hardly sen¬ 
sible. The winters are perhaps a little more temperate, and the sum¬ 
mer a few days earlier than in the western part of Massachusetts. • 

7. Soil. The soil is generally good, but of various kinds; the valley 
of the Connecticut has generally a strong and fertile argillaceous loam, 
varying in different sections from a hard, stiff clay, to a light, sandy 
loam, according to the prevalence of aluminous, or siliceous earth. In 
the eastern portion of the state the prevailing soil is warm, strong, fer¬ 
tile, and excellent for grazing. The northwestern part is in some places 
cold and sterile, but is generally a good grazing country. In the west¬ 
ern part of the state are many fertile districts. In general the soil is 
better adapted to grazing than tillage. 

8. Mineral Productions. Iron ore of excellent quality and in great 
abundance is found in various places. Fine marble of different species 
abounds in several places, and there are extensive quarries of freestone. 
There are chalybeate and sulphureous springs at Stafford. 

9. Face of tire Country. The surface of the state is uneven, and 
greatly diversified by hills and valleys. There are no high mountains ; 
but hills of moderate height are scattered every where, and there are 
few level tracts. 

10. Divisions. Connecticut is divided into 8 counties: 


Counties. 

County Towns. 

Windham 

Brooklyn. 

New London, 

5 New London. 


\ Norwich. 

Tolland, 

Tolland. 

Hartford, 

Hartford. 

Middlesex, 

5 Middletown. 


C Haddarn. 

New Haven, 

New Haven. 

Litchfield, 

Litchfield. 

Fairfield, 

5 Fairfield. 

X Danbury. 


CONNECTICUT. 


45 


Population of the state in 1830, 297,675 ; of which 25 were slaves. 

11. Canals. Farmington canal extends through the state from New 
Haven to Southwick Ponds in Massachusetts, 58 miles. The Hamp¬ 
shire and Hampden canal in Massachusetts is a continuation of this 
work. Enfield canal, 6 miles in length, overcomes a fall of 30 feet at 
Enfield Falls in the river Connecticut. 

12. Towns. New Haven, one of the capitals and the principal city * 
of the state, is beautifully situated on a bay of Long Island Sound, in a 
large plain surrounded on 3 sides by hills. East and West Rock are 
2 rocky precipices from 350 to 370 feet high. The city is regularly 
laid out in squares, and handsomely built, and many of the streets are 
bordered with fine trees. Here are 10 churches, a state house, an hos¬ 
pital, and the halls of Yale college. The harbor is safe, but shallow 
and gradually filling up. One of the wharfs is 3,943 feet in length. 
The coasting and foreign trade of New Haven are both considerable 
Packets and steamboats keep up a regular and easy communication 
with New York. Farmington canal terminates here, and there are 
several extensive manufactures carried on in the city. Population, 
10,180. 

Hartford, the other capital, is also a city. The legislature of the state 
assembles alternately here and at New Haven. Hartford lies on the 
west side of the Connecticut, at the head of sloop navigation, and 50 
miles from its mouth, is well built, and pleasantly situated. It has con¬ 
siderable coasting trade; several steamboats ply between the city and 
New York, and there are 8 river-boats used for towing, &c. The 
manufactures are various and extensive. More printing is done here 
than in any town of the size in the country. Among the public build¬ 
ings and institutions are a state house, LI churches, an Asylum for the 
Dumb and Deaf, a Retreat for the Insane, Washington College, &c. A 
bridge across the Connecticut unites the city with East Hartford. 
Population, 9,789. 

The city of Middletown, 15 miles below Hartford, lies upon a beau¬ 
tiful spot on the western bank of the Connecticut, where the river sud¬ 
denly expands with a bend in its course so as to resemble a small lake. 
The coasting trade is considerable, and there are here extensive manu¬ 
factories of cotton, woollen, muskets, &c. The city contains the county 
buildings, 7 churches, the Wesleyah Seminary, a custom-house, &c. 
Population, 6,892. 

Norwich, at the head of navigation on the Thames, is the third city 
in point of population. Its manufactures exceed in value $ 600,000 a 
year, and its water power is so abundant, that they are rapidly increas¬ 
ing. Population, 5,161. The city of New London, 14 miles below 
Norwich, on the W. bank of the Thames, has an excellent harbor, 
Which is defended by 2 forts. The trade is considerable, and it serves 
in some degree as the port of the river Connecticut, the impediments 
in which often prevent its being navigated by large vessels. The whale 
and seal fisheries are also actively prosecuted from this place. Popula¬ 
tion, 4,356. Wethersfield, 4 miles from Hartford, contains the state 
prison. At Litchfield there is a law school. 

* The term city is used in the United States to denote a town which has been 
incorporated with certain peculiar municipal powers and privileges. In England 
a city strictly speaking is an incorporated town which is or has been a bishop’s 
gee. 


46 


CONNECTICUT. 


13. Agriculture. The Connecticut farmers are distinguished for 
their skill and industry, and much care has been bestowed upon the 
cultivation of the land. The farms are generally small, varying from 
50 to 300 acres. The principal productions are Indian com or maize, 
rye, wheat, oats, barley, flax and potatoes. Orchards are numerous, 
and cider is exported. Butter and cheese are made in large quantities. 

14. Commerce.. Most of the foreign trade is diverted to the New 
York market; but the coasting trade is extensive. The exports are 
beef, pork, horses, mules, cattle, butter, cheese, fish and manufactured 
articles. The shipping amounts to about 60,000 tons; annual value of 
exports, $ 430,000 ; of imports, $ 438,000. 

15. Manufactures. Connecticut is extensively engaged in manufac¬ 
tures, and though many of the manufacturing establishments are small, 
they are so numerous and various as to be very considerable in the 
aggregate. Cotton and woollen goods, iron, giass, paper, tin ware, 
buttons, clocks, leather, shoes and firearms are among the principal 
articles. 

16. Government. The state was governed according to the provi¬ 
sions of the colonial charter, until 1818, when the present constitution 
was adopted. The legislature, styled the General Assembly, consists of 
a Senate chosen annually in districts, and a House of Representatives, 
chosen by the towns. The executive officers are a Governor and 
lieutenant governor, also chosen annually by the people. Every white 
male citizen of the age of 21, who has performed military duty or paid 
a state tax for a year, is entitled to vote. 

17. Religion. The most numerous sect is the Congregational, a few 
of whom are Unitarians. There are many Baptists, Methodists and 
Episcopalians, and some Friends, Universal ists, Roman Catholics, 
Christ-ians and Shakers. 

18. Education. Yale College at New Haven is one of the oldest 
institutions in the country. It was founded in 1700, and though its 
funds are small, the students are numerous. The library contains 
10,000 volumes, and the mineralogical cabinet is the finest in the coun¬ 
try, comprising upwards of 16,000 specimens. There are theological, 
law and medical schools connected with the college. Washington 
College at Hartford, founded in 1824, has a library of 5,000 volumes, a 
philosophical apparatus, and a botanical garden. The Wesleyan Uni¬ 
versity at Middletown, founded in 1831, has 4 professors, a library, 
mineralogical cabinet, &c. There is a law school at Litchfield. The 
state possesses a school fund, derived from the sale of lands in Ohio, of 
nearly $2,000,000. The annual income of this fund, amounting to 
above $ 80,000, is distributed among the school districts for the support 
of free schools. 

19. History. Connecticut consisted originally of 2 colonies; Hart¬ 
ford, settled by emigrants from Massachusetts in 1635, and New Haven, 
by colonists from England in 1638. The two colonies were united 
under one government by a charter of Charles II, in 1662. In 1686 
this charter was suspended by James II, and Andros, who had been 
appointed governor of New England, was sent to assume the govern¬ 
ment. Repairing with a body of troops to Hartford, he demanded the 
charter. The instrument was accordingly brought into the hall in the 
evening, with the intention of its being surrendered. But the lights 
were suddenly extinguished, and the charter carried off and secreted 


NEW ENGLAND. 


47 


by some of the colonists, in the hollow of a tree, which is still called the 
charter oak. When Andros was deposed in 1689, the charter was 
resumed, and the government was administered under it until 1818. 


VII. NEW ENGLAND. 

GENERAL VIEW. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The six states already described are 
known by the general designation of the Eastern States, or New En¬ 
gland. New England is bounded on the N. by Lower Canada ; E. by 
New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ocean; S. by the Ocean and Long 
Island Sound, and W. by New York. It lies between 41° and 48° 
N. Lat., extending from 67° to 73° 48' W. Lon., and comprising an 
area of 65,000 square miles, with a population of nearly two millions. 

2. Mountains. New England is distinguished for a surface of infi¬ 
nite variety. Mountains in considerable ranges, bold spurs and solitary 
eminences, rising from the New Haven bluffs, of 400 feet, to the lofty 
grandeur of Mount Washington, are everywhere dispersed. Beautiful 
swells of land in every form are innumerable. None of the mountains 
reach the height of perpetual snow, and none are utterly sterile or in¬ 
accessible. The ancient forests still clothe their sides, but the industry 
of the cultivator is only necessary to render them productive. Their 
outline is in general somewhat rounding and tame, except in the loftier 
regions of the White Mountains. 

3. Valleys. The only extensive valleys of New England are those 
of the large rivers; they consist in general of a flat alluvion, having 
commonly a very fertile soil. The most extensive of these valleys, is 
that of the river Connecticut, stretching about 300 miles from the 45° 
of N. Lat. to Long Island Sound, and varying in width from 5 to 45 
miles. The interval lands, formed by alluvial deposites, and annually 
overflowed in the spring, are rendered highly fertile by the slime left 
upon them by the subsiding waters. 

4. Rivers. Few countries are better watered than New England. 
There is scarcely a farm without a brook, mill-stream or river. These 
riyers are remarkable for flowing over different levels. Water-falls are 
abundant. There is not a brook or river whose course is not broken 
by them, and many of the streams are little more than a succession of 
cataracts. The falls are most numerous toward the heads of the 
streams. None of them are remarkable for height, but some are high¬ 
ly picturesque. 

The currents of the rivers are rapid, and their waters remarkably 
clear. The principal river of New England is the Connecticut, which 
rises in the Highlands that separate Lower Canada from the United 
States, and taking a southerly course between Vermont and New 
Hampshire, traverses Massachusetts and Connecticut, and fells into 
Long Island Sound, after a course of 450 miles. At the northern 
boundary of Vermont it is 150 feet wide, and in Massachusetts and 
Connecticut, its breadth varies from 500 to 1,000 feet. It meets the 
tide waters at the foot of Enfield Falls, having a descent of 1600 feet in 
330 miles. It is navigable to Hartford for vessels drawing eight feet 
of water, and, by the aid of canals, for flat bottomed boats to the dis- 


48 


NEW ENGLAND. 


tance of 270 miles from its mouth. Its valley is infinitely diversified 
with mountain and meadow, and on its borders are situated some of 
the prettiest towns in New England. It overflows its banks annually 
in the spring. The shad fishery in this river is very valuable. 

5. Lakes and Ponds. New England is abundantly supplied with 
lakes and ponds. The larger ones have been particularly described. 
The smaller sheets of water are scattered about in every part of the 
country. Within a dozen miles of Boston, there are more than twen¬ 
ty, and in the six New England states, there are above a thousand. 
They often form pictures of exquisite beauty. Their shores are com¬ 
monly high and varied ; they sometimes show a bright gleam in the 
midst of a dark forest, and at other times are surrounded by meadows 
and farms. In the neighborhood of the large towns, their romantic 
borders are occupied by country seats. Nothing can be more cheerful 
than the aspect they impart to the landscape. They are supplied gen¬ 
erally by subjacent springs, and their waters are cool, sweet and limpid. 

6. Bays and Harbors. The great bays of this region, under which 
name we must include also Long Island Sound, afford a free naviga¬ 
tion from their depth of water, and the absence of dangerous shoals. 
Hardly any country is better furnished with harbors. The whole coast 
is indented with inlets and mouths of rivers, which afford almost every 
town, lying upon the sea, conveniences for commerce. The harbors 
of Portsmouth, Boston, and Newport, are equal to any in the world, 
and in the event of wars, will be important naval stations. 

7. Shores. The coast is, for the most part, rocky and bold. The 
sandy district of Cape Cod is the only considerable exception. The 
headlands which bound Massachusetts Bay, are the most prominent 
points. Almost every cape, point, and island along the coast, is fur¬ 
nished with a lighthouse. 

8. Climate. New England is subject to great extremes of tempera¬ 
ture. The winters are much colder, and the summers hotter than un¬ 
der the same parallels in Europe. Greece and Italy cannot boast of 
more exquisite days than the summer and autumn here exhibit; and 
the most foggy, ice-bound region of the north does not endure a more 
disagreeable visitation than the cold fogs of a New England spring. 
The climate is more open, and more varying on the coast, than in the 
interior. In the severest cold of winter, every lake and river is frozen, 
and most of the harbors on the coast are sometimes hermetically seal¬ 
ed. The N. W. winds, at this time, usually blow from one to four 
days, and slacken at sunset. When they cease, the sky grows cloudy, 
and rain or snow follows. The N. E. winds are very tempestuous, and 
seldom blow 24 hours, without bringing rain or snow. The S. E. 
winds are violent; they generally bring rain, and are soon over. 

9. Soil. Of this, there is every variety. There are not, except upon 
the shores, any tracts of utter barrenness, and most of the mountain 
sides are susceptible of cultivation, yet the level regions are stony, and 
the country, on the whole, cannot be called fertile. Sand, loam, and 
clay exist in the earth, in all their various mixtures; but the most com¬ 
mon soil, is a light brown loam mixed with gravel. The salt marshes 
have a deep and rich soil, and where they can be reclaimed from the 
water, may be rendered highly productive. There are thousands of 
acres of wet land that might be easily drained, and rendered of the 
highest value for tillage. 


NEW ENGLAND. 


49 


10. Agriculture. The farms in New England are smaller than in 
any other part of the United States, yet the great fault of agriculture here, 
is the occupation of too much land. The price of labor is high, and 
land is cheap. The common results of agriculture cannot, therefore, be 
considered as displaying the full capabilities of the soil. One of the 
greatest annoyances to the cultivator of grain, has been the Hessian fly, 
which appeared at first at Long Island, near the encampment of the 
Hessian troops during the war, and entered New England about 1787, 
advancing at the rate of twenty miles a year. Blasts also, sometimes 
attack the wheat and rye, when their vegetation is too rapid. The 
canker-worm first appeared in 1666, and has continued to the present 
time. The apple trees are principally exposed to their ravages. These 
insects, with the caterpillars, will, if not guarded against by the farmer, 
strip an orchard as completely of its foliage, as if it had been laid waste 
by fire. Fortunately, thejr remain only a few weeks in a season. 

11. Scenery. The whole surface of New England is checkered with 
cultivation, except the northern parts of Maine and New Hampshire. 
There are many beautiful villages in the country, but the farmhouses 
are generally scattered along the roads. The most pleasing of all rural 
scenes, and that of the most frequent occurrence, is composed of a 
farmhouse, shaded with two or three spreading elms ; large barns; an 
extensive orchard; one or two fields of maize, beautiful in all its 
changes; a small brook, with a green meadow, and a patch of wood¬ 
land that supplies the farmer with his fuel. In travelling through the 
six states, cultivation may be witnessed in all its different stages, from 
the log hut of the new settler in the midst of the forest, to the farms of 
the older districts that have been cultivated for two centuries. 

12. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are almost entirely of English ori¬ 
gin, and, as there are few emigrants, either from other states, or from 
foreign countries, are mostly natives of the soil. They retain more 
traits of the English character, than the inhabitants of other parts of the 
union, though much modified by the peculiarities of their local condi¬ 
tion and their institutions. There are about 20,000 colored persons,— 
blacks and mulattoes, in New England, and a few hundred of the abo¬ 
rigines are still to be found in Maine and Massachusetts. The New 
Englanders are hardy and robust, generally of fair complexion, and 
taller and more slender than their English brethren. 

13. Education. In no part of the United States, are the means af¬ 
forded for what would be considered in Europe a finished education. 
But in New England much attention has been paid to the gradual im¬ 
provement of the institutions for the education of the young, and to the 
general diffusion of useful knowledge among the people. The New 
England system of free schools is one of the most remarkable features 
of that section of the union. The principal on which this system is 
founded, is, that elementary education should be so free as to exclude 
none from its benefits, and the schools so numerous as to he within the 
reach of all; at the same time that their management should be princi¬ 
pally left to the people themselves in small districts, so as to excite a 
general interest in them. The tax for the support of these schools is 
on property, so that the poor are not too heavily burdened with it; 
every individual in the community may not only learn to read and 
write, but may become acquainted with arithmetic, geography and his¬ 
tory, and in many cases, with the principles of natural science, and the 


50 


NEW ENGLAND. 


learned languages, without any fee for tuition. To this system of free 
schools New England has been indebted for some of her most distin¬ 
guished men. The higher branches of education are pursued in the 
academies and colleges, which, though not supported at the public ex¬ 
pense, frequently have funds, which are devoted to assist indigent 
scholars of merit in completing their education. There are also theo¬ 
logical, medical and law schools in which courses of professional stu¬ 
dies may be pursued with advantage. There are in New England 
about 12,000 free schools, beside a great number of private schools, 190 
academies, twelve colleges, eight medical schools, five theological 
schools, and three law schools. 

14. Religion. The founders of the New England colonies were 
English Puritans, whose distinctive traits were their religious zeal, ar¬ 
dent piety, and rigid morality. The influences of this origin are still 
strongly marked in the inhabitants of the New England states, in their 
fondness for religious instruction, and their respect for religious institu¬ 
tions. Nowhere are the solemnities of public worship more scrupu¬ 
lously observed ; or religious meetings more frequently held, or more 
generally attended. On Sunday a rigorous abstinence from amusements 
or unnecessary labor is maintained, the whole day being devoted to 
religious services. In regard to church discipline, the greater part of the 
population is attached to the Independent or Congregational form, but 
the Episcopalians are numerous. In respect of doctrine, the Calvinists 
are the most numerous, but the anti-calvinistic sects are increasing. 

15. Manners , Customs and Institutions. Originally settled by the 
same sort of people, and forming in many respects a distinct geograph¬ 
ical region, New England presents the picture of a distinct national 
character, in the manners, institutions, opinions, feelings and habits of 
its population. A severe climate and a niggard soil have tended to 
render the Yankee, as the New Englander is contemptuously termed 
in other parts of the country, industrious, frugal, provident, and hardy; 
a long line of sea coast, with excellent harbors, though often dangerous 
of navigation, have tempted him to the ocean and made him an enter¬ 
prising, daring and skilful sailor and merchant, seeking in the depths 
of the sea or in foreign regions the wealth which his native hills deny 
him. The severe religious character of the Puritans, who founded the 
New England colonies, has been transmitted to their posterity, and 
their love of learning, which was indeed only one form of their reli¬ 
gious zeal, led to the establishment of institutions for education, which 
have been fondly cherished to the present time. The system of free 
common schools, by which elementary education is carried to every 
door, is peculiarly of New England origin. The Congregational form 
of church discipline, in which each religious society forms an inde¬ 
pendent community, managing its own concerns by the popular voice, 
and the division of the country into little municipalities, called towns, 
in which the people also act directly upon all local affairs, tend to 
nourish a strong democratic spirit, which is further strengthened by 
the general equality of fortunes, and the free tenure of the soil. The 
New Englanders may be, therefore, characterised as eminently a mo¬ 
ral, religious, inventive and intelligent people. They are often charged 
with coldness, and selfishness, with an excessive and somewhat suspi¬ 
cious caution and reserve, with too much love of gain, too great a pro¬ 
pensity to overreach those with whom they have dealings, and too 


NEW YORK. 


51 


little generosity of spirit. Yet their liberal patronage and support of all 
humane, charitable, literary and religious institutions, ought to rescue 
them from a part of these charges. 


VIII. NEW YORK. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. New York is bounded N. by Lake 
Ontario and the river St. Lawrence, which separate it from Upper Can¬ 
ada, and by Lower Canada; E. by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Con¬ 
necticut ; S. by New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and W. by Pennsylvania, 
Lake Erie and the river Niagara. It lies between 72° and 79° 55' W. 
Lon. and between 40° 30' and 45° N. Lat. Its greatest breadth from 
north to south is 310 miles; its greatest length, exclusive of Long 
Island, 316 miles: its area 46,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The Blue Ridge or great Eastern chain of the 
Alleglianies enters this state from New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The 
New Jersey branch crosses the Hudson near West Point, forming 
what are called the Highlands, and divides the waters of the Hudson 
from those of the Connecticut. The Pennsylvania branch bounds the 
Valley of the Hudson on the west, under the name of the Catskill 
mountains, and, crossing the Mohawk, form sseveral parallel ridges in 
the northeastern part of the state of no great elevation, but dividing the 
waters of Lake Champlain, from the streams which flow into the St. 
Lawrence. The highest summit of the Catskill Mountains is Round 
Top, which is 3,804 feet high. The Pine Orchard near Catskill is much 
visited for the beauty of its scenery. It embraces a view of about 70 
miles, including the Hudson, and the distant peaks of the Green Moun¬ 
tains. The highest summit of the northeastern ridges does not exceed 
2,700 feet. In the southwestern part of the state, to the east of Lake 
Erie, is an elevated table-land, about 2,000 feet in height, from which 
descend the Alleghany, Genesee, and Susquehannah rivers, terminating 
respectively in the Gulf of Mexico, Chesapeake Bay, and the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence. Another table land extends from the Catskill moun¬ 
tains to lake Seneca, along the Mohawk, and divides its waters, from 
the upper branches of the Susquehannah. 

3. Valleys. The long, narrow valley which contains the river Hud¬ 
son and lake Champlain, is nearly in a direct line from north to south. 
It is remarkable for its depth below the surrounding country, and va¬ 
ries in width from 40 miles, to the mere breadth of the river. Stretch¬ 
ing westward towards lake Ontario, is the valley of the Mohawk and 
Oneida lake, which is also narrow and bordered by elevated land. 

4. Rivers. The Hudson rises in the northern part of the state, and, 
pursuing a southerly course, enters the sea below New York. The 
tide flows up to Troy 166 miles; and the river is navigable to Hudson, 
130 milfes, lor ships, and to Troy for sloops. Its whole length is 324 
miles. It is the only Atlantic river in the country, the navigation of 
which is nqt closed by the passage through the Alleghany ridge, and 
it is nowhere elevated more than 150 feet above tide water. Above 
Troy it receives its principal tributary, the Mohawk, whose sources lie 
near the great lakes, and which has a course of about 135 miles, with a 
descent of 367 feet. 

The Genesee rises on the table land, on the northern border of Penn- 


52 


NEW YORK. 


sylvania, and runs north, across the western part of New York, into 
Lake Ontario. At Rochester, 5 miles from its mouth, are falls of 96 
feet, and at Carthage, just below Rochester, falls of 75 feet. Above 
these the river is navigable for boats nearly 70 miles to Nunda, where 
there are two falls of 60 and 90 feet. The St. Lawrence, which washes 
a part of the northern boundary, will be described under the head of 
Canada. The Alleghany, Delaware, and Susquehannah, which rise ill 
New York, will be more appropriately described in the accounts of 
Pennsylvania and the Middle States. 

5. Lakes. An account of lakes Erie and Ontario, whose waters 
bathe the northwestern borders of the state, will be found in the general 
view of North America. Lake Champlain, which lies partly in New 
York has been described in Vermont. On the table land already 
mentioned, a few miles from Lake Erie, is Lake Chatauque, about 
1,300 feet above the level of the sea, and 725 above that of Lake Erie. 
It is 18 miles long, and from 1 to 3 wide, and discharges its waters 
through the river Alleghany, thus affording boat navigation to the Gulf 
of Mexico. Towards the centre of the state are lakes Canandaigua, 
Crooked, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco, Skeneateles, Onondaga and Onei¬ 
da, a cluster of small lakes whose waters are carried into Lake Ontario 
by the river Oswego. None of them is more than from 2 to 4 miles in 
width, but the Cayuga and Seneca are respectively 38 and 35 miles 
long. The latter never freezes, probably on account of the depth of its 
basin. 

Lake George, in the eastern part of the state, is about 33 miles long, 
by 2 wide, and empties its waters into Lake Champlain, by an outlet 3 
miles in length, with a descent of about 160 feet. Its waters are clear 
and pure, and its bosom is adorned with upwards of 300 islands. Sur¬ 
rounded with lofty mountains, some rising boldly from its shores, and 
others occupying a distant back-ground, overhung in many places with a 
thick, dark forest, which contrasts strongly with its pure, bright waters, 
and infinitely diversified with retreating bays, projecting headlands, and 
rocky, or fertile and well wooded islands, Lake George offers great 
attractions to the lovers of nature. The greatest depth of the lake, 
which abounds in trout, bass and perch, is 60 fathoms. 

6. Islands. Long Island projects into the Atlantic Ocean, opposite 
the southern shore of Connecticut, a distance of 140 miles. Its average 
breadth is 10 miles, its greatest breadth 20. A rocky ridge, called its 
spine, extends lengthwise nearly through it, and at the western end 
forms the Brooklyn heights. South of the ridge the land is level and 
sandy ; on the north it is more uneven. The island abounds with wild 
fowl and game, and its waters with fish. In the western part are some 
fine orchards, and the Newtown pippins are much celebrated. 

Staten Island, at the mouth of New York harbor, is separated from 
Long Island by the Narrows. It is 15 miles long and 8 broad. Man¬ 
hattan or New York Island, at the mouth of the Hudson, 15 miles in 
length, with an average breadth of one mile and a half, contains the 
city of New York. 

7. Bays and Harbors. The seacoast of New York is nearly all com¬ 
prised in the shores of Long Island, which contains a few harbors 
and inlets, but none that is much frequented by shipping. The bay 
or harbor of New York is very safe and capacious; its boundaries 
toward the sea are Long Island and Staten Island; it extends 9 miles 


NEW YORK. 


53 


below the city, and is from a mile and a half to 5 miles broad; it con¬ 
tains several small islands on which are fortifications. The Hudson 
enters this bay from the N. The East River, or channel between New 
York Island and Long Island, communicates with Long Island Sound 
on the E. The Kills, a strait between Staten Island and the Jersey 
shore, communicate with Newark Bay and the River Raritan on the W.; 
and the Narrows open into the Atlantic toward the S. At low water, 
the entrance by the Narrows, is somewhat difficult for large ships, and 
the entrance from the Sound is obstructed by the rocky strait of Hell 
Gate.* There are several harbors on Lake Ontario, the most noted 
of which is Sackett’s Harbor toward the east end of the lake; it is deep 
and safe, and was an important naval station during the war of 1812. 

8. Climate. As this state embraces a wide extent of territory, stretch¬ 
ing from the lakes of Canada to the Atlantic, it must of necessity exhibit 
considerable diversities of climate. A district of level country, around 
New York, allows the sea air to penetrate far inland. Along the Hud¬ 
son as far up as the Highlands, the climate is little different from that of 
the seacoast; but beyond the mountains, the mild and damp winds 
from the sea do not penetrate. Below the Highlands, the prevailing 
winds are southerly through the summer, the weather is variable, and 
the changes of temperature, governed by the winds, frequent and sud¬ 
den. The humidity of the air, thus brought in from the sea, produces 
frequent showers in the middle and eastern region of the state. After 
two or three days of sultry weather, with the wind from the south, the 
clouds gather round the Catskill mountains, and fall upon the country 
in thunder gusts; to this process the southerly part of the state is in¬ 
debted for all its supplies of rain during summer. In winter, spring and 
autumn, the rain and snow come in a great measure from the S. E. or 
between E. and N. In the northern parts near the St. Lawrence and 
Lake Champlain, the weather is less variable, and the winters are long 
and severe, with a clear and settled sky. In the western parts, from 
the Catskill mountains to Lake Erie, southwesterly winds prevail in a 
great proportion throughout the year; easterly winds are nearly un¬ 
known. The thermometric range is from 33° below to 104 above zero, 
or 237 degrees. 

9. Soil. This extensive state exhibits every variety of soil. In the 
level country of the northern part, on the E. of Lake Ontario, and along 
the St. Lawrence, the soil is a warm, sandy loam, and constitutes a 
large tract of the best land for agriculture. Around Lake Champlain, 
there is an extensive district of clayey soil. The alluvial flats of the 
Mohawk valley are highly fertile. The other parts of this valley have 
a stiff loam as far W. as the Catskill mountains extend; beyond which 
the soil partakes more of the character of the western region. In this 
last region the hills are rocky and precipitous, and the valleys consist of 
black, vegetable mould. The Genesee flats in the western part of the 
state have long been celebrated for their fertility. W. of Albany are 
extensive sandy plains interspersed with marshes, which are rather cold. 
From the Highlands N. to the Mohawk the soil, is dry and warm, being 
in general either a gravelly or sandy loam. E. of the Hudson, in this 
region, are rich alluvial tracts. Below the Highlands, the soil is princi¬ 
pally dry and warm. The W. end of Long Island is fertile and well 
cultivated. In the eastern parts are sandy, barren plains. 

* A corruption of Horll Gatt, the Dutch for whirlpool. 


54 


NEW YORK. 


10. Vegetable Productions. The mountainous regions produce most 
of the evergreen trees of North America: the western part is principally 
wooded with deciduous trees of the loftiest growth; in the eastern parts 
the trees are in general deciduous, but less lofty. 

11. Mineral Productions. Gypsum is found in its various forms, 
particularly in the central region to the east of Cayuga lake, and is 
extensively employed for agricultural purposes. An impure lime-stone, 
which furnishes an excellent water-cement, abounds in the northern 
and western parts of the state. Marble is obtained in large quantities 
from the quarries of Sing Sing for architectural purposes. Iron ore is 
abundant in the Highlands of the Hudson, and in the counties west of 
Lake Champlain. Traces of other metals, as lead, silver, zinc, &c., 
have been observed in various parts of the state. Petroleum occurs 
abundantly in the western part of the state, and is known by the name 
of Seneca or Genesee oil. 

12. Mineral Springs. The Ballston and Saratoga springs are the 
most noted in the United States. They are about 6 miles distant from 
each other. The waters of the former are chalybeate, of the latter 
chiefly saline; their properties are cathartic and tonic. The New Leb¬ 
anon springs are thermal waters, having a temperature of 73°; they are 
useful in cutaneous diseases, and are much resorted to for bathing. The 
Onondaga salt springs, situated at the head of the lake of the same 
name, yield a bushel of salt to 45 gallons of water. The lake though 
surrounded by brine springs is perfectly fresh. In the western parts of 
the state there are burning springs, charged with carburetted hydrogen 
or inflammable gas, which, on the application of fire, burns with a 
steady flame. 

13. Falls. New York contains a great number of beautiful cascades. 
Rochester Falls in the Genesee have a descent of96 feet; in the town¬ 
ship of Ithaca, Fall Creek descends 438 feet within the space of one mile, 
forming several cataracts, at one of which the whole sheet of water is 
poured over a rock 116 feet in height, and the banks above have an 
elevation of 100 feet. At Cohoes Falls, the Mohawk is precipitated in 
one sheet over a broken rock, 62 feet in height; the banks of the river 
are formed of precipitous walls of rock 140 feet high ; at Little Falls, 
some miles above, the river passes through a fissure in the rocks, which 
rise on each side 500 feet above its bosom. Trenton Falls on West 
Canada creek, a tributary of the Mohawk, are much admired for their 
picturesque scenery. For the distance of several miles there is a suc¬ 
cession of rapids and cataracts, and the bed of the river is frequently 
narrowed by rocky precipices, and overhung with trees, while its banks 
in some places rise perpendicularly to the height of 140 feet. At 
Glenn’s Falls, 18 miles from Saratoga, the Hudson flows over a ledge 
of rocks into a deep basin below, with a descent of 37 feet. Niagara 
Falls will be described under the head of Canada. 

14. Face of the country. The state may be most correctly described 
as an elevated tract with indentations in various places below the gen¬ 
eral level, forming the basins of the lakes and rivers. The eastern part 
is mountainous, the western more level, but somewhat broken along 
the Pennsylvania border. The Ridge Road or Alluvial Way is a re¬ 
markable elevation, extending from Lewistown on the river Niagara, to 
Rochester on the Genesee, at the distance of from 6 to 10 miles from 
Lake Ontario. It is 30 feet in height above the surrounding country, 


NEW YORK. 


55 


140 feet above the level of the lake, 78 miles in length, and from 50 to 
100 feet broad. It is composed of common beach sand and smooth 
gravel, intermixed with small shells, and forms an excellent road. 

15. Divisions. New York is divided into 56 counties,* which are 
subdivided into 8 cities, and 775 towns. There are 102 incorporated 
villages, many of which have names differing from the townships in 
which they are situated. Population in 1830, 1,918,608, of which 
44,870 were free blacks, and 75 slaves. 

16. Canals. This state is distinguished for its magnificent works, 
constructed for the purpose of connecting the great central basin of the 
Lakes and the St. Lawrence, with the Atlantic. The two principal 
canals are the Erie Canal, extending from Buffalo on Lake Erie, to 
Albany on the Hudson, 363 miles, and Champlain canal, extending 
from Whitehall on Lake Champlain, to Albany 72 miles. The Erie 
Canal has 84 locks built of stone, each 90 feet long, and 15 wide, with 
a total rise and fall of 698 feet, and 18 aqueducts one of which crosses 
the river Genesee, and 3 the Mohawk ; width at top 40 feet, at bottom 
28 feet, depth 4 feet. The Champlain canal has 21 locks, with a rise 
and fall of 188 feet. As branches of this great jvork, there have been 
constructed several other canals, pervading almost every part of the 
state: Oswego canal, extending 38 miles from Salina to Oswego, con¬ 
nects Lake Ontario with the Erie canal; Cayuga and Seneca canal, 
extending from Geneva to Montezuma on the Erie canal, 20 miles, 
continues the water communication to Seneca lake, and, by a lateral 
branch to East Cayuga village, to Cayuga lake. From the head waters 
of Seneca lake, Chemung canal extends to Elmira on the Chemung or 
Tioga branch of the Susquehannah 31 miles, while the Crooked Lake 
canal connects the waters of Seneca lake with those of Crooked lake; 
length 6£ miles. Beside these works, two great northern and southern 
branches are constructing, designed to connect the Susquehannah and 
Lake Ontario with the Erie canal, in Oneida county; the former, or 
Chenango canal, extending from Utica to Binghampton on the Susque¬ 
hannah, will be 92 miles in length, the latter, reaching from Rome to 
Black River, with an improvement of 40 miles river navigation to Car¬ 
thage, will have a total length of 76 miles. These canals have been 
constructed by the state, and make an aggregate of 530 miles of canal 
navigation, effected at the expense of about $12,000,000. Annual 
amount of tolls $ 1,000,000. 

The principal work constructed by a private company, is the Dela¬ 
ware and Hudson canal, extending 108 miles, from Roundout creek, in 
Ulster county, 3 miles above its entrance into the Hudson, to Honesdale 


Albany 

Franklin 

Oneida 

Schoharie 

Alleghany 

Genesee 

Onondaga 

Seneca 

Broome 

Greene 

Ontario 

St. Lawrence 

Cattaraugus 

Hamilton 

Orange 

Steuben 

Cayuga 

Herkimer 

Orleans 

Suffolk 

Chatauque 

Jefferson 

Oswego 

Sullivan 

Chenango 

Kings 

Otsego 

Tioga 

Clinton 

Lewis 

Putnam 

Tompkins 

Columbia 

Livingston 

Queens 

Ulster 

Cortland 

Madison 

Rensselaer 

W arren 

Delaware 

Monroe 

Richmond 

Washington 

Dutchess 

Montgomery 

Rockland 

Wayne 

Erie 

New York 

Saratoga 

Westchester 

Essex 

N iagara 

Schenectady 

Yates 


56 


NEW YORK. 


on the Lackavvaxen in Pennsylvania. This canal is intended to open a 
communication with the coal mines in that region, and a rail road has 
been constructed from Honesdale to the mines at Carbondale, 17 miles 
in length. 

17. Rail Roads. Mohawk and Hudson rail road extends from Al¬ 
bany to Schenectady, affording communication between the tide water 
of the Hudson and the Erie canal, 16 miles. The Saratoga and Sche¬ 
nectady rail road, 20 miles in length, is a continuation of the former, 
and thus unites Saratoga and Ballston with the line of steam navigation 
on the Hudson. The Catskill and Conajoharie rail road, 75 miles in 
length, the Ithaca and Oswego rail road, 29 miles in length are in 
progress; an inspection of the map will indicate their routes. The 
Harlaem rail road, extends from the river Harlaem to New York city, 
5 miles. Rochester rail road connects Rochester with the head of 
navigation for lake vessels in the Genesee. Among the numerous 
works of this nature which have been projected, the New York and 
Erie rail road, to extend from the city of New York through the south¬ 
ern counties to Lake Erie, 400 miles, and the New York and Albany 
rail road, on the eastern side of the Hudson, 160 miles, are the prin¬ 
cipal. 

18. Towns. The city of New York, is the largest in America, and 
the most important in respect to wealth, population and commerce. It 
is situated at the junction of the Hudson and East Rivers, on the south¬ 
ern end of Manhattan island, 16 miles from the Atlantic Ocean ;—226 
miles N. E. of Washington; 90 N. E. of Philadelphia. Lat. 40° 43' 
N.; Lon. 74° W. New York Bay forms one of the finest harbors in 
the world, being easy of access, protected from storms, deep enough to 
admit the largest ships, and capable of containing a thousand vessels at 
once. There is no city in the world which possesses greater advan¬ 
tages of situation for commerce both foreign and internal. Its vast line 
of canals, stretching back in all directions, have increased its natural 
advantages, and rendered it the great mart where the merchant and the 
trader can procure or dispose of all articles of merchandise. Its facili¬ 
ties of communication with all parts of the world, render it the great 
thoroughfare of the country. 

The ground on which the city is built slopes gradually down on each 
side to the North and East Rivers, and the appearance on approaching 
it from the sea is very fine. In the older part of the city the streets are 
crooked and narrow, but the greater part is well laid out, with more 
regard to beauty and convenience. Broadway, the principal street, is 
80 feet wide, and 3 miles in length, traversing the whole city from north 
to south. The Battery is a pleasant public walk, on the shore of the 
bay, commanding an extensive view of the harbor, and of the opposite 
or Jersey shore. The Park in the centre of the city, is a triangular 
enclosure of 11 acres, and there are several other squares. Among 
the public buildings are the City Hall, a handsome marble edifice, 216 
feet by 105, the Exchange, the Cathedral, upwards of 130 churches, 
&c. At Bellevue on East River are the alms-house, an hospital and a 
penitentiary. The new penitentiary is on Blackwell’s island in the 
same river. The New York Hospital is a well regulated institution 
with a library of 3,000 volumes. Among the literary and scientific 
institutions are Columbia College, the Lyceum of Natural History, the 
Academy of Fine Arts, the National Academy of Design, &c. The 


NEW YORK. 


57 

Society Library contains upwards of 22,000 volumes, and the Historical 
Society has a library of 10,000 volumes. The charitable societies in 
New York are numerous and well supported. The American Bible 
Society issued 115,000 Bibles during the year 1832; the Tract Society 
published 5,471,750 tracts; the Home Missionary Society supported 500 
missionaries, and the Education Society gave aid to 673 young men. 

The foreign and internal commerce of the city are both extensive. 
During the year 1831 there arrived from foreign ports 1,634 vessels, 
and the annual value of the imports amounts to $ 50,000,000, and that 
of exports, to $ 25,000,000. Amount of shipping, 286,000 tons. The 
produce of the interior of the state, and much of that of the western 
states, is brought to the New York market, and gives rise to a series of 
extensive commercial operations. In 1831 upwards of 3,000,000 bushels 
of grain were inspected here, of the value of $ 2,300,000. There are 
above 20 banks and 40 insurance offices in the city. 64 newspapers 
are published here, of which 13 are daily papers. Population of the 
city in 1830, 202,589. 

The city of Brooklyn, on the Long Island shore of East River, has a 
population of 15,000 souls, and contains a United States navy yard. A 
few miles east of the town, the British gained a victory over the Ameri¬ 
can forces in 1776. Brooklyn contains seven churches. 

Albany, the capital, and the second city in the state for population 
and trade, is situated on the west side of the Hudson, 144 miles north 
of New York. Its wealth and commerce have been greatly increased 
by the operation of the Erie and Champlain canals, which unite near 
the city, and its situation renders it a great thoroughfare for travellers 
on the northern tour. It contains several handsome public buildings, 
among which are the Capitol, a stone edifice, standing on a fine square 
at the head of State street, 220 feet above the river; the City Hall, of 
white marble, and the Academy, of freestone, both on the same square ; 
here are also 14 churches, several banks, a theatre, museum, arsenal, 
&c. A rail road has been completed from Albany to Saratoga. Pop¬ 
ulation of the city, 24,238. 

The city of Troy, on the east bank of the Hudson, 6 miles above 
Albany, is built on a handsome plain, extending from the river to the 
foot of a range of hills, one mile distant. It is regularly laid out, and 
has an air of great neatness, many of the streets being adorned with 
fine trees. It contains the county buildings, 9 churches, and 3 banks; 
the Troy female Seminary, and the Rensselaer school for the practical 
instruction of young men, are institutions of high reputation. The 
hills in the rear furnish an extensive water power for mills, and the 
manufactures are important. The river is navigable to Troy for sloops 
and large steamboats, and its communication with the Erie arid Cham¬ 
plain canals contributes to render its trade flourishing. Population of 
the city, 11,405. 

Hudson, a city and port of entry, lies on the east bank of the Hudson, 
117 miles north of New York. The river is navigable to this place for 
ships of the largest size, and the trade of Hudson, as well as its manu¬ 
factures, is increasing. Its inhabitants have lately engaged in the whale 
fishery. The city is well laid out, and prettily situated, and its neigh¬ 
borhood affords some fine prospects. Population, 5,395. 

Schenectady, also a city, is rendered important by its situation on the 
Erie canal, and the rail roads leading to Albany and Saratoga. On 

c# 


58 


NEW YORK. 


account of the circuitous route of the canal, and the numerous locks 
below this place, much of the navigation stops at Schenectady. The 
Mohawk, which flows by the city on the north, is here crossed by a 
bridge ; here is Union College. Population, 4,258. 

Poughkeepsie, with 7,222 inhabitants, and Newburgh, with a popula¬ 
tion of 6,424, both on the Hudson, are places of considerable trade, and 
Catskill, 4,861, is much visited on account of its fine scenery. Ticon- 
deroga, and Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, contain the remains of 
old forts, celebrated in the wars of the colonies. 

Plattsburgh, on Lake Champlain, is a place of considerable trade, 
and is memorable as the scene of a victory, gained over the British land 
and naval forces, Sept. 11, 1814, by the American forces under Gen. 
Macomb and Commodore Macdonough. Population, 4,913. 

Ogdensburgh, on the St. Lawrence, is a port of entry and has a good 
harbor. Sackett’s Harbor was an important naval station during the 
late war, and there are some military works here. 

Auburn, with 4,468 inhabitants, on the outlet of O wasco lake, con¬ 
tains a state prison, the walls of which enclose 5 acres, with water power 
to carry the machinery of the prison. There is another state prison at 
Sing Sing, on the Hudson, a few miles from New York, containing 1,000 
cells for convicts, who are employed in working the marble quarries near 
the prison. In both of these prisons, the convicts are compelled to work 
together in silence during the day, but are shut up in separate cells or 
dormitories by night. 

If we now direct our attention up the valley of the Mohawk, along 
the line of the great canal, we find a number of cities and villages, 
which have grown up in the bosom of a wilderness, as if by enchant¬ 
ment. Utica, Rome, Salina, Geneva, Canandaigua, Rochester, Lockport 
and Buffalo are the principal. 

The city of Utica is situated in the centre of the state, at the point 
where the Erie canal, the Mohawk, and the great western road meet, 
on the site of old Fort Schuyler. In 1794, the spot contained only 4 or 
5 log houses; the city now (1833) has a population of upwards of 
10,000, 3 banks, 13 churches, an academy, a city library, with extensive 
manufactures, and a flourishing trade. Nine weekly newspapers are 
published here, and 116 regular stage-coaches, and 28 packet-boats 
leave the place weekly. The city is regularly laid out and well built, 
and surrounded by a fertile and picturesque country. The valley of 
the Saquoit, in which it lies, has a population of 30,000 souls on a terri¬ 
tory of 10 miles square, comprising 7 villages with 11 cotton manufac¬ 
tories, 12 saw mills, 8 gristmills, bleacheries, machine shops, woollen 
manufactories, &c., one college (Hamilton), 4 academies, upwards of 
100 common schools, and 6 higher seminaries of education. The 
charter of the city is deserving of notice, from its prohibiting the licens¬ 
ing of shops for retailing ardent spirits. 

Rome, at the head of boat navigation on the Mohawk, and at the 
junction of the waters of the Erie canal with those of Lake Ontario, 
has a population of 4,360. Here is a United States arsenal. Geneva, 
in the township of Seneca, on the lake of the same name, and Canan¬ 
daigua, near the outlet of Canandaigua lake, are flourishing villao-es. 

The city of Rochester, is situated on the Genesee, 7 miles from Lake 
Ontario, and at the end of the great aqueduct of the Erie canal, which 
here crosses that river. The advantages which it possesses in its im- 


NEW YORK. 


59 


mense water power, and its water communications in every direction, 
have made it the commercial emporium of western New York. On 
the spot which in 1812 contained a few mean houses, there is now a 
population of upwards of 12,000 souls. The manufactories consist of 
sixteen flour mills, producing 250,000 bbls. of flour annually, six wool¬ 
len and cotton manufactories, five boat building establishments, ma¬ 
chine shops, &c. There are eleven churches, two banks, three bridges 
across the Genesee, and a canal aqueduct over the same 804 feet in 
length. 

At Lockport, 30 miles east of Buffalo, the Erie canal descends from 
the Buffalo to the Genesee level, by five double locks, of 12 feet each. 
Above the locks, the canal is cut through rock to the depth of 20 feet, 
for the distance of three miles. In 1821, when the canal was laid out, 
this spot was a wilderness. Population at present 3,823. 

Buffalo is a flourishing and pleasantly situated town, at the east end 
of Lake Erie, at the head of the river Niagara, and of the Erie canal. 
The streets are wide and regular, and the harbor is good ; to prevent 
the accumulation of sand, a pier has been erected extending 1000 feet 
into the lake. The trade of Buffalo is extensive, and a vast amount of 
merchandise is brought here from the lakes and by the canal. Popu¬ 
lation in 1830, 8,653. 

19. Commerce . The internal trade of this state is assisted by the 
great lakes which form its northern boundary, and its extensive line 
of canals, which open a communication with them through the centre 
of the country. The foreign trade is transacted almost entirely through 
the medium of the city of New York, which carries on nearly one third 
part of the whole foreign commerce of the United States. The shipping 
of the Atlantic and lake ports amounts to 300,000 tons. The annual 
value of imports into the state of New York, is $ 54,000,000, of exports 
$ 26,000,000, of which 15,000,000 are of domestic produce. The ex¬ 
ports consist of wheat, maize, and other grain, pot and pearl ashes, 
beef, pork, lumber, iron and salt. The trade with Montreal and Que¬ 
bec is carried on through Lake Champlain ; the commerce of the west¬ 
ern lakes centres at Buffalo. Eighty-six steam boats navigate the 
waters of the state. 

20. Manufactures. There are in this state 200 woollen manufacto¬ 
ries producing annually $2,500,000 worth of cloth ; 112 cotton mills 
manufacturing 21 million yards of cotton, of the value of $ 3,530,000; 
200 iron works, producing annually $ 4,000,000; leather is made to 
the value of $ 3,500,000; and hats and boots and shoes to the value of 
$ 6,500,000. The total annual value of manufactures is above twenty 
million dollars, in addition to which about one and a half million 
bushels of salt are made at Salina by solar evaporation and artificial 
heat. 

21. Religion. The clergy are mostly supported by the voluntary 
contributions of their respective congregations. The Presbyterians 
and Congregationalists have 431 ministers ; Episcopalians, 118; Bap¬ 
tists, 274; Dutch Reformed, 106; Methodists, 372, and there are some 
Lutherans, Roman Catholics, Universalists, and United Brethren. The 
Shakers have two societies, one at New Lebanon, and one at Niskauna, 
in Watervliet, near Albany. 

22. Government. The present constitution was adopted in 1821. The 
Legislature consists of an Assembly and a Senate. The Assembly has 


60 


NEW JERSEY. 


128 members, and the Senate 32. The members of the Assembly are 
elected annually, and one fourth of the Senate is renewed each year. 
The Executive consists of a Governor and Lt. Governor, chosen by the 
people every two years. These officers are elected by the highest 
number of votes given, although the number may be less than a major¬ 
ity. Universal suffrage is allowed. The Legislature meets annually 
in January. 

23. Education. There are five colleges in this state: Columbia col¬ 
lege in New York city ; Union college at Schenectady; Hamilton college 
at Clinton ; Geneva college in Geneva, and Brockport college at Brock- 
port; the number of students in these five institutions is about 460. 
There are medical schools in New York and Fairfield; 64 incorporated 
academies, with 4,200 students, and 9,300 common schools, with above 
500,000 pupils. Each town is divided into school districts, in each of 
which a school is supported partly by the proceeds of the state school- 
fund, partly by a tax on the town, and partly by tuition fees. There 
are institutions for the instruction of deaf mutes in New York and at 
Canajoharie, supported chiefly at the public expense, and having 114 
pupils. The Episcopalians have a theological seminary in New York, 
the Presbyterians at Auburn, the Baptists at Hamilton, and the Luthe¬ 
rans at Hartwick. 

24. History. This part of the country was first explored by Hudson, 
an English navigator in the Dutch service, in 1609, and factories were 
established on the Hudson by the Dutch West India company at Fort 
Orange, now Albany, in 1613, and a few years after on Manhattan 
island, at New Amsterdam, now New York. New settlements were 
soon formed, and the colony received the name of New Netherlands. 
The English, however claimed the territory by right of prior discovery, 
and in 1664, Charles II, made an extensive grant to his brother the 
duke of York and Albany, which included within its bounds the colony 
of New Netherlands. Possession was taken by the agents of the duke, 
after whose accession to the throne of England, it became a part of the 
dominions of the crown, and the administration was conducted by a 
royal governor and a provincial assembly, till the revolution of 1775. 
While Canada belonged to the French, New York was the scene of 
many bloody struggles with them and their savage allies, and during 
the revolutionary war it became the theatre of several important milita¬ 
ry operations. 


IX. NEW JERSEY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. New Jersey is bounded N. by New 
York ; E. by the Hudson, which separates it from New York, and by 
the Atlantic ocean ; S. by the ocean and Delaware Bay, and W. by the 
river Delaware, which separates it from Pennsylvania and Delaware. 
It is 163 miles in length from north to south, and 52 miles in breadth, 
and contains 7,400 square miles. It lies between lat. 39° and 41° 21' 
N., and between Ion. 74° and 75° 30 / W. 

2. Mountains. There are no considerable elevations in this state. 
Branches of the Alleghanies traverse the northwestern part. One of 
the eminences in the western part of the state, called Schooley’s Moun¬ 
tain, is much resorted to in summer on account of its bold and varied 


NEW JERSEY. 


61 


scenery. Here are also mineral springs. In the northeastern part of 
the state a hilly ridge extends along the Hudson, which at Weehawken 
forms a steep, rocky precipice, 200 feet above the river. This wall of 
rock extends about 20 miles along the shore, and bears the name of the 
Palisado Rocks. 

3. Rivers. The Delaware and Hudson, which wash the eastern and 
western borders of the state, are described under the heads of New York 
and Middle States. The rivers which have their course entirely with 
the state, are small. The Passaic rises in the northern part of the state, 
and flows southeasterly into Newark Bay; it is navigable for sloops ten 
miles, and affords valuable mill sites. At Paterson it falls 72 feet from 
a precipice of rocks, but the water has been diverted into numerous 
channels for mills, so that the cascade, formerly celebrated for its 
picturesque beauty, is now seen to advantage only during the wet 
season. 

The Raritan rises in the western part of the state, and flows easterly 
into Raritan Bay at Amboy. It is navigable for vessels of 80 tons to 
New Brunswick, 17 miles. 

The Hackinsack rises in New York, and empties itself into Newark 
Bay ; it is navigable fifteen miles. Great Egg Harbor river, which runs 
into the Atlantic ocean, is navigable for large vessels for some dis¬ 
tance. 

4. Bays, Capes and Harbors. Although the state is almost surround¬ 
ed by navigable waters, it possesses few harbors. The seacoast and 
the shores of Delaware Bay present many inlets and coves, but none 
frequented by large shipping. Raritan Bay, between Sandy Hook and 
Staten Island, affords a ready communication between Amboy, the 
principal seaport in the state, and the ocean. Newark Bay, to the 
north of Staten Island, communicates with New York Bay and Raritan 
Bay. Delaware Bay washes the southwestern shore of New Jersey. 
The southern extremity of the state is Cape May, the northern point of 
the entrance into Delaware Bay. Sandy Hook, the southern cape of 
Raritan Bay, and opposite the entrance into New York Bay, is a low 
sandy island about three miles in length, and is constantly extending 
by the accumulation of sand. 

5. Climate. The greater part of New Jersey lying near the sea, and 
being low and level, must enjoy a comparatively mild climate. The 
cold is less felt here than in any part of New York or Pennsylvania. 
Nearly the whole state lies open to the influence of the sea air. 

6. Soil. In the northern parts of the state are fertile valleys, and 
extensive tracts well adapted for grazing, and for the production of all 
kinds of grain and vegetables. The soil of the middle parts is generally 
of good quality ; a part of the southern portion and of the seacoast is 
sandy, and valuable only for fuel and timber; but much of it is produc¬ 
tive. The southern section from Raritan Bay is an alluvial formation. 

7. Mineral Productions. Iron is abundant and is extensively manu¬ 
factured. Gold and sHver have been discovered, and copper mines 
were wrought before the revolution. Freestone for building, lime¬ 
stone, and marl, much used for manure, potter’s clay, fine sand, used 
in the manufacture of glass, both of which are exported in large quan¬ 
tities, and extensive beds of peat, are also found. 

8. Face of the Country. The face of the country presents every 
variety. The northern portions are hilly and mountainous, but inter- 


62 


NEW JERSEY. 


spersed with rich valleys; the middle parts are agreeably diversified, 
while the southern or alluvial section is generally level. 

9. Divisions. New Jersey is divided into 14 counties: Bergen, 
Morris, Sussex, Warren, Essex, Somerset, Hunterdon, Middlesex, 
Burlington, Monmouth, Gloucester, Salem, Cumberland and Cape 
May, which are subdivided into 120 townships. The population is 
320, 823, comprising 2,254 slaves. 

10. Canals. Morris canal, designed to connect the Pennsylvania 
coal region with New York, extends from Easton on the Delaware, 
where it is connected with the Lehigh canal, through Paterson and New¬ 
ark to the Hudson, opposite New York city, a distance of 102 miles. 
On account of the scarcity of water, inclined planes have been con¬ 
structed at some of the principal elevations on the route, upon which 
the boats are received in cars, and raised and lowered by machinery. 
The Delaware and Raritan canal extends from New Brunswick, on the 
Raritan, through Trenton to Bordentown, on the Delaware, a distance 
of 42 miles. Being designed for sloop navigation it is seven feet deep, 
and 75 feet in width. This is an important work, as it completes an 
internal water communication by sloops between New York Bay and 
Albemarle Sound. A navigable feeder extends from Bull’s island in 
the Delaware to Trenton, 23 miles. 

11. Railroads. The Amboy and Camden railroad extends from 
Amboy to Camden on the Delaware, opposite Philadelphia, a distance 
of 61 miles, over a very level route. The Paterson and Hudson rail¬ 
road extends from Paterson to Jersey City, opposite New York, 14 
miles. The New Jersey railroad extends from New Brunswick, 
through Elisabethtown and Newark, to the Hudson opposite New 
York, 30 miles. 

12. Towns. The city of Trenton, on the east bank of the Delaware, 
at the head of sloop navigation, is the capital of the state. It is regu¬ 
larly laid out, and contains the state house, state prison, and eight 
churches. A wooden bridge 1,000 feet in length here crosses the riv- 
er, just below the falls, and the Delaware and Raritan canal passes 
through the city. The falls afford extensive water power for manufac¬ 
turing purposes, and there are ten mills and manufactories in the vicin¬ 
ity. Trenton is memorable in the history of the revolution, for the 
victory gained over the British and Hessians by Washington, Dec. 26th 
1776. Crossing the Delaware in the midst of a violent snow-storm, he 
surprised and captured a detachment of the hostile forces, stationed at 
this place. Population 3,925. 

Newark, one of the prettiest towns in the United States, is a flour¬ 
ishing manufacturing town, on the Passaic, which is here navigable 
for sloops, and on the Morris canal. It contains the county building 
three banks, 12 churches, and has extensive manufactories of leather 
harness, shoes, carriages, hats, and house-furniture, to the value of 
about $3,000,000 a year. Freestone is quarried in the vicinity, and 
the Newark cider, made in the neighborhood, is noted for its excel¬ 
lence. Population in 1830, 10,953 ; at present (1833) it is about 15,000. 

New Brunswick, on the Raritan at the head of sloop navigation, and 
at the termination of the Raritan and Delaware canal, is a place of 
considerable trade. It contains the county buildings, seven churches, 
the halls of Rutger’s college, and a theological seminary of the Dutch 
Reformed Church. Population 7,831. 


NEW JERSEY. 


63 


Paterson, one of the principal manufacturing towns in the country, 
is situated at the great falls of the Passaic, which afford an immense 
water power, that has been extensively applied to manufacturing pur¬ 
poses. There are 20 cotton manufactories, in which large quantities 
of cotton duck are made, seven machine shops, iron and brass founde- 
ries, a rolling and slitting mill, a nail manufactory, woollen manufacto¬ 
ries, &c. The town contains ten churches; the Paterson and Hudson 
railroad terminates here. Population in 1830, 7,731; at present (1833) 
about 10,000. 

Rahway is a thriving manufacturing village with silk and cotton 
printing works, bleaeheries, and carriage, leather and cabinet manufac¬ 
tories. Population 3,000. 

Elisabethtown is a pretty village near Newark Bay. Population 
3,451. Burlington and Bordentown are pleasantly situated on the Del¬ 
aware; Longbranch, on the seacoast, is much resorted to during the 
summer for bathing; Amboy or Perth Amboy has a good harbor and 
lies on the route from New York to Philadelphia. Steamboats, con¬ 
nected with the Amboy and Camden railroad, run from here to New 
York. Princeton, ten miles north of Trenton, contains the college of 
New Jersey, and a Presbyterian theological seminary. January 3d 1777. 
a detachment of British troops was captured here by Washington. 
Population 1,100. 

13. Agriculture. The people of this state are chiefly engaged in 
agriculture and manufactures, but few being employed in commerce. 
The soil in the northern, and most of the western parts of the state is 
well improved ; its extensive meadows support numerous cattle for the 
markets of New York and Philadelphia, and the lands in the vicinity 
of those cities produce great quantities of fruit and vegetables. The 
lime of the northern, and marl of the middle portions of the state, have 
been successfully used to improve the quality of the soil. Wheat, rve, 
maize, buckwheat, and barley are staple commodities. Large quanti¬ 
ties of excellent butter and cheese are made, and fruits of all kinds are 
abundant. The Newark cider and Burlington hams have much celeb¬ 
rity. 

14. Manufactures. The manufactures are extensive and flourishing. 
They are chiefly of iron, cotton, woollen, paper, leather, carriages, 
shoes, &c., large quantities of which are exported. Iron is the most 
important article of manufacture, and there are numerous forges, fur¬ 
naces, and rolling and slitting mills. There are thirteen glass works 
in the state. Newark and Paterson are the two principal manufactur¬ 
ing towns. There are extensive bleaching and printing works, and 
rolling mills, at Belleville, and Rahway. 

15. Commerce and Fisheries. The foreign trade of New Jersey be¬ 
ing carried on chiefly through the ports of New York and Philadel¬ 
phia, its amount cannot be accurately ascertained. The amount of 
shipping is 32,000 tons. The shad fishery is prosecuted extensively 
both upon the seacoast and in the Delaware. 

16. Government. The legislature consists of two bodies, the Legisla¬ 
tive Council and the General Assembly, both chosen annually ; the for¬ 
mer is composed of one member from each county, the latter of 50 
members chosen by the counties in different numbers from one to five. 
The governor is chosen annually, and, as is the case with most of the 
executive and judicial officers, by the two houses of legislature. The 


64 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


constitution provides that all persons of full age worth 50 pounds pro¬ 
clamation money, shall have the right of suffrage ; but the legislature 
have prohibited females and negroes from exercising this right, and 
declared that every white male inhabitant who shah have paid a tax, 
shall be considered as worth fifty pounds, and be entitled to vote. 

17. Religion. The most numerous sects are Presbyterians and 
Methodists". The Dutch Reformed, Baptists, Friends and Episcopa¬ 
lians are also numerous, and there are some Roman Catholics and 
Congregationalists. 

18. Education. There are two colleges in this state. The college 
of New Jersey or Nassau Hall at Princeton, has ten instructors, a library 
of 8,000 volumes, philosophical apparatus, &c. Rutger’s college at 
New Brunswick was founded by the Dutch Reformed Church, which 
has also a theological seminary in the same place. The Presbyterians 
have a theological seminary at Princeton. The state has a school fund, 
the income of which, amounting to $ 20,000, is annually distributed 
among the towns, which raise a sum equal to that allowed them, for 
the support of common schools. The system of education in these 
schools has been extremely defective, but measures have recently been 
taken to improve it. 

19. History. Some settlements were made by the Swedes, at an early 
period, in the southern part of the state near Salem, where some of their 
descendants are still found, and some names of places given by them 
are retained. Dutch emigrants occupied the northeastern parts, which 
were included within the limits of New Netherlands. The whole 
country was then comprised in the graut made to the duke of York in 
1664, and in 1676 was by him set off to two different proprietors, who 
held both the property of the soil and the powers of government, under 
the names of East Jersey and West Jersey. In 1702 the proprietors 
of the Jerseys surrendered the powers of government to the British 
crown, and they thenceforward formed one government. During the 
war of the revolution, this state was the scene of some arduous and in¬ 
teresting conflicts. Washington conducted a skilful retreat through 
New Jersey in 1776, before superior British forces, and the brilliant 
affairs of Trenton, Princeton and Monmouth, in the following year, took 
place within her borders. 


X. PENNSYLVANIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Pennsylvania is bounded north by Lake 
Erie and New York; E. by the river Delaware, which separates it from 
New York and New Jersey ; S. by Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, 
and W. by Virginia and Ohio. It extends from 39° 43' to 42° i6' N. 
Lat., and from 74° 40' to 80° 36' W. Lon. Its greatest length is 315 
miles, and general breadth 168, with an area of 47,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. Pennsylvania is traversed by numerous branches of 
the great Alleghany or Appalachian system of mountains, which occu¬ 
py nearly one seventh part of the superficies of the state. The princi¬ 
pal chains are as follows: 1. The South Mountain enters the state from 
New Jersey between Northampton and Bucks counties, and, after 
being interrupted by the Schuylkill above Pottstown, and by the Sus- 
quehannah near the southern border of the state, it passes into Mary- 


65 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

land. 2. The Blue Ridge enters Pennsylvania below Easton, where it 
is pierced by the Delaware; pursuing a southwesterly direction, it 
is interrupted by the Schuylkill at Reading, by the Susquehannah 
below Harrisburg, and passes out of the state between Adams and 
Franklin counties. The elevation of the former ridge nowhere exceeds 
1,000 feet in this state; that of the latter is somewhat more. 3. The 
Blue Mountain or Kittatinny, also enters this state from New Jersey, 
and is broken by the Delaware, the Lehigh, the Schuylkill, and the 
Susquehannah, 5 miles above Harrisburg. It then passes between 
I’ rankjin and Bedford counties, into Maryland. Its elevation in Penn¬ 
sylvania varies from 800 to 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. Be¬ 
tween the Kittatinny mountain and the north branch of the Susquehan¬ 
nah river, a distance of about 35 miles, is the great anthracite region of 
Pennsylvania. 4. The Broad Mountain which lies in the intervening 
space between the Kittatinny Mountain and the Susquehannah, forms 
a less continuous, but more elevated chain than the last mentioned. It 
appears to be continued southwest of the Susquehannah, by the Tusca- 
rora mountains, which are pierced by the Juniatta between Mifflin and 
Perry counties, and to pass into Maryland a little west of the Kittatinny 
chain. 5. The next well defined chain is the Alleghany mountain, 
which forms the dividing ridge between the Atlantic basin and the 
Ohio valley. It is, therefore, ihe height of land between those two 
basins, although its summits do not rise to so great an elevation above 
its base, as do those of the Broad Mountain, above the base of that 
chain. The Alleghany rises in Bradford county, is pierced by the 
north branch of the Susquehannah below Towanda, traverses Lyco¬ 
ming county, where it crosses the west branch of the Susquehannah, and 
pursuing a southerly course, separates Huntingdon and Bedford from 
Cambria and Somerset counties. Westward of the Alleghany chain, 
and on the Ohio slope, two well defined chains cross the state from 
north to south, in a direction nearly parallel to that of the first mention¬ 
ed, underthe names of (6) the Chestnut ridge about 25 miles west of the 
Alleghanies, and (7) Laurel ridge, 10 miles further west. Neither of 
these chains is very elevated. 

3. Valleys. The valleys of the Susquehannah and its branches are 
remarkably irregular. These streams traverse the whole width of the 
Appalachian chain of mountains, sometimes flowing in wide valleys 
between parallel ranges, for 50 or 60 miles in a pretty direct course, 
and at other times breaking through the mountain ridges. The val¬ 
leys between the different ranges of the great chain extending through¬ 
out the whole state, are often 20 or 30 miles in width, with a hilly or 
broken surface. 

4. Rivers. The Delaware washes the eastern limit of the state, and 
is navigable for ships from the sea to Philadelphia. On the western 
side it receives the Lehigh at Easton, which flows 75 miles in a south¬ 
easterly course, nearly half of it being navigable. Six miles below 
Philadelphia, it receives the Schuylkill, which flows also southeasterly 
130 miles; it is navigable for boats 90 miles, but at Philadelphia it is 
crossed by a dam belonging to the water works, and there are falls 5 
miles above. 

The Susquehannah, the principal river of Pennsylvania, is formed 
by the junction of two main branches, the Northern and Western, at 
Northumberland. The former rises in New York, where the Chcnan- 


66 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


go and the Tioga, are its head streams. The latter comes from the 
western part of Pennsylvania. After receiving its principal tributary, 
the Juuiatta, 10 miles above Harrisburg, it flows into Chesapeake bay. 
Its whole course is about 450 miles, but it is so much obstructed by 
falls and rapids as to afford a sloop navigation of only 5 miles. Great 
quantities of lumber and produce are, however, brought down the 
stream by rafts and arks. 

The Alleghany rises in the northern part of Pennsylvania, and flows 
northerly into New York, whence it takes a southwesterly direction 
into Pennsylvania, and unites with the Monongahela below Pittsburg. 
Its course is 350 miles, and it is navigable for boats 200. The Monon¬ 
gahela has its source in the northwestern part of Virginia, and has a 
course of 250 miles, a great part of which is navigable for boats. The 
Yougliiogeny its principal tributary is a considerable stream. The 
Ohio has a short part of its course in this state. 

5. Climate. The elevated mountain region of the interior has severe 
winters, and frosts during the greater part of the year. The western 
section, being nowhere at a less elevation than 600 feet above the sea, 
is somewhat colder than the eastern, which sinks down nearly to the 
level of the ocean. In both of these sections, the rivers are commonly 
frozen over for about 40 days, and the period between the spring and 
autumn frosts, does not exceed 4 months. The prevailing winds are 
from westerly points. 

6. Soil. Over a surface of so great extent, and of such a variety of 
level, the soil must be very various, but in general it may be character¬ 
ised as fertile. The anthracite region, however, which is composed 
chiefly of rugged hills and narrow valleys, is sterile. Many of the 
mountains admit of cultivation to their summits, and the valleys be¬ 
tween them are often of a rich soil, suited to the various kinds of grass 
and grain. West of the mountains the soil is a deep mould, equal 
in fertility to any part of the United States. To the east of the moun¬ 
tains the soil is also excellent, and the whole state is well watered. 

7. Mineral Productions. Iron ore is very extensively disseminated, 
and has been largely wrought. Coal is, next to iron, the most widely 
diffused, and most valuable mineral, and is found of two sorts. The 
anthracite coal, known under the various names of Lehigh, Broad 
Mountain, Schuylkill, Lackawana, &c., derived from its various locali¬ 
ties, is found in immense beds on the eastern side of the Alleghany 
chain, principally between the Blue Ridge and the Northern branch of 
the Susquehannah. The bituminous coal is found in the great western 
section of the state beyond the Alleghany, of excellent quality and in 
inexhaustible quantities. Limestone is abundant in all parts of the 
state, and in the southeastern counties furnishes a fine marble, which 
has been much used for architectural purposes. Copper, lead and 
alum appear in some parts of the state, and there are some salt springs 
in the western section. 

8. Vegetable Productions. The trees natural to the soil are the 
beech, hemlock, and sugar-maple, the oak, hickory and elm, chestnut, 
mulberry and locust. The wild plum and crab apple grow in abun¬ 
dance, and grapes are common. 

9 . Mineral Springs. The Bedford springs, 200 miles west of Phila- 
delphia, are chalybeate. They contain less carbonic acid or fixed air, 
than the Ballston waters, and are slightly impregnated with Epsom salt. 
I here are also chalybeate springs in York county. 



















VIEWS IN THE UNITED STATES 





































































































































































VIEWS IN THE UNITED STATES 




CHARLOTTESVILLE COLLEGE, V IR 
















































































' 














PENNSLYVANIA. 


67 


10. Face of the country. The mountain area, which is about 150 
miles wide, may be considered as an elevated table land, with summits 
rising above the general level. The eastern and western parts of the 
state are generally level or agreeably diversified with hills and vales. 

11. Divisions. Pennsylvania is divided into 53 counties,* which are 
subdivided into 651 townships and 3 cities. Population in 1830, 
1,348,233, of which 37,930 were free blacks, and 403 slaves. 

12. Canals. Pennsylvania canal which was undertaken at the ex¬ 
pense of the state in 1826, includes a number of canals, running in 
different directions and known by different names. It consists of five 
divisions; 1. the transverse division begins at Columbia, where the rail¬ 
road from Philadelphia, 82 miles in length, terminates, and runs up the 
Susquehannah, to the mouth of the Juniatta, 44 miles; up that river to 
Huntingdon, 89 miles, and thence to Holidaysburg, 39 miles. Here it 
meets the Alleghany Portage railroad which extends to Johnstown, 37 
miles. The canal then runs from Johnstown down the Kiskimenitas 
or Conemaugh, and Alleghany, to Pittsburg 105 miles. The whole 
length of the line, including canals and railroads, is about 400 miles. 
2. The middle division extends from the mouth of the Juniatta up the 
Susquehannah by the Northern Branch, to the boundary line of New 
York, 204 miles. 3. The West Branch division from Northumberland, 
runs up the valley of the West Branch of the Susquehannah to the 
mouth of the Bald Eagle creek, 68 miles. 4. The Eastern or Delaware 
division, beginning at Easton on the Delaware, terminates at Bristol, a 
distance of 60 miles. 5. The Western or Ohio and Lake Erie division 
is to extend from Pittsburg to Erie on the lake, 168 miles. 

The principal canals constructed by private companies are J. The 
Schuylkill canal, extending from Philadelphia up the river to Mount 
Carbon. It comprises 31 dams, 125 locks, 17 aqueducts, and a tunnel 
450 feet long cut through solid rock. Length 110 miles. % Union 
Canal connects the waters of the Schuylkill at Reading, with those of the 
Susquehannah at Middletown, and thus unites the Schuylkill and Penn¬ 
sylvania canals. Length 80 miles; summit level at Lebanon 311 feet; 
the summit reservoirs are supplied with water from the Swatara, by 
pumping with steam engines. 3. The Lackawaxen canal begins at the 
termination of the Delaware and Hudson canal, and unites with a rail¬ 
road at Honesdale; length 36 miles. Great quantities of Lackawana 
coal are brought down this canal. 4. Lehigh canal extends from 
the termination of Morris canal at Easton, to Stoddartsville where the 
Mauch Chunk railroad begins: 46 miles in length. 5. Conestoga 


* Adatns 

Clearfield 

Juniatta 

Philadelphia 

Alleghany 

Columbia 

Lancaster 

Potter 

Armstrong 

Crawford 

Lebanon 

Pike 

Beaver 

Cumberland 

Lehigh 

Schuylkill 

Bedford 

Dauphin 

Luzerne 

Somerset 

Berks 

Delaware 

Lycoming 

Susquehannah 

Bradford 

Erie 

M ’Kean 

Tioga 

Bucks 

Fayette 

Mercer 

Union 

Butler 

Franklin 

Mifflin 

Venango 

Cambria 

Greene 

Montgomery 

Warren 

Carroll 

Huntingdon 

Northumberland 

Washington 

Centre 

Indiana 

Northampton 

Wayne 

Chester 

Jefferson 

Perry 

W estmoreland 
York 


68 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


canal passes from Lancaster down the Conestoga creek to the Susque- 
hannah, 18 miles. 6. Conewago canal surmounts a fall in the Susque- 
h an nab by a lockage of 21 feet. 

13. Railroads. Pennsylvania railroad is composed of two divi¬ 
sions, united by a canal navigation already described of 172 miles. 
The eastern division extends from Philadelphia through Lancaster to 
Columbia on the Susquehannah,82 miles. It passes the Schuylkill by 
a viaduct 984 feet in length; the principal summit is at Mine Hill 
600 feet high. The western division called the Alleghany Portage rail¬ 
road reaches from Holidaysburg to Johnstown 36 miles. The Allegha¬ 
ny chain, which is here about 1,350 feet above the canal, is surmount¬ 
ed by means of 10 inclined planes, 5 on each side of the mountain ; a 
tunnel 900 feet in length passes through a part of the mountain. A 
great number of railroads lias been constructed by incorporated com¬ 
panies, mostly for the transportation of coal. The Mauch Chunk road 
extends from the coal mines at Mauch Chunk to the Lehigh, a distance 
of 9 miles, beside which there are several branches. The mines are at 
an elevation of 936 feet above the Lehigh, at the point where the coal 
is delivered. The road rises within half a mile of the mine 46 feet, 
which ascent is surmounted by horse power. Thence it forms an in¬ 
clined plane to its termination, down which the loaded cars descend by 
their own gravity : a single conductor, seated in one of the cars, guides 
a train of 14. The empty wagons are then drawn back by mules, 
which had been carried down in the cars. 

Mount Carbon railroad extends from Mount Carbon on the Schuyl¬ 
kill canal through Pottsville ; length, including two branches, 7£ miles. 
The Central railroad is a continuation of this work from Pottsville to 
Danville by the way of Sunbury, 54 miles. Connected with these is 
the Mill creek road from Port Carbon to Mine Hill; main line 4 miles, 
with 9 branches of 5 miles in length. The Mine Hill railroad extend¬ 
ing from Schuylkill Haven is also connected with the Central road; 
length, including a branch road, 15 miles. 

Little Schuylkill road extends from Port Clinton, 23 miles, to Tama- 
qua, and Schuylkill valley road from the head of Schuylkill canal to 
Tuscarora, 10 miles, with 20 branches, making an aggregate of 12 miles. 
The Philadelphia and Trenton railroad, 30 miles, connects those two 
cities, running along the western bank of the Delaware. The West 
Chester railroad extends from the Pennsylvania railroad at Paoli to 
West Chester, 9 miles. The Philadelphia and Norristown road extends 
up the Schuylkill 19 miles. The Lackawaxen railroad is a continua¬ 
tion of the Lackawaxen canal, and extends from Honesdale to Carbon- 
dale, 16i miles. It reaches the summit of Moosic Mountain, 920 feet 
above the Carbondale mines, by 7 inclined planes, over which the cars 
are drawn by stationary engines, and thence descends to Honesdale 
913 feet, by three planes. 

Beside the roads here enumerated, there are many others actually 
* completed, in progress or projected. 

14. Towns. Philadelphia, the second city in the United States, is 
situated between the Schuylkill and Delaware, 5 miles, above their 
junction, and 120 miles from the sea by the course of the latter. The 
ground on which it stands is an almost unbroken level, so that its ap¬ 
pearance is not very striking, as you approach it. The city is regularly 
laid out, with broad and strait streets, and a number of squares have 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


69 


been reserved, which are planted with trees. The main streets, running 
east and west from the Delaware to the Schuylkill, are 14 in number, 
and are crossed at right angles by 25 running from north to south. 
They are from 69 to 113 feet wide, paved with round stones, kept very 
clean, and bordered on both sides by wide footways paved with brick. 
Numerous smaller streets and alleys divide the different squares; the 
whole number is 600. The Delaware is navigable to Philadelphia for 
the largest merchant ships; the Schuylkill is here crossed by 2 bridges, 
one of which is remarkable for the length of its arch, which is 340 feet 
span, and rests on abutments of stone. 

For municipal purposes several corporate governments have been 
established, so that Philadelphia is divided into the following districts; 
the city proper; the Northern Liberties, Spring Garden and Kensington 
to the north; and Southwark and Moyamensing to the south. The 
population of the city and suburbs is 167,811. The dwelling houses in 
Philadelphia are neat and commodious, and many of them handsomely 
ornamented. Among the public buildings are some of the handsomest 
edifices in the country. The United States bank, and the Pennsylvania 
bank are beautiful specimens of classical architecture ; the former is a 
Doric temple on the model of the Parthenon, and both are built of 
white marble. The new mint is a splendid building faced wifh 
white marble, presenting a front of 122 feet, which is divided into an 
Ionic portico 62 feet long, and 2 wings of 30 feet each. The Marine 
Asylum is a handsome edifice 386 feet long, with wings of 148 feet 
each, and an Ionic portico of 8 columns, 90 feet in length. The Ex¬ 
change is a beautiful structure of white marble. Girard College is a 
magnificent edifice of white marble with a Corinthian colonnade run¬ 
ning quite round it. Philadelphia contains about 100 churches, the 
Pennsylvania Hospital, in which is West’s painting of Christ healing 
the sick, an Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, the Pennsylvania Uni¬ 
versity, the medical school of which has acquired great celebrity, three 
prisons, of which one styled the Eastern Penitentiary is equally re¬ 
markable for its architecture and its discipline, a great number of char¬ 
itable and literary institutions, 3 theatres, &c. The city library founded 
by Frauklin now comprises 30,000 volumes, exclusive of the Loganian 
collection of 11,000 volumes. Peale’s Museum has a good collection 
of objects of natural history. The State House is memorable as the 
spot where the Declaration of Independence was adopted, the Congress 
then holding its sessions here. The Eastern Penitentiary consists of a 
wall of granite 30 feet high, with towers rising to the height of 80 feet, 
and a principal front 670 feet in length. The style of architecture is 
of the Norman military order, and the appearance is imposing. The 
area enclosed is 10 acres; in the centre of this space is an observatory, 
from which diverge seven ranges of cells, forming seven corridors, on 
each side of which the cells are disposed. Connected with each cell is 
an exercising yard, in which the prisoner is allowed to pass a certain 
portion of the day. Thus the prisoners are entirely separated from 
each other, not only at night as in the Auburn prison, but during the 
day, each prisoner being supplied with work in his own cell. 

The city is supplied with pure and wholesome water from the 
Schuylkill by the Fairmount water-works, the most remarkable work 
of the kind in the country. The Schuylkill is dammed up, and the 
water raised by means of pumps, worked by water wheels into two 


70 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


reservoirs, 56 feet above the highest ground in the city, and holding 
about 30,000,000 gallons. From them it is conveyed through iron 
pipes into all parts of the city. The whole extent of pipes is about 60 
miles; the daily consumption of water in summer is about 3,000,000 
gallons. 

In Philadelphia and the vicinity, there are extensive manufactures 
of various kinds. The internal trade of the city is very great, particu¬ 
larly with the western states. About halt a million ot barrels ot flour 
are inspected here yearly. The foreign commerce of Philadelphia is 
also considerable. The shipping belonging to the port amounts to 
about 80,000 tons. The United States have a navy-yard here. 

Pittsburg, in the western part of the state, is the next city in impor¬ 
tance to Philadelphia. It stands upon a point of land at the junction of 
the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, which here take the name of 
Ohio. It is built on a regular plan upon the slope of an eminence, and 
a level plain at its foot. It is finely situated for trade, and enjoys a 
communication by steamboats with all the great towns on the Ohio and 
Mississippi; but it is most distinguished for its large and flourishing 
manufactures of glass, iron, woollen and cotton. The surrounding 
country is exceedingly rich in bituminous coal, which is delivered at 
the houses for three cents the bushel. The constant use of this fuel 
causes a perpetual cloud of black smoke to hang over the place. The 
suburbs, Birmingham and Alleghany, lie on the opposite sides of the 
two rivers, and communicate with the city by bridges. 

The city contained in 1830, 12,568 inhabitants, but with the suburbs, 
its population is now estimated to exceed 20,000. Here are 13 churches, 
the Western University of Pennsylvania, a state prison, &c. The whole 
number of manufacturing establishments is about 275, among which 
are 11 iron founderies, 6 rolling mills and nail works, 4 cotton manu¬ 
factories, flour and saw mills, &c., worked by 89 steam engines. The 
annual value of the manufactured articles is about $ 3,000,000. A steam 
engine, which raises water from the Alleghany can furnish a supply of 
1,500,000 gallons daily. 

Harrisburg, the seat of government, is situated on the Susquehannah, 
near the eastern skirt of the mountainous region. Its plan is regular, 
and the site level. The state house occupies an elevation overlooking 
the town, and is a large and elegant building. Population 4,311. 

Reading, upon the Schuylkill, is a manufacturing and trading town, 
peopled in a great measure by Germans. It is particularly distinguish¬ 
ed for the manufacture of hats. The town is regularly built, and its 
business is thriving. The Union canal commences in this neighbor¬ 
hood. Population 5,859. 

The city of Lancaster, on a branch of the Susquehannah, is also 
chiefly inhabited by Germans. It has considerable manufactures, and 
is regarded as one of the handsomest towns in the Middle states. The 
surrounding country is celebrated for the excellence of its soil, and its 
high state of cultivation. The farms are generally large, and managed 
with great skill. Population 7,704. 

Bethlehem, the principal settlement of the Moravians, stands <5n the 
Lehigh, and occupies a fine situation rising from the river, which is 
here crossed by a bridge. The town is closely built upon 3 streets, and 
contains a large Gothic church of stone, and a female seminary. The 
burial ground in the neighborhood is very neatly laid out with alleys 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


71 


and rows of trees. Population 2,430. Nazareth is another Moravian 
town, 10 miles from Bethlehem, and is the spot at which these people 
first settled in this country. 

Easton, on the Delaware, at the mouth of the Lehigh, is a handsome 
town, regularly laid out around an open square. Three canals, which 
unite at this point, secure to the place a flourishing trade. The neigh¬ 
borhood is highly fertile and picturesque, and there are bridges across 
the Delaware and Lehigh: the latter is a chain bridge. Population 
3,529. 

Eighteen miles below Pittsburg, on the W. bank of the Ohio, is the 
village of Economy, inhabited by the sect of Harmonists, under the 
direction of the celebrated Rapp. This village is neatly built with 
broad rectangular streets. The inhabitants are Germans, and, in 1831 
were about 900 in number, but many of them have recently seceded. 
They hold their property in common, and are not permitted to marry. 
They have a large cotton and woollen manufactory, breweries, &c., and 
they produce and manufacture some silks. Their agricultural produc¬ 
tions are various and abundant, and they carry on an active trade with 
the neighborhood. 

15. Agriculture . East of the mountains and especially in the neigh¬ 
borhood of Philadelphia the country is under excellent cultivation. 
The farms in the state are generally large and skilfully managed. 
Commodious farmhouses of stone or brick, and extensive barns and 
farm buildings, show the agricultural prosperity of the state. Wheat is 
the most important article of produce, but the other grains, with flax, 
hemp and potatoes are extensively cultivated. The fruits are abun¬ 
dant and excellent. 

16. Commerce. Philadelphia enjoys nearly all the foreign commerce 
of the state. This chiefly consists in the export of the productions 
above mentioned. The coasting trade also of this port is considerable. 
A great internal trade is carried on between Philadelphia and the West, 
across the mountains, by means of the Pennsylvania railroad and canal. 
There is also a port at Presqu’ Isle, on Lake Erie, which has some 
trade. The annual value of the imports is $ 12,000,000; of exports, 
five and a half millions, of which three and a half are of domestic pro¬ 
duce. 

17. Manufactures. Pennsylvania is the first state in the Union for 
manufactures. Those of iron are the most important, and are of great 
variety, from the heaviest machinery to the finest cutlery. Pittsburg and 
Philadelphia are the centres of the most extensive manufactures. At 
York are a bell foundery and manufactories of cutlery; wrapping paper 
is made from straw at Meadville; glass is manufactured at Bethany, 
cutlery at Chambersburg, woollen and cotton goods at Manayunk, &c. 
In the western part of the state, salt is made at various places from salt 
springs. The most important salt-works are at Conernaugh; the 
strongest brine is obtained by boring to the depth of from 400 to 500 feet. 

18. Government. The legislature is called the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The senators 
are chosen for 4 years, and the representatives annually. The suffrage 
is universal. The Governor is chosen for 3 years by a popular vote. 

19. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are chiefly of British and German 
descent, and though the English is the prevalent language, yet there 
are some counties where the German prevails to a considerable extent; 


72 


DELAWARE. 


German newspapers and almanacs are published for their use, and, 
in some places, the public worship is conducted in the German lan¬ 
guage. 

20. Religion. The Presbyterians are the most numerous sect, and 
there are many Baptists, Methodists, and German Reformed. Episco¬ 
palians, Dutch Reformed, Lutherans, and Friends are numerous; the 
United Brethren or Moravians have 15 congregations, and there are 
some Unitarians, Roman Catholics, Universalists, Seceders, Covenant¬ 
ers, and Jews. 

21. Education. There are eight colleges in this state; the university 
of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia; the western university at Pittsburg; 
Dickinson college at Carlisle ; Jefferson college at Canonsburg; Wash¬ 
ington college at Washington ; Alleghany college at Meadville ; Madi¬ 
son college at Union Town ; and Mount Airy college at Germantown, 
and there are numerous academies. But elementary education has been 
very much neglected, except in the cities of Philadelphia and Lancas¬ 
ter, not more than one third of the children, between the ages of 5 and 
15, being at school. There are a law school, and two medical schools, 
one connected with Pennsylvania university, and the other with Jeffer¬ 
son college, in Philadelphia, and theological seminaries at Gettysburg 
(Lutheran), York (German Reformed), and at Alleghany Town (Pres¬ 
byterian). 

22. Histoiy. This country, in which some Swedes had settled, was 
annexed by the Dutch to their colony of New Netherlands and shared 
its fate. In 1682, the property of the soil and powers of government 
were granted to William Penn, and settlements were soon made under 
his direction. A number of Friends were the first colonists, and Penn 
came over the next year and laid out the city of Philadelphia. During 
the French war of 1755, the western part of Pennsylvania was the 
theatre of hostilities between the English and French, and Gen. Brad- 
dock, at the head of a body of English and colonial troops, was defeat¬ 
ed, in an expedition against Fort Duquesne, a French fortress on the 
spot where Pittsburg now stands. During the revolutionary war east¬ 
ern Pennsylvania became the scene of military operations. Philadel¬ 
phia was occupied by the British in 1777, and the Americans made an 
unsuccessful attack on the British camp at Germantown. The propri¬ 
etary government of the colony continued till the period of the revolu¬ 
tion. The present constitution was formed in 1790. 


XI. DELAWARE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Delaware is bounded N. by Pennsylva¬ 
nia ; E. by the river and bay of Delaware and the ocean, and S. and 
W. by Maryland. It is the smallest state in the Union, with the excep¬ 
tion of Rhode Island, containing but 2,120 square miles. Its length 
from north to south is 92 miles ; its width from 10 to 36 miles. It lies 
between 38° 27' and 39° 50' N. Lat., and between 75° and 75° 43' W. 
Long. 

2. Face of the Country. The general aspect of this state is that of an 
extended plain; the northern part is somewhat broken and rough, but 
the central and southern parts present very little diversity of level. 
The general slope is towards the Delaware, as will be seen by examin- 


DELAWARE. 


73 


mg the courses of the streams ; the southwest corner, however, sends 
off the Choptank and Nanticoke toward Chesapeake Bay. A marshy 
table land divides these two sections. 

3. Rivers. The rivers are all inconsiderable streams. The Bran¬ 
dy vvine, which rises in Pennsylvania, is a fine mill stream. At Wilming¬ 
ton it receives Christiana creek from the west, and their united waters 
form the harbor of Wilmington. Duck creek, Mispillion creek and 
Indian river flow east into Delaware Bay. 

4. Bay and Cape. Delaware Bay forms the northeastern boundary, 
but affords no good harbors. Cape Henlopen is at the entrance of the 
bay, on the southwest side. A breakwater has been constructed here, 
within which vessels navigating the bay can take shelter and ride out 
storms in safety. 

5. Climate and Soil. The climate is not essentially different from 
that of New Jersey. Along the Delaware, and about ten miles in 
breadth, is a tract of rich clayey soil, which produces large timber, and 
is well adapted to tillage. An elevated ridge in the interior is swampy 
land, between which and the tract before described, the soil is thin and 
of inferior quality. Most of the southern portion is sandy. Bog iron 
ore is found in the southwestern part of the state, but is not wrought 
to any extent. 

6. Divisions. Delaware is divided into three counties, Newcastle in 
the north ; Kent in the middle, and Sussex in the south. The counties 
are subdivided into Hundreds. Population 76,748, of which 3,292 are 
slaves. 

7. Canal. The Delaware and Chesapeake canal, which leaves Del¬ 
aware River 45 miles below Philadelphia, and communicates with 
Chesapeake Bay by the river Elk, is 14 miles in length. Being adapt¬ 
ed to sloop navigation, it is 10 feet deep, and 66 feet wide. In this 
canal there is a deep cut of nearly four miles, 76 feet in depth. 

8. Railroad. The Newcastle and Frenchtown railroad is nearly 
parallel with the Delaware and Chesapeake canak It extends from 
Newcastle on the Delaware to Frenchtown in Maryland, 16£ miles, and 
is crossed by locomotive steam-engines in about 50 minutes. 

9. Towns. Wilmington, the principal town in the state, has lately 
been incorporated as a city. It is pleasantly situated near the junction 
of the Brandywine and Christiana, and is well laid out. It contains 13 
churches, three banks, a United States arsenal, and a poor-house. 
The city is supplied with water by hydraulic works, from the Brandy¬ 
wine. The Brandywine flour mills are the most extensive in the Unit¬ 
ed States except those of Rochester. Within ten miles of Wilmington, 
there are about 100 mills and manufactories, in which flour, cotton and 
woollen goods, iron castings, paper, and powder are produced. The 
trade of the place is extensive and flourishing. Population in 1830, 
6,628, at present about 10,000. 

The capital of the state, Dover, is a small, but regularly built town, 
containing the state house and county buildings. Population 1,300. 

Newcastle, at the termination of the railroad, and Delaware City, at 
the mouth of the Delaware and Chesapeake canal, are small villages. 

10. Agriculture. The. staple commodity is wheat, which is highly 
esteemed for the whiteness and softness of its flour. Maize, rye, barley, 
oats, buckwheat and potatoes are raised. The county of Sussex con¬ 
tains some excellent grazing land. 

4 


D 


74 


MARYLAND. 


11. Commerce and Manufactures. The foreign commerce is incon¬ 
siderable ; flour and timber from the swampy districts in the south, are 
the principal articles of export. The annual value of the imports is 
about $ 22,000 ; of exports $ 25,000. The manufactures are extensive 

12. Government. A new constitution of government was adopted in 
1831. The legislative power is vested in a General Assembly, consist¬ 
ing of a Senate and House ofRepresentatives. The former are chosen 
for four years, three from each county ; the latter for two years, seven 
from each county ; one session is held every two years. The Governor 
is elected by the people for the term of four years, and is ever after 
ineligible. The right of suffrage belongs to every white male citizen 
of the age of 22, who has resided one year within the state. 

13. Religion. The Methodists in this state have 15 preachers ; the 
Presbyterians nine ; the Baptists, nine, and the Episcopalians six. 

14. Education. The state has a school-fund, the proceeds of which 
are distributed among those school districts, which raise by taxation 
a sum equal to that which they receive from the fund. Little, however, 
has been done towards rendering the system efficient. 

15. History. This part of the country was first settled by Swedes 
and Finns, in 1627, and was called New Swedeland. The Dutch, 
however, afterward annexed it to their colony of New Netherlands, and 
with that it passed into the hands of the English in 1664. In 1682 the 
the Duke of York granted it to Penn, and it continued to form a part 
of Pennsylvania till 1776, though from 1701 with a distinct legislative 
assembly. It was generally styled till the period of the revolution, the 
Three Lower Counties upon Delaware. 


XII. MARYLAND. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Maryland is bounded N. by Pennsylva¬ 
nia;* E. by Delaware and the Atlantic ocean, and S. and W. by Vir¬ 
ginia. It lies between Lon. 75° 10 / and 79° 20' W., and between Lat. 
38° and 39° 43' N. It comprises upwards of 12,000 square miles, of 
which about 9,350 are land. Chesapeake Bay divides it into two parts, 
locally known as the Eastern and Western Shores. 

2. Mountains and Face of the Country. The western part of Mary¬ 
land is traversed by several of the Appalachian chains, which extend 
but a short distance in this state, and are more particularly described 
under the heads of Pennsylvania and Virginia. In the counties of the 
Eastern Shore the land is low and level, and in many places covered 
with stagnant waters. On the Western Shore the land is also level up 
to the falls of the rivers. Above these it becomes hilly, and in the 
western part is mountainous. 

3. Rivers. The Potomac forms the southern boundary, and the 
Susquehannah empties itself into the Chesapeake in this state. The 
Patapsco is a small river, navigable to Baltimore. The Patuxent has a 
course of 100 miles, and is navigable for large vessels to Nottingham 
50 miles. The Nanticoke and Choptank flow into, the Chesapeake on 
the Eastern Shore. 


* The boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland, was fixed by actual 
survey in 1762 by two surveyors, of the names of Mason and Dixon, whence it is 
often called Mason and Dixon’s line. 


MARYLAND. 


75 


4. Bay and Harbors. The northern half of Chesapeake Bay lies in 
this state, and contains many fine harbors. Its eastern shore is check¬ 
ered with islands, among which Kent island, opposite Annapolis, is 
12 miles long. Along the seacoast are narrow, low islands, and shal¬ 
low pounds. 

5. Climate. The western part of Maryland rising to the height of 
2,000 feet above the sea, forms part of the elevated table-land of Penn¬ 
sylvania and Virginia, and has therefore the climate of the more north¬ 
ern states. The low country, on the other hand, has milder winters, 
and hot, moist and unhealthy summers. 

6. Soil and Productions. There is much good soil in every part of 
the state. The limestone tracts in the western section are productive 
in fruits and grain. Bituminous coal is abundant in this region. The 
eastern part is of alluvial formation, composed of clay, gravel, sand, 
shells, and decayed vegetable substances. On the low, sandy plains 
cotton is raised. Iron ore is abundant in most of the counties west of 
the Chesapeake, and is extensively wrought. 

7. Divisions. Maryland is divided into 19 counties,* with a popula¬ 
tion of 447,040, of which 52,942 are free blacks, and 102,994 slaves. 
The number of the latter is on the decrease. 

8. Canals. Port Deposit canal, ten miles in length, extends from 
Port Deposit on the east bank of the Susquehannah, to the northern 
boundary of the state, along a line of rapids. 

The Little Falls of the Potomac, three miles above Washington, are 
overcome by a canal 2£ miles long, and at Great Falls, nine miles above, 
a descent of 76 feet is overcome by five locks. 

The Chesapeake and Ohio canal is to extend from Georgetown, at 
the head of the tide in the Potomac, to the Ohio near Pittsburg, 341 
miles, with branches to Alexandria, Washington and Baltimore. It is 
completed to above Williamsport, 100 miles. Breadth from 60 to 80 
feet; depth six feet. The whole amount of lockage will be 3,215 feet. 
The summit level upon the Alleghany mountain, has an elevation of 
nearly 1,900 feet, and will pass the ridge by a tunnel of upwards of four 
miles in length. 

9. Railroads. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad will extend from 
Baltimore to Pittsburg, 325 miles. Eighty miles to Harper’s Ferry on 
the Potomac, with a branch of three miles to Frederick, have been 
completed. A summit of 1200 feet over the Alleghany Ridge, will be 
overcome by a series of inclined planes. The Oxford railroad will ex¬ 
tend from Baltimore by Port Deposit to Philadelphia. A railroad is 
now constructing from Baltimore to Washington, 33 miles. 

10. Towns. Baltimore, the third city in the United States in point 
of population, lies upon a bay which sets up from the Patapsco, and 
affords a spacious and convenient harbor. The strait between the 
bay and river is defended by Fort McHenry. Vessels of 600 tons can 
come up to Fell’s Point, which is divided from the upper part of the 
city by a narrow stream. Baltimore possesses the trade of Maryland, 


* Eastern Shore. 
Caroline, 
Cecil, 
Dorchester, 
Kent, 

Queen Anne’s; 


Somerset, 
Talbot, 
Worcester. 
Western Shore. 
Alleghany, 
Anne Arundel 


Baltimore, Prince George’s, 

CalVert, St Mary’s, 

Charles, Washington, 

Frederick, 

Hartford, 

Montgomery, 


76 


MARYLAND. 


and of a great part of Western Pennsylvania, and the Western States, and 
is the great commercial mart for Chesapeake Bay. The city is regu¬ 
larly laid out, and well built. It contains 45 churches, a state prison, 
two hospitals, three theatres, an exchange, athenaeum, two colleges, &c. 
The Catholic cathedral is a large and handsome building, and contains 
some fine paintings. The Washington Monument consists of a base 50 
feet square and 23 feet high, supporting a column, 20 feet in diameter 
at the base, and diminishing to 14 feet at the top ; on the summit rests 
a colossal statue of Washington, at a height of 163 feet from the ground. 
The Battle Monument commemorates the defeat of the British, in their 
attack on the city, in September, 1814; it is 55 feet high. Both of these 
monuments are of white marble. There are also four handsome pub¬ 
lic fountains, which furnish a copious supply of pure water. Baltimore 
is one of the greatest flour markets in the world; in its immediate 
neighborhood there are 60 flour mills. About 600,000 barrels of flour 
are inspected here annually. Manufactures of woollen and cotton, pa¬ 
per, powder, iron, alum, &c., are also carried on. Population 80,625. 

Annapolis, on the western shore of the Chesapeake, below Baltimore, 
is the seat of government. The city is pleasantly situated on the Severn, 
and is regularly laid out. It contains the* capitol, a theatre, several 
churches, and St. John’s college. Population 2,623. 

Frederick, the second city in Maryland, in wealth and population, 
lies in a pleasant and well cultivated country, on the great western road 
from Baltimore. It contains several public buildings, and has consid¬ 
erable trade with the back country, and is rapidly increasing. There 
is a branch road from the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, to Frederick. 
Population 7,255. 

Hagerstown, in the northern part of the state, is a well built and 
thriving town, and contains the county buildings, several churches, and 
an academy. The neighborhood is fertile and well cultivated. Popu¬ 
lation 3,371. 

11. Agriculture. Wheat and tobacco are the staple productions; but 
the former is much the most valuable. Some cotton of inferior quality 
is raised, and in the western counties considerable quantities of flax and 
hemp. Agriculture in general is in a low state. 

12. Commerce. The Chesapeake and its rivers afford a ready me¬ 
dium for the exportation of all the productions of the state, no part of 
which lies beyond the reach of an advantageous market. Flour and 
tobacco are the principal articles of export. The shipping owned in 
the state, amounts to about 75,000 tons. The annual value of the 
exports is four millions and a half, of which about four millions are of 
domestic production ; value of imports, five millions. 

13. Manufactures. Maryland is one of the principal manufactur¬ 
ers in the Union. There are 23 cotton manufactories, producing 
7,640,000 yards of cloth annually. Glass and paper are made in con¬ 
siderable quantities; and there are numerous woollen manufactories 
grist mills, and copper and iron rolling mills, in different parts of the 
state. The annual value of the manufactures is about twelve million 
dollars. 

14. Government. The legislature is styled the General Assembly of 
Maryland, and consists of two branches, the Senate and House of Dele- 
gates. The Senators are elected, by electors chosen by the people, for 
the term of five years. Nine Senators must be chosen from the Western, 


MIDDLE STATES. 


77 


and six from the Eastern Shore. The Delegates are chosen annually by 
the people, and the Governor and Executive Council by the Assembly. 
The right of suffrage is extended to all white male citizens, above 21 
years of age. 

15. Religion. The Roman Catholics are numerous in this state, and 
they have an archbishop, who is the metropolitan of the United States; 
their churches amount to 30 or 40. The Episcopalians have 57 preach¬ 
ers ; the Presbyterians 17; the Baptists 12; the German Reformed 9. 
There are, also, Friends, Methodists, Unitarians and Swedenborgians. 

16. Education. The principal literary seminaries are the University 
of Maryland, and St. Mary’s College, in Baltimore, St. John’s College, 
in Annapolis, and Mount St. Mary’s at Emmetsburg. There are also 
several academies in the state, and there is a school fund, the proceeds 
of which are to be distributed among such school districts, as shall erect 
school houses. Little has, however, been done towards carrying a sys¬ 
tem of elementary education into operation. 

17. History. Maryland was first settled by Catholics. That sect 
being persecuted in England, Lord Baltimore, one of its members, 
formed a plan to remove to America. He visited and explored the 
country, and returned to England, where he died while making prepa¬ 
rations for the emigration. His son obtained the grant of the territory 
designed for his father, and gave it the name of Maryland, in honor of 
Henrietta Maria, the Queen of Charles I. He appointed his brother, 
Leonard Calvert, governor of the colony, who set sail in 1633, with 200 
settlers, principally Catholics. They purchased land of the Indians, and 
formed a settlement at St. Mary’s, on the Potomac. The colony was 
increased by refugees from Virginia, and the other neighboring territo¬ 
ries, who were attracted by the toleration here given to all religions, and 
it began to flourish, but was soon disturbed by Indian wars and rebel¬ 
lions. The Catholics were tolerant to other sects, but soon found them¬ 
selves outnumbered, and became subject to the persecution which they 
had fled from at home. 

These troubles, however, were allayed at the restoration of Charles 
II. in 1660. At the revolution of 1688, the charter of the colony was 
set aside, and the government assumed by the crown ; but in 1716, the 
proprietor was restored to his rights. At the beginning of the Ameri¬ 
can revolution, the authority fell into the hands of the people. The 
existing constitution was formed in 1776. In 1814, the British landed 
in Maryland, and on their march to Washington dispersed the Ameri¬ 
cans at Bladensburg, August 24th: having ascended the Chesapeake, 
they were repulsed from Baltimore, Sept. 12th. 


XIII. MIDDLE STATES. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The five states last described form a dis¬ 
tinct geographical region, to which hds been applied the general name 
of the Middle States. This region is bounded N. by Lakes Erie and 
Ontario, the St. Lawrence, and Lower Canada; E. by New England 
and the Atlantic Ocean; S. by the Potomac and Virginia, and W. by 
Virginia and Ohio. It extends from I.at. 38° to 45° N., and from Lon. 
72° to 80 p 36' W., comprising an area of about 115,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains . These states exhibit the most extensive mountainous 


78 


MIDDLE STATES. 


tracts in the Union. The Appalachian chain spreads to its widest 
limits in Pennsylvania. None of the eminences of these mountains 
equals in height the loftiest summits of the New Hampshire ranges, but 
their general elevation is not much below that of the other mountains 
in New England. They are almost , universally covered with forests, 
and there are many -wild solitudes among them, which are seldom or 
never visited by man. In Pennsylvania, there are vast tracts among 
the mountains, where the most timid of all wild animals find a secure 
and undisturbed abode. 

3. Valleys. The great streams have generally rocky banks, with 
little interval land; but here and there extensive valleys occur. The 
broadest is that of the Hudson, which in one part of its course widens 
to the breadth of 40 miles. 

4. Rivers. This region slopes on the north to the basin of the great 
lakes, and on the west to the Ohio basin. But its principal rivers are 
on the eastern declivity of the table-land, which occupies its interior, 
and run in a southeasterly direction into the Atlantic. The most im¬ 
portant of these streams are the Hudson, the Susquehannah, and the 
Delaware ; the Susquehannah has the longest course, but is so much 
broken by its passage through the mountains, as to afford little advan¬ 
tage for navigation without artificial aid ; it drains about 28,600 square 
miles. The Delaware and Hudson are fine navigable rivers ; the latter 
has already been described. The former rises in the Catskill Moun¬ 
tains, takes a southerly course, pierces the Blue Ridge and the South¬ 
east Mountain, and meets the tide at Trenton. Its principal tributaries 
are the Lehigh and Schuylkill, from the west. Its whole course to the 
ocean is 317 miles, its estuary forming a wide and deep bay. The basin 
of the Delaware is an inclined plane, rising from the alluvial region on 
the level of the tide to the height of nearly 2000 feet, with an area of 
upwards of 11,000 square miles. Small vessels go up to Trenton, 132 
miles; above that point the navigation is impeded by shoals, but there 
are no falls, and the river is, therefore, navigable downward for boats, 
from near its source. The numerous canals which are connected with 
various points of the stream, and the working of the coal mines, have 
greatly increased the navigation on its waters. 

5. Shores and Bays. The whole seacoast from Raritan Bay, is a low, 
alluvial level, indented by shallow inlets, but affording few harbors. The 
principal bays are Raritan, Chesapeake and Delaware. The river Dela¬ 
ware, 50 miles from its mouth, gradually expands into a wide bay, from 
10 miles to 30 in width, the navigation of which is rendered somewhat 
difficult by shoals. Chesapeake Bay or the estuary of the Susquehan¬ 
nah, is a broad and deep basin, 185 miles in length, and, for a distance 
of 70 miles from the ocean, varying from 15 to 40, and above that point 
to the mouth of the Susquehannah, from five to ten miles in breadth. 
It receives a number of large rivers, which open into it with broad, bay¬ 
like mouths,, and are navigable for large vessels ; the principal are the 
Patapsco, Patuxent, Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James. In the 
main bay the depth of water is sufficient for the largest ships to the 
mouth of the Susquehannah. It affords many commodious harbors, 
and a safe and easy navigation. 

6. Lakes. The great lakes, Erie and Ontario, are important features 
in the physical character of this region, but we shall reserve them for 
our description of North America. The small lakes of New York give 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 


79 


an additional charm to the scenery of that state, and afford some ad¬ 
vantages for navigation. 

7. Climate. Although this section extends through seven degrees of 
latitude, the elevated position of the great central mass, from 800 to 
2,000 feet above the level of the sea, renders the temperature of that 
portion little different from that of the Northern States. The winters 
are cold, but less severe than in New England, and of not so long con¬ 
tinuance. In the lower region of the southeast, the summers are hotter, 
and the winters milder. The great staple of the Middle States is wheat. 

8. Soil. The soil is much better on the whole than in New England, 
although vast tracts of the land are unproductive. With such an extent 
and diversity of surface, there must, of course, be every variety. A 
small proportion of the territory only is under cultivation. 

9. Inhabitants. The population of the Middle States is composed of 
various materials, and its character is much diversified by difference of 
extraction, and various modes of education and habits of life. The 
great body is of English or British descent, but in New York and Mary¬ 
land there are many Germans, and in Pennsylvania they are so nume¬ 
rous as to constitute, in some respects, a separate community, retaining 
their own language, and being often ignorant of English. In New York 
and New Jersey, there are many descendants of the original Dutch set¬ 
tlers of New Amsterdam, and in some sections the language is partially 
spoken. After the close of the revolutionary war, the emigration from 
the New England states into New York, continued to set so strongly 
for many years, that a majority of the present population of that state 
are natives of New England, or their descendants. The whole popula¬ 
tion is a little upwards of four millions; in which number there are 
170,000 free blacks, and 109,000 slaves, chiefly in Maryland. 


XIV. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

This district is a territory of ten miles square, under the immediate 
government of Congress. It is situated on both sides of the Potomac, 
210 miles from its mouth, between Maryland and Virginia, by which 
states it was ceded to the general government, in 1790. It is divided 
into two counties, Washington and Alexandria, and contains three cities, 
Washington, Georgetown and Alexandria. The Capitol in Washington 
is in Lat. 38° 53' N., and Lon. 77° 2' W. In American works it is often 
used as a first meridian. 

The surface of the district is undulating, and the soil unproductive. 
The situation is favorable for commerce, ships of any size being able to 
come up to Alexandria, and large vessels up to the Navy Yard in Wash¬ 
ington. Population 39,834; of which 6,152 are free blacks, and 6,119 

The city of Washington became the seat of government of the United 
States in 1800. It is pleasantly situated on the left or north bank of the 
Potomac, and on the right of the Eastern Branch, 295 miles from the 
ocean by the course of the river. The city is regularly laid out, but 
only a small portion of the ground embraced within the plan, has yet 
been built upon. The principal avenues and streets are from 120 to 
160 feet wide; the others are from 70 to 110 feet. Washington is the 
residence of the President, and other chief executive officers of the fed¬ 
eral government; the Congress meets here annually, on the first Monday 


80 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 


in December; and the Supreme Court of the United States also holds 
an annual session here. The principal public buildings are the Capitol, 
the President’s house, the four offices of the executive departments, in 
its vicinity, the General Post Office, in which is the patent office, a mag¬ 
azine, arsenal, &c., belonging to the general government, and the city 
hall; 20 places of public worship, an hospital, jail, theatre, a college, &c. 
Regular lines of steamboats run on the Potomac, and numerous stage- 
coaches run to different places. There is a bridge over the Potomac to 
Alexandria ; another over Rock creek to Georgetown, and several over 
the Eastern Branch, on which stands a Navy Yard. The Capitol is a 
large and handsome structure, of the Corinthian order, and built of free 
stone painted white; it consists of a centre and two wings, with an en¬ 
tire front of 350 feet; the centre and each wing are surmounted with 
domes. On both fronts, porticoes extend the whole length of the cen¬ 
tre, which is occupied by the rotunda, 90 feet in diameter, and of the 
same height. This is ornamented with relievos, and four large paintings 
representing scenes of the revolution. A colossal statue of Washington 
is to he erected here. Adjoining it, on the west, is the hall of the library 
of Congress, 92 feet in length, by 34 in breadth, and containing 16,000 
volumes. In the north wing is the Senate chamber, beneath which is 
the hall of the Supreme Court. In the south wing is the Representa¬ 
tives’ hall, a semicircle 95 feet in length, by 60 in height, the dome of 
which is supported by 26 columns and pilasters of Potomac marble or 
breccia. The President’s house is two stories high, with a lofty base¬ 
ment, and 180 feet front, ornamented with an Ionic portico. The pop¬ 
ulation of Washington is 18,827, including 3,129 free blacks and 2,319 
slaves. But during the sessions of Congress, the city is thronged with 
strangers from all parts of the world. 

Georgetown may be considered a suburb, or part of the metropolis, 
being separated only by a narrow creek. It is about three miles west 
of the Capitol, and is pleasantly situated ; commanding a prospect of the 
river, the neighboring city, and the diversified country in the vicinity. 
The houses are chiefly of brick, and there are many elegant villas in 
different parts. The Catholic monastery occupies a delightful situation, 
upon an eminence overlooking the town: this institution contains about 
60 nuns, and embraces a high school for females, and a charity school 
of 100 pupils. Georgetown is a thriving place, and has considerable 
commerce; but the navigation of the river is obstructed by a bar just 
below the town ; here is also a cannon foundery. The Chesapeake and 
Ohio Canal reaches the Potomac at this place. Population 3,441. 

Alexandria is 6 miles below Washington, on the opposite side of the 
Potomac. The river is here a mile wide, and 30 feet deep. The city 
rises considerably from the river, and is regularly built. A row of 
wharfs extends along the river the whole length of the city, where ships 
of the largest size may lie. Alexandria has a great trade in flour, by 
means of communication with the back country, and its situation as a 
seaport. Population 8,263. 

Education. Columbia College, in Washington, was founded in 1821, 
and is under the direction of the Baptists. 

The Catholic College, in Georgetown, was established in 1799, and 
is under the direction of the incorporated Catholic clergy of Maryland. 

Religion. The Baptists have 18 churches; the Presbyterians 9; the 
Catholics 6; the Episcopalians 8; the Unitarians 1, There are also 
some Methodists. 


81 


XV. VIRGINIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Virginia is bounded N. by Pennsylvania 
and Maryland ; E. by Maryland and the Atlantic ocean; S. by North 
Carolina and Tennessee, and W. by Kentucky and the Ohio, which 
separates it from Ohio. It lies between Lat. 36° 30' and 40° 38' N., and 
between Lon. 75° 14 / and 83° 33' W. Its mean length from east to 
west, is 355 miles; its mean breadth, 185 ; superficial area about66,000 
square miles, or, according to some estimates, nearly 70,000. 

2. Mountains. Virginia is traversed by the several Appalachian 
chains, which have been already described as stretching through Penn¬ 
sylvania. 1. Southeast Mountain, which in Maryland is called the Parr 
Spring Ridge, and is broken by the Potomac, at the conical peak called 
the Sugar Loaf, enters Virginia in Loudon county, and leaves it in 
Henry county, at a distance of from 15 to 20 miles eastward of the Blue 
Ridge. 2. The Blue Ridge is broken by the Potomac, at Harper’s 
Ferry, and traverses the state in a line of about 260 miles, separating it 
into the two great divisions of Eastern 'and Western Virginia. The 
Peaks of Otter, in this chain, are the highest summits of the Appalachian 
system, southwest of the Delaware, rising to a height of 4,260 feet above 
the sea. 3. The Kittatinny chain enters the state about 20 miles fur¬ 
ther west, under the name of the North Mountain, and forming the 
centre of the great plateau or table-land of Virginia, leaves the state 
under the name of the Iron Mountains. 4. The Alleghany chain forms 
the western wall of the Virginia table-land, running parallel to the Blue 
Ridge, at a mean distance of about 43 miles. Westward of this chain 
there is a gradual slope to the bed of the Ohio, but several other chains 
traverse this section, the principal of which are (4) the Chesnut Ridge, 
and (5) the Laurel Mountains, which in the southwestern part of the 
state are known under the name of the Cumberland Mountains. 

3. Rivers. The Potomac forms a part of the northern boundary of 
the state. Its sources are in the western chain of the Appalachian 
Mountains, not far from the head waters of the Monongahela, which 
reach the ocean in the Gulf of Mexico. After receiving the Shenan¬ 
doah, which has a course of 150 miles through the great central valley, 
the Potomac breaks through the Blue Ridge at Harper’s Ferry, and 
taking a southeasterly direction, meets the tide at Georgetown. Below 
this point it expands to a wide festuary, which is navigable for 74 gun 
ships to Washington, 210 miles from Chesapeake Bay. The winding 
course of its channel renders the navigation tedious, but it is not dan¬ 
gerous. The basin of the Potomac embraces an area of 13,000 square 
miles. 

James River rises among the mountains, and flows S. E. into Chesa¬ 
peake Bay: it is more than 500 miles long, and is navigable by sloops 
150 miles, and by boats 230 miles further. At the point where this 
river breaks through the Blue Ridge, it receives a branch called North 
River; afterwards it is joined by the Appomattox at City Point; this 
branch is 130 miles long, and is for the most part navigable. The 
Rappahannock rises in the Blue Ridge, and runs into the, Chesapeake, 
after a course of 170 miles. The tide ascends to Fredericksburg, 110 
miles, to which point the river is navigable for vessels of 140 tons. The 
York is another confluent of the Chesapeake, and, like the last described 
rivers, opens into a broad bay in the lower part of its course. The 
6 D * 


82 


VIRGINIA. 


head waters of the Roanoke are in this state. Passing to the west of 
the Blue Ridge, we find the Great Kenhawa, whose most remote 
sources are between that chain and the Alleghany ridge, in North Car¬ 
olina. It flows into the Ohio after a northwesterly course of 300 miles. 

4. Bays and Harbors. The outer half of Chesapeake Bay lies in this 
state, and by its depth and extent, and the numerous fine rivers which 
it receives, is of the highest use for navigation. Most of the large towns 
are situated at a considerable distance up the rivers. Norfolk has a 
good harbor, in the southern part of the bay, near the mouth of the 
James, which here forms a spacious haven, called Hampton Roads. 
These roads were formerly open, but strong fortifications have rendered 
their entrance impracticable to an enemy. 

5. Shores and Capes. The shores are low and flat. A peninsula 
about 60 miles long, and from 10 to 15 wide, lies on the eastern side of 
the Chesapeake, and is bordered toward the sea by a string of low, sandy 
islets. The waters of the Chesapeake enter the sea, between Cape 
Charles and Cape Henry, forming a strait 15 miles in width. 

6. Climate. The extent of this state, and the varieties of its sur¬ 
face, produce a great diversity of climate. In the Atlantic countiy, 
east of the mountains, the heats of summer are long and oppressive, 
the spring is short and variable, and the winters extremely mild, the 
snow seldom lying more than a day after it has fallen. Droughts in 
summer and autumn are frequent. The people have sallow complex¬ 
ions, from the heats of summer, and bilious diseases in autumn. In 
the mountains, the air is cool and salubrious, and the inhabitants are 
tall and muscular, with robust forms and healthy countenances. Fires 
are here used during five months of the year. The heat of summer 
during the day is considerable, but the nights are always cool. On the 
western side of the mountains, the climate is colder by some degrees 
than in the same parallel of latitude on the coast. The valley of the 
Ohio is exceedingly hot in summer, while in winter, the river is frozen 
so as sometimes to be passable on the ice fpr two months together. 
The autumn is dry, temperate, and healthy. 

7. Soil. There are four distinct divisions under which we may re¬ 
gard the surface of this state. From the Atlantic coast to the head of 
tide water on the rivers, the country is low, flat, and marshy, or sandy; 
this meagre soil is covered with pines and cedars; but the banks of the 
rivers areJoamy and rich, and the vegetation in those parts, luxuriant. 
This territory is alluvial, and exhibits marine shells and bones beneath 
the surface. From the head of tide water to the Blue Ridge, the land 
begins to rise, and becomes stony and broken; the soil is much supe¬ 
rior to the lowland country. In the valley between the Blue Ridge 
and the Alleghany, we come to a limestone country; here the soil lies 
upon a bed of that rock, and is very fertile, particularly in grain and 
clover. In some parts, the soil is chalky. The western part of the 
state, or that part which lies between the mountains and the Ohio, has 
a broken surface, with some fertile tracts ; but the soil is generally lean. 

8. Face of the Country. There is little of the surface actually level, 
except the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake, and on the mouths of the 
rivers. West of the bay, the country gradually rises into hill and dale. 
The central part is a high table-land, rising in some parts into lofty and 
picturesque summits, and comprising beautiful and fertile valleys. 
Westward of the Alleghanies, the surface is mountainous and broken, 


VIRGINIA. 83 

and a large part of that section must ever continue to be covered with 
primitive forests. 

9. Mineral Productions. In the western section of the state, lime¬ 
stone and gypsum occur; iron ore, of the best quality, is extensively 
distributed, and valuable lead mines are worked in Wythe County. 
Bituminous coal is also found west of the mountains, and the Salt 
Springs of the Great Kenhawa and the Holston, are remarkable for the 
strength of their brine. The limestone caves furnish large quantities 
of nitre or saltpetre. In the Eastern part of the state limestone is found, 
which yields, at various places between the Potomac and James rivers, 
an excellent marble. Iron ore, black lead, copper ore and gold, are 
also found in this region. The bed in which the last mentioned metal 
occurs, extends from near Fredericksburg, in a southwest direction, 
through this and the adjoining states. 

10. Vegetable Productions. In passing from Norfolk to the Ohio, 
almost all the native trees, shrubs, and plants of the United States, will 
be found, and the cultivated productions of the Northern and Southern 
States are seen to meet in this. Ginseng and snake-root are among the 
valuable medicinal plants. Sugar-maple is found west of the Alleghanies. 

11. Mineral Waters. The Sulphureous Springs of Virginia, have 
long been celebrated for their efficacy in cutaneous disorders, asthmatic 
affections, &c. The White Sulphur Springs are in Green Briar County; 
the Salt Sulphur and Red Sulphur Springs in Monroe County; the lat¬ 
ter also has much celebrity in cases of pulmonary affections. The Sweet 
Springs in Monroe County, are carbonated waters, and are valuable as 
a tonic. At Bath, in Berkeley County, there is a Chalybeate Spring ; 
and in Bath County are thermal waters, known by the name of the Warm 
and the Hot Springs, which are efficacious in rheumatic and cutane¬ 
ous cases. The former have a temperature of 96°; the latter of 112°. 

12. JYatural Curiosities. The passage of the Potomac through the 
Blue Ridge, is highly picturesque; the impetuous torrent below is 
dashed from rock to rock, while the walls of the chasm, through which 
it seems to have burst its way, rise in lofty precipices above, constitu¬ 
ting a scene of much grandeur. The Rock or Natural Bridge, in Rock¬ 
bridge County, is not less sublime; it is a natural arch of rock, 60 feet 
wide, extending over a chasm 90 feet broad, and 250 feet high, through 
which flows a small stream, called Cedar Creek, a tributary of the river 
James. In Augusta County, there is a cavern of great beauty and ex¬ 
tent, called Weyer’s Cave, which, for the distance of half a mile, pre¬ 
sent^ series of lofty and spacious apartments, incruSted with crystals, 
and glittering with the most beautiful stalactites. The largest room, 
called Washington’s Hall, is 270 feet in length, and 50 in height. 
There are several other beautiful and extensive caverns in the lime¬ 
stone region, of which Madison’s Cave, in Rockingham County, ex¬ 
tending 300 feet into the earth, and adorned with beautiful stalactites, 
is the most remarkable. There is a lake in Giles county, presenting 
the singular spectacle of a body of water, a mile and a half in circum¬ 
ference, and one hundred fathoms deep, on the summit of a mountain 
3,700 feet high. Within the memory of the oldest inhabitants the bed 
of this lake was a marshy spot, in the centre of which a small pond 
gradually formed. A stream, which had its source in the mountain, 
having ceased to flow, the lake suddenly rose, and, covering the high¬ 
est trees, ascended to the top of the mountain, where it overflows at a 


84 VIRGINIA. 


single point. Its waters are pure and potable, and it abounds in lizards^ 
but has no fish. 

13. Divisions. The state is divided into 111 counties,* 60 of which 
are in Eastern, and 45 in Western Virginia. Population 1,‘-211,405 ; of 
which 469,757 are slaves, and 47,348 free blacks. The population of 
Eastern Virginia is 832,980; comprising 416,250 slaves, and 40,780 free 
blacks. 

14. Canals. Dismal Swamp Canal, partly in Virginia and partly in 
North Carolina, is 22.^ miles in length, and connects the navigable 
waters of the Chesapeake with those of Albemarle sound. James 
River Canal extends from Richmond, 30 miles up the valley of the 
river, and will probably be extended to Lynchburg. Blue Ridge Canal 
overcomes a fall of 96 feet in the James river in Rockbridge County, 
and there is a short canal at Richmond, overcoming an ascent of 80 
feet, and connecting the tide waters with the navigable waters of the 
river. The Shenandoah Canal, in Rockingham County, the Appo¬ 
mattox, and Rappahannock canals, near Petersburg and Fredericksburg, 
and the Roanoke Canal, are similar works, overcoming falls in the 
respective rivers. 

15. Railroads . Manchester Railroad extends from Manchester, op¬ 
posite Richmond, to the coal mines, 13 miles. The Petersburg and 
Roanoke Railway, from Petersburg to Weldon, a distance of 60 miles, 
connects the former place with the Roanoke navigation. It is to be 
continued through Richmond and Fredericksburg, to the Potomac. 
The Winchester and Potomac Railroad extends from Winchester to 
the river at Harper’s Ferry, 30 miles. The Portsmouth and Roanoke 
road has been completed as far as Suffolk, 17 miles. The state has a 
fund for internal improvements, amounting to $1,500,000, and yield- 


* Eastern District. 
Accomac 
Albemarle 
Amelia 
Arfiherst 
Bedford 
Brunswick 
Buckingham 
Campbell 
Caroline 
Charles City 
Charlotte 
Chesterfield 
Culpeper 
Cumberland 
Dinwiddie 
Elizabeth City 
Essex 
Fairfax 
Fauquier 
Fluvanna 
Franklin 
Gloucester 
Goochland 
Greenville 
Halifax 
Hanover 
Henrico 
Henry 


Isle of Wight 

James City 

King and Queen 

King George 

King William 

Lancaster 

Loudon 

Louisa 

Lunenburg 

Madison 

Matthews 

Mecklenburg 

Middlesex 

Nansemond 

Nelson 

New Kent 

Norfolk 

Northampton 

N orthumberland 

Nottoway 

Orange 

Patrick 

Pittsylvania 

Powhattan 

Prince Edward 

Prince George 

Prince William 

Princess Anne 

Richmond 


Rappahannock 

Southampton 

Spottsylvania 

Stafford 

Surry 

Sussex 

W arwick 

Westmoreland 

York 

J Western District. 
Alleghany 
Augusta 
Bath 
Berkely 
Botetourt 
Brooke 
Cabell 
Fayette 
Floyd 
F rederick 
Giles 
Grayson 
Greenbriar 
Harrison 
Hampshire 
Hardy 
J efferson 


Jackson 

Kenhavva 

Lee 

Lewis 

Logan 

Monongalia 

Mason 

Monroe 

Montgomery 

Morgan 

N icholas 

Ohio * 

Page 

Pendleton 

Pocahontas 

Preston 

Randolph 

Rockbridge 

Rockingham 

Russel 

Scott 

Shenandoah 

Smyth 

Tazewell 

Tyler 

Washington 

Wood 

Wythe 


VIRGINIA. 


85 


ing a revenue of nearly $90,000, which is applied in aid of works of 
public interest. The James River and Keliawha Company was incor¬ 
porated in 1832, for the purpose of connecting the tide waters of James 
river, with the navigable waters of the Kenawha, by means of canals 
and railways. 

16. Toums. The city of Richmond, the capital, stands on the north 
side of James river, at its lower falls, and at the head of tide water. 
The town rises gradually from the water, and has a fine, picturesque 
appearance. The western division occupies an eminence called Shoc- 
koe Hill, overlooking the lower town. The capitol is built upon the 
highest summit, and has a delightful and commanding prospect. Two 
bridges cross the river to Manchester, on the opposite bank. Most of 
the houses are of brick, and many are elegant. The public buildings, 
beside the capitol, which is an elegant structure, are a court house, a 
state prison, 8 churches, an almshouse, a museum, and the state armory. 
One of the James river canals here empties into a basin containing a 
surface of two acres. There is a boat navigation for 220 miles on the 
river above the city, and vessels drawing 15 feet of water, can come up 
to within a few miles of the city. Richmond has a very flourishing 
trade, both inland and by sea, and enjoys extraordinary advantages by 
communication with a rich and well cultivated country, abounding in 
tobacco, grain, hemp, coal, &c. Population 16,060. 

Norfolk, the principal commercial town, stands on an excellent har¬ 
bor, at the outlet of James river, where a branch called Elizabeth river 
joins the main stream. It is built on low ground, and the land in the 
neighborhood is marshy. The principal streets are well paved and 
clean, but the others are less commodious, and more irregular. The 
buildings are not distinguished for elegance, but some of the churches 
are neatly built. Here are a theatre, an athenaeum, a marine hospital, 
and 6 churches. The harbor is a mile wide, is strongly defended, 
and is 8 miles from Hampton Roads. At Gosport, in Portsmouth, on 
the opposite bank of Elizabeth river, is a navy yard of the United 
States, with a dry dock. Population of Norfolk, 9,816. 

Petersburg stands on the south bank of the Appomattox, 12 miles 
above its junction with the James river, at City Point. It is a hand¬ 
some and thriving town, and has a large trade in tobacco and flour. 
Above the town there are falls, but below, the river is navigable for 
vessels of 100 tons. Population 8,322. 

Fredericksburg is on the south side of Rappahannock river, 110 
miles above the Chesapeake. The river is navigable for vessels of 140 
tons, and the town is surrounded by a fertile country, and is regularly 
built. The trade of the place is considerable. Population 3,307. 

Lynchburg, on the south side of the James river, 100 miles west of 
Richmond, stands on the slope of a hill, and is surrounded by a broken 
and mountainous country, abounding in fertile valleys. The town has 
a great trade in tobacco, and the neighborhood is populous. Popula¬ 
tion 4,626. 

Williamsburg, between York and James rivers, was once the capital 
of the state, and contains the college of William and Mary, a state 
house, a court house, and a state lunatic asylum. 

York, or Yorktown, on the south side of York river, has an excellent 
harbor and some trade. It is memorable for the surrender of Lord 
Cornwallis and the British army, in 1781. 


86 


VIRGTNTA. 


Mount Vernon, on the western shore of the Potomac, 15 miles from 
Washington, is worthy of attention, as the residence of Washington, 
and the spot which contains his tomb. The mansion house, a simple 
wooden building, still remains. The tomb, into which the body of the 
hero has been recently removed, is an excavation in the earth, with a 
plain brick front, but rendered more secure than that in which it was 
originally deposited, by being closed with an non door. 

Wheeling, on the Ohio, is a flourishing and rapidly increasing town, 
with 5,211 inhabitants. It is chiefly built in a single street, on account 
of the proximity of a ridge of steep hills, on which it stands, to the river. 
The hills contain inexhaustible quantities of coal. Wheeling is the 
highest point of the Ohio, to which navigation extends at low water, 
and many boats and steam vessels are built here. The great na¬ 
tional road over the Alleghanies, called the Cumberland road, meets 
the Ohio at this place. 

Other towns are Winchester, Shepherdstown, Martinsburg, Staun¬ 
ton, where there is a state lunatic asylum, Lexington, and Fincastle, in 
the central valley ; Charlestown and Abingdon, to the west of the moun¬ 
tains, and Charlotteville, the seat of the state university. Two miles 
from the last place is Monticello, formerly the residence of Jefferson. 

17. Agriculture. The agriculture of this state is various, but for the 
most part badly conducted. The practice of clearing lands, cultivating 
them every year till exhausted, and then leaving them to recover by 
natural influences, prevails in many places. From the sea to the head 
of tide water, and south of the James river, up to the Blue Ridge, what 
is called the three-shift system prevails, that is, first a crop of Indian 
corn ; second, of wheat, rye, or oats; and third, a year of rest, as it is 
called, while little attention is paid to the application of manure, or the 
cultivation of artificial grasses. On the north side of the James, and 
in the valley district, agriculture is prosecuted with more care and skill. 
Tobacco is extensively raised in Eastern Virginia, and sparingly in the 
southern part of the central valley. Cotton is planted to some extent in 
the southern and eastern parts, and hemp is raised to advantage on some 
of the best lands above tide water. Western Virginia affords excellent 
pastures, and is chiefly devoted to grazing. Wheat, maize, rye, oats 
and buck-wheat, are the principal grain crops on both sides of the 
mountains. The eastern section is chiefly cultivated by slave labor; 
the lands in the valley, where the slaves are comparatively few, sell 
higher than those on the east of the Blue Ridge, and the general ap¬ 
pearance of that section is more prosperous, although the soil and cli¬ 
mate are inferior, and the communication with markets more expensive 
and difficult. Crop of tobacco in 1831, 44,529 hogsheads; of cotton, 
33,900 bales; quantity of flour inspected, 540,000 barrels. 

18. Manufactures. The state possesses great advantages for manu¬ 
facturing operations in cheap labor, an inexhaustible supply of fuel, and 
immense water-power, yet planting and farming are the favorite pursuits. 
There are some manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, glass, iron, 
&c., in the northern and northwestern parts of the state. The Kenawha 
Salt Works produce, annually, 1,000,000 bushels of salt, and those of 
the Holston about 100,000. 

19. Commerce. The commerce of Virginia is not extensive. The 
annual value of the exports amounts to $ 4,500,000, of which only 
$ 500 are in articles of foreign produce. The imports amount to about 


i 


NORTH CAROLINA. 87 

half a million dollars. The shipping belonging to the state is about 
36,000 tons. 

20. Government. The Legislature, styled the General Assembly, 
consists of two houses ; the Senate chosen every four years, and the 
House of Delegates chosen annually. The right of suffrage is restrict¬ 
ed to whites, and the votes are -given viva voce , or orally, and not by 
ballot. The Governor and an Executive Council, called the Council of 
State, are elected for the term of three years, by the General Assembly. 

21. Religion. The most numerous sects are the Baptists and 
Methodists. The former have 370 churches, and 236 ministers; the 
latter have 131 ministers. The Episcopalians have 59, and the Pres¬ 
byterians 105 churches. There are also some Friends, Lutherans, 
Roman Catholics, Unitarians, &c. 

22. Education. William and Mary College, one of the oldest insti¬ 
tutions in the country, was founded at Williamsburg in 1691. Hamp¬ 
den Sydney College, in Prince Edward County, and Washington Col¬ 
lege, at Lexington, are flourishing institutions. Randolph Macon Col¬ 
lege has recently been founded at Boydtown. The University of 
Virginia, at Charlotteville, has nine instructers, and 130 students. 
There are law schools at Williamsburg and Staunton, and theological 
seminaries in Prince Edward, Henrico, and Fairfax Counties. The 
interests of education have been much neglected in Virginia, but at¬ 
tempts have recently been made to improve and extend the means both 
of elementary and higher instruction. The state has a literary fund 
of upwards of one and a half million dollars, yielding a revenue of 
$75,000, out of which grants have been made, annually, to each of the 
counties, for the gratuitous education of poor children. A plan has 
been formed for introducing the New England system of free schools 
through the state. 

23. History. Attempts were made by the English, during the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth, to form settlements on this part of the coast of 
North America, and the name of Virginia was given to it in honor of 
the virgin queen. The first colony which proved permanent was es¬ 
tablished in 1607, at Jamestown, near the mouth of James river, which 
names were given in compliment to King James. The early colonists 
suffered much from famine and the enmity of the natives, but the colony 
soon began to thrive and continued to advance in prosperity, although 
involved in the calamities of the French war of 1753. Virginia was 
one of the crown-colonies, having been governed, until the revolution, 
by a Governor appointed by the King of England. In 1776, a consti¬ 
tution was framed, which in 1830 underwent many and important 
changes. 

XVI. NORTH CAROLINA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. North Carolina is bounded N. by Vir¬ 
ginia ; E. by the Atlantic ocean ; S. by South Carolina and Georgia, 
and W. by Tennessee. It extends from 33° 50' to 36° 30' N. Lat., and 
from 75°25' to 84° 30' W. Lon. It is about 450 miles in length, by 185 
In breadth, with an area of 50,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The western part of the state is traversed by the three 
easternmost chains of the Appalachian system, the Southeast Mountain, 


88 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


the Blue Ridge and the Kittatinny Mountains. The latter chain, under 
various local names, as the Stone Mountain, Iron Mountain, Bald 
Mountain, and Smoky Mountain, forms the western boundary of the 
state. Mount Ararat, or Pilot Mountain, is a lofty pyramidal peak, in 
Stokes County. King’s Mountain is a hilly ridge, extending from Lin¬ 
coln County, into York District in South Carolina. 

3. Rivers. The Roanoke and Chowan, which rise in Virginia, empty 
themselves into Albemarle Sound, in this state. The latter is naviga¬ 
ble for small vessels to Murfreesboro. The Roanoke has a course of 
400 miles; it is navigable for small vessels 30 miles, and for boats to 
the head of the tide at Weldon, 75 miles. Above the falls at Weldon, 
it is navigable for boats, by the aid of canals, 244 miles, to Salem. The 
Tar, or Pamlico, and Neuse flow into Pamlico Sound. The former is 
navigable for vessels drawing nine feet of water, 30 miles, and for boats 
to Tarboro, 90 miles. Cape Fear River is the principal stream which 
has its whole course in this state. It rises in the north part, and, tra¬ 
versing the state in a southeasterly course of 280 miles, falls into the 
Atlantic at Cape Fear. It is navigable for vessels of 11 feet draft to 
Wilmington, and for boats to Fayetteville. The Yadkin traverses the 
western part of the state from north to south, and passes into South 
Carolina, under the name of the Great Pedee. The Catawba rises in 
the Blue Ridge and flows south into South Carolina. From the oppo¬ 
site slope of the mountains, descend the head streams of the river Ten¬ 
nessee. 

4. Islands. The coast is skirted by a range of low, sandy islands, 
thrown up by the sea. They are long and narrow, and enclose several 
shallow bays and sounds. They are generally barren. 

5. Sounds and Bays. The largest is Pamlico Sound, lying between 
the main land and one of the above mentioned islands. It is 86 miles 
in length along the coast, and from 10 to 2Q broad. It communicates 
with the ocean by several narrow mouths, the most common of which 
for navigation is Ocracoke Inlet. A little to the north, is Albemarle 
Sound, which extends 60 miles into the land, and is from 5 to 15 miles 
wide. It communicates with Pamlico Sound, and with the sea, by 
several narrow and shallow inlets. 

6. Shores and Capes. The shores are low and marshy, and the navi¬ 
gation along the coast dangerous, on account of the shoals. Cape 
Lookout and Cape Fear, indicate by their names the dread with which 
mariners approach them. But the most formidable, is Cape Hatteras, 
the elbow of a triangular island, forming the seaward limit of Pamlico 
Sound. Its shoals extend a great distance from the land, and render it 
one of the most dangerous headlands on the American coast. 

7. Face of the Country. The eastern part of the state, for a distance 
of about 60 miles from the sea, is a low plain covered with swamps, in¬ 
dented by numerous shallow inlets from the ocean, and traversed by 
sluggish streams, which the low and level surface allows to spread out 
into broad basins. To this maritime belt, succeeds a fine undulating 
country, irrigated with fresh, running waters, and presenting a surface 
agreeably diversified with hills and valleys. The western part of the 
state is an elevated table-land, rising to a general elevation of about 1,800 
feet above the level of the sea, independently of the mountainous sum¬ 
mits. 

8. Climate. The climate partakes of the diversified character of the 



NORTH CAROLINA. 


89 


surface. The mountainous region or western plateau, experiences much 
of the rigor of the winters of the more northern states, though less long 
and not so severe. The air in this and the lower midland region is [jure 
and healthy, and the summer heats are tempered by cool nights. But in 
the low country, the summers are hot and sultry, and the air is render¬ 
ed unhealthy by the exhalations of the marshes, and stagnant waters. 

9. Soil. In the level country, generally, the soil is poor and sandy, 
with large swampy tracts. The batiks of some of the rivers are tole¬ 
rably fertile, and there are some glades of moist land, possessing a 
black, fruitful soil. West of the hilly country, the soil is good, and re¬ 
sembles that of the states farther north. 

The Great Dismal Swamp lies in the northeastern part of the state, 
and extends into Virginia. It is 30 miles in length, and 10 in breadth, 
and covers an extent of 150,000 acres; the soil is marshy, and the 
whole tract is overgrown with pine, juniper, and cypress trees, with 
white and red oak in the drier parts. In the centre, on the Virginia 
side, is Lake Drummond, 15 miles in circuit. Many parts of the 
swamp are impervious to man, from the thickness of the woods and 
bushes. A canal is carried through it from Norfolk to Albemarle 
Bound. 

Between Albemarle and Pamlico Sound is another, called Alligator, 
or Little Dismal Swamp, which also has a lake in the centre; this has 
been partly drained by means of a canal, and the land rendered fit for 
the cultivation of rice. , 

It is estimated that there are 2,500,000 acres of swampy land within 
the state, capable of being drained at a trifling cost, and fitted for the 
culture of cotton, tobacco, rice, and maize. These swamps have a clay 
bottom, over which lies a thick stratum of vegetable compost. The 
drained lands are found to be exceedingly fertile. 

10. Mineral Productions. Iron ore abounds, and is worked to con¬ 
siderable extent. The gold region, which extends from the Potomac, 
along the east of the Blue Ridge into Alabama, is broader and more 
productive in this state than in any other. The gold is obtained either 
by washing, that is by simply separating native gold from the sand in 
which it is found, or from mines. In the latter case, the gold is found 
in ore, which after undergoing the process of crushing, is mixed with 
quicksilver, for the purpose of separating the metal from the earthy 
parts. The value of the gold received from this state at the United States 
Mint, i ti 1832, was 475,000 dollars, and the whole production for that 
year is estimated at one million, about one half being exported or em¬ 
ployed in the arts. The total value of the gold received at the mint 
from this state exceeds one and a half million dollars. 

11. Vegetable Productions. A great part of the country is covered 
with forests of pitch pine. In the plains of the low country, this tree 
is almost exclusively the natural growth of the soil. It much exceeds 
in height the pitch pine of the Northern States. The tar, turpentine 
and lumber, afforded by this valuable tree, constitute one half of the 
exports of the state. The moisture of the air, in the swampy regions^ 
loads the trees with long, spongy moss, which hangs in clusters from 
the limbs, and gives the forest a singular appearance. The mistletoe is 
often found upon the trees of the interior. This state also produces sev¬ 
eral valuable medicinal roots, as ginseng, snakeroot, &c. The rich in¬ 
tervals are overgrown with canes, the leaves of which continue green 


90 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


through the winter, and afford good fodder for cattle. In the moun¬ 
tainous region of the west, the oak, elm, walnut, linne, and cherry trees 
abound. 

12. Mineral Springs. There are thermal saline springs in Buncombe 
County, called the Warm Springs. The water is limpid and gives 
out nitrogen gas. It contains muriates and sulphates of lime and mag¬ 
nesia. Chronic rheumatism and paralysis, are among the diseases 
cured by drinking the water and bathing in it. 

13. Divisions. North Carolina is divided into 64 counties.* Popu¬ 
lation 737,987, including 245,600 slaves, and 19,540 free blacks. 

14. Canals. Dismal Swamp Canal lies partly in this state. The 
Northwest Canal is a branch six miles in length, connecting it with the 
Northwest River which empties into Currituck Sound. Weldon 
Canal, 12 miles in length, extends round the falls of the Roanoke. 
Clubfoot and Harlow Canal, opens a communication between the 
Neuse, below Newbem, and the harbor of Beaufort. Other canals 
have been constructed for the improvement of the navigation of Cape 
Fear, Yadkin, Tar, and Catawba Rivers. 

15. Railroads. Several companies have been incorporated for con¬ 
structing railways. The Central Railroad from Beaufort, by the way of 
Raleigh and Salisbury, to the western part of the state; and a road from 
Wilmington, on the Cape Fear River, by way of Fayetteville and Salis¬ 
bury, to the Catawba, have been projected. The Petersburg Railroad 
extends to Weldon, in this state ; and the Portsmouth and Weldon road 
is to extend from Weldon to Norfolk, in Virginia. 

16. Towns. There are no large towns in this state. Raleigh, the 
seat of government, is pleasantly situated, near the centre of the state, 
and contains several public buildings, two academies, &c. The capital 
was destroyed by fire in 1831; a new one is to be erected, 160 feet 
long, by 64 wide. 

Newbern, on the south bank of the Neuse, 30 miles from Pamlico 
Sound, is a place of some commerce, and is one of the most flourishing 
towns in the state. It was formerly the capital. Tar, pitch, turpen¬ 
tine, and lumber, are the chief articles of export. Population 3,762, 
more than half of whom are blacks. 

Wilmington, on Cape Fear River, 35 miles from the sea, is the most 
commercial town in North Carolina. Vessels of 300 tons can come up 


to the town, and the shipping belonging to the port amounts to upwards 

of 9,000 tons. 

Here are the county buildings, two 

banks, and three 

*Anson 

Cumberland 

Jones 

Pitt 

Ashe 

Currituck 

Lenoir 

Randolph 

Beaufort 

Davidson 

Lincoln 

Richmond 

Bertie 

Duplin 

Macon 

Robeson 

Bladen 

Edgecomb 

Martin 

Rockingham 

Brunswick 

Franklin 

Mecklenburg 

Rowan 

Buncombe 

Gates 

Montgomery 

Rutherford 

Burke 

Granville 

Moore 

Sampson 

Cabarras 

Greene 

Nash 

Stokes 

Camden 

Guilford 

New Hanover 

Surry 

Carteret 

Halifax 

Northampton 

Tyrrell 

Caswell 

Haywood 

Onslow' 

Wake 

Chatham 

Hertford 

Orange 

Warren 

Chowan 

Hyde 

Pasquotank 

Washington 

Columbus 

Iredell 

Perquimans 

W ayne 

Craven 

J ohnson 

Person 

Wilkea 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


91 


churches, and in its vicinity are the most extensive rice fields in the 
state. Population 3,000. 

Fayetteville, a thriving town, at the head of boat navigation, on Cape 
Fear River, was destroyed by fire in 1831. Six hundred buildings 
were burnt, but the town has been rebuilt. Population 2,868. 

Other towns are, Edenton, Washington, Salisbury, Tarboro, and 
Halifax. 

17. Agriculture. Agriculture is in a low state in North Carolina, one 
cause ot which is the want of good harbors and of inland navigation. 
The labor in the eastern portion of the state is done by slaves, but in 
the western part, the whites work' more with their own hands. The 
great diversity of climate produces a corresponding variety of produc¬ 
tions. The eastern lowlands have a tropical climate, and yield rice, 
cotton, and indigo; here also the fig tree begins to appear. Ascending 
into the more elevated region, the northern grains and fruits thrive. 
Wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, and hemp, are important productions. 
Apples, pears and peaches, and figs, sweet potatoes and yams, are to 
be added to this varied catalogue. 

18. Commerce and Manufactures „ Most of the produce of the coun¬ 
try has been exported by the way of Charleston, South Carolina, and 
Lynchburg and Petersburg, Virginia. The value of the imports 
brought directly into the state is about $ 200,000, of exports $ 340,000; 
the shipping belonging to the state amounts to about 26,000 tons. Be¬ 
side the agricultural productions above mentioned, naval stores, or tar, 
pitch and turpentine, are exported in large quantities. There are no 
manufactures of importance. 

19. Government. The constitution of this state was adopted in 1776. 
The legislative authority is vested in a General Assembly, consisting of 
a Senate and House of Commons, chosen annually by the people. The 
Governor and Executive Council are elected annually by the Assembly. 
The right of voting for Senators is confined to freeholders of 50 acres 
of land ; but in the election of the House of Commons all white male 
citizens, above 21 years of age, are entitled to vote. 

20. Religion. The most numerous religious sects are Baptists, 
Methodists, and Presbyterians. There are also many Lutherans and 
Episcopalians, and some Friends and Moravians. 

21. Education. The University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, is 
the principal literary institution in the state, and there are about twenty 
academies in various places. The state has a literary fund of $ 70,000, 
the income of which is to be distributed among the several counties for 
the support of comfnon schools. But nothing has yet been done 
towards effecting this purpose. 

22. History. North Carolina formed a part of South Carolina until 
1720, under the name of the County of Albemarle. It had, however, a 
separate legislature from 1715. During the war of the revolution, some 
expeditions were made into this state by the British, from South Caro¬ 
lina, and the American forces were defeated at Guilford court house in 
1781. 


92 


XVII. SOUTH CAROLINA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. South Carolina is bounded N. by North 
Carolina; E. by the Atlantic ocean ; and S. and W. by Georgia. It 
extends from 32° to 35° 10' N. Lat., and from 78° 44' to 83° 20' W. 
Lon. Its extreme length is 275 miles; its mean breadth 120 miles; area 
33,000 square miles. 

2. Face of the Country. The coast, for 100 miles from the ocean, 
is covered with forests of pitch pine, with swampy tracts here and 
there. Beyond this is a parallel belt of territory, called the Middle 
Country, consisting of low sand hills, resembling the waves of an agitated 
sea. This tract occasionally presents an oasis of verdure, or a few 
straggling pine trees, and sometimes a field of maize or potatoes. The 
Middle Country is bounded by another belt of land called the Ridge, 
where the country rises by a steep and sudden elevation, and afterwards 
continues gradually to ascend. Beyond, the surface exhibits a beauti¬ 
ful alternation of hill and dale, interspersed with extensive forests, and 
watered by pleasant streams. There are a few lofty mountains in the 
western part, belonging to the Blue Ridge. Table Mountain, in this 
chain, rises to the height of 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
King’s Mountain, in York district, lies partly in North Carolina. 

3. Rivers. The rivers of South Carolina rise on the Blue Ridge, and 
flow southeasterly into the ocean. In the lower part of their course 
they are less navigable than near the centre of the state, and this cha¬ 
racter belongs to the other rivers of the Atlantic slope, southwest of 
Chesapeake Bay. 

The Great Pedee rises in the northwest part of North Carolina, 
where it bears the name of the Yadkin, and flows into Winyaw Bay, 
after a course of 450 miles. The Little Pedee and Waccamaw are its 
tributaries from the north. The Santee is formed by the junction of the 
Wateree or Catawba, and the Congaree or Broad Rivers, both of which 
rise in the Blue Ridge in North Carolina. The Saluda is a branch of 
the Congaree. The Edisto is navigable for large boats about 100 miles. 

4. Islands. The southern part of the coast is skirted by a range of 
islands, separated from the main land by narrow channels, which af¬ 
ford a steamboat navigation. These islands, like the neighboring con¬ 
tinent are low and flat, but are covered with forests of live oak, pine 
and palmettos. Before the cultivation of cotton, many of them were 
the haunts of alligators, and their thick woods and rank weeds rendered 
them impenetrable to man. At present, they are under cultivation, and 
well inhabited; and as the voyager glides by their shores in a steam¬ 
boat, he is enchanted with the prospect of their lively verdure, inter¬ 
spersed with thick clumps of palmettos, and flowering groves of orange 
trees. The live oak, which is so called on account of its being an ev¬ 
ergreen, is a noble tree, with a trunk sometimes' 12 feet girth ; its long 
branches are spread horizontally, and festoons of moss hang from them 
almost sweeping the ground. The laurel is here seen covered with 
large white blossoms, shaped like a lily, and a foot in circumference. 
The long sandy beaches, which border these islands toward the sea, are 
covered with thousands of water fowl. 

5. Harbors. Like those of North Carolina, the harbors of this state 
are generally bad. That of Charleston is obstructed at the entrance by 
a dangerous sand-bar; that of Georgetown will only admit small craft. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


93 


The harbor of Beaufort, or Pojrt Royal, is the best in the state, but is 
little frequented. The coast presents numerous entrances, which are 
accessible for small vessels, and afford facilities for an active coasting 
trade. 8 

6. Climate. The climate of this state very nearly resembles that of 
North Carolina, but lying more to the south, and having a less extensive 
mountainous region, South Carolina partakes more decidedly of the 
tropical character. Sugar cane has been cultivated with success, in 
the southeastern part of the state. In the western mountains the air is 
healthy, and snow lies for some time during the winter. The eastern 
section has a hot, moist, and unhealthy climate. 

7. Soil. The eastern part of the state is alluvial. The soil is divided 
by the planters into 1. the tide swamp, and 2. inland swamp, which are 
best adapted to the cultivation of rice and hemp ; 3. high river swamp, 
or second low grounds, favorable to the growth of hemp, corn and in¬ 
digo ; 4. salt marsh ; 5. oak and hickory high land, which is highly fer¬ 
tile, and yields corn, cotton and indigo ; and 6. pine barren, which, 
though the least productive, is the most healthy soil of the low country. 
A portion of the last is considered as a necessary appendage to every 
swamp plantation, for erecting the dwelling house of the planter. 

8. Mineral Productions. South Carolina is not rich in minerals. 
The gold region, however, extends through it, and gold to the value of 
$66,000 was received at the United States Mint, in 1833, from this 
state. The total amount obtained was, probably, not less than $ 1 00,000. 

9. Vegetable Productions. The indigenous vegetation of this state 
combines the productions of the temperate and tropical regions, com¬ 
prising the oaks and palms, pines and hickory. The palmetto or cab¬ 
bage-palm attains the height of from 40 to 50 feet, and yields a sub¬ 
stance which is eaten as a salad, and resembles the cabbage in taste. 

10. Divisions and Population. South Carolina is divided into 29 
Districts,* and has a population of 581,185 souls; comprising 7,920 
free blacks, and 315,401 slaves. In the low country the slaves exceed 
the whites three to one, that section containing only about one fifth of 
the whites, with half of the black population. 

11. Canals-. Santee Canal, extends from the river Santee, to. Coo¬ 
per’s river, a distance of 22 miles, connecting the harbor of Charleston 
with the interior. The Santee, Congaree, and Saluda navigation has 
been improved by side cuts and locks upwards of 150 miles, and there 
are also extensive side cuts and locks on the Catawba. Winy aw Canal 
unites the river Santee with Winyaw Bay ; length 10 miles. 

12. Roads and Railways. A road lias been constructed from the 
northwestern corner of the state, through the Saluda gap, by Columbia 
to Charleston, which has been of great benefit, and several expensive 
causeways have been constructed in different parts of the state. The 
Hamburg and Charleston railroad, extends from the city of Charleston 
to the Savannah, opposite Augusta, a distance of 135 miles. It crosses 


♦Abbeville 

Anderson 

Barnwell 

Beaufort 

Charleston 

Chester 

Chesterfield 

Colleton 


Darlington 

Edgefield 

Fairfield 

Georgetown 

Greenville 

Horry 

Kershaw 


Lancaster 

Laurens 

Lexington 

Marion 

Marlborough 

Newbury 

Orangeburgh 


Pickens 

Richland 

Spartanburgh 

Sumter 

Union 

Williamsburgh 

York 


94 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


the Edisto, by a bridge, and the summit of the table-land between that 
river and the Savanna!), by means of a stationary engine. This work 
has been executed by the South Carolina Railroad Company, which 
has in contemplation the construction of another road from Charleston 
to Columbia, a distance of 135 miles. 

13. Towns. The city of Charleston, the second city in the Southern 
States, is situated at the confluence of the rivers Ashley and Cooper, 
six miles from the ocean. The harbor is commodious, and has two 
entrances, the deepest of which admits vessels of 16 feet draft. Sulli¬ 
van’s Island, at the mouth of the harbor, is a pleasant summer resort. 
The harbor is defended by Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s Island, and by 
Forts Pinkney and Johnson. The city is regularly laid out and hand¬ 
somely built, and the vicinity is adorned with numerous plantations in 
a high state of cultivation. It is much healthier than the surrounding 
country, and the planters from the low country, and wealthy West In¬ 
dians come here to spend the summer. Many of the houses are hand¬ 
some, and are furnished with piazzas, and the grounds are adorned 
with flowering plants and ornamental shrubs. The squares are shaded 
with the pride of China, and the gardens with orange trees. Among 
the public buildings, are the city hall, theatre, hospital, two arsenals, 
and 19 churches. The city library contains about 15,000 volumes ; the 
orphan asylum supports and educates 150 orphans. The commerce of 
the city is extensive. Population 30,289, of which 17,361 are whites. 

Columbia, the seat of government, stands on the Congaree, near the 
centre of the state, and occupies an elevated plain, sloping gently on 
every side. The plan of the town is regular. It contains the state- 
house, a college, and 3,310 inhabitants. 

Georgetown, at the head of a bay formed by the junction of the 
Great Pedee, Waccamaw, and two or three other streams, is 13 miles 
from the sea, and has considerable commerce. Beaufort, on the island 
of Port Royal, is a pleasant town, with a healthy situation, and good 
harbor ; but it has little commerce Camden, on the Wateree, enjoys 
a portion of the interior trade, but is chiefly remarkable for the battles 
fought in its neighborhood during the revolution. 

14. Agriculture. The inhabitants are almost entirely occupied with 
agriculture. Cotton and rice are the staple commodities, and are ex¬ 
ported in large quantities. About 200,000 bales of cotton are exported 
annually. Indigo and tobacco thrive well. The cultivation of maize 
and other corn is little attended to, and considerable quantities of 
flour are imported for consumption. Other productions are apples, 
pears, and peaches, figs, olives, and oranges, yams, sweet potatoes, &c. 

15. Commerce. The exportation of cotton and rice forms the princi¬ 
pal branch of the commerce of the state, which is chiefly in the hands 
of the people of the northern states. The annual value of the imports 
is about $ 1,200,000 ; of the exports from six to eight millions. Ship¬ 
ping belonging to the state, 14,000 tons. 

16. Government The legislature is called the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senators 
are chosen for four years, according to the population and wealth of 
the districts. The Representatives are chosen for two years, accord¬ 
ing to population. The Governor is chosen by the legislature for 
two years. The Lt. Governor has no power or duty except on the 
death or removal of the Governor.' The qualifications for voting 


GEORGIA. 95 

admit nearly of universal suffrage; but blacks are excluded from the 
privilege. 

17. Religion. The Methodists and Baptists are the most numerous 
sects; but there are many Presbyterians and Episcopalians, and some 
Lutherans, Roman Catholics, and Unitarians. 

18. Education. There are two colleges in this state; South Carolina 
College, at Columbia, and Charleston College, in Charleston. Several 
other institutions are styled colleges, but they are nothing more than 
respectable schools. There are also several academies. The Medical 
College of South Carolina, is in Charleston; and there is a Presbyteri¬ 
an Theological Seminary, at Columbia, a Lutheran, at Lexington, and 
a Baptist, in Sumter district. The state has for a number of years 
made an annual grant towards the support of free schools. 

19. History. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was 
made at Charleston in 1680 ; but this part of the country had several 
years previously been granted by Charles II. to Lord Clarendon and 
others. A constitution was formed by the celebrated Locke, for the 
government of the colony, which proved to be wholly unsuited to its 
purpose. The proprietary government continued till 1719, when 
South Carolina became a royal colony, the people having renounced 
their former governors, and taken the administration into their own 
hands. In 1780 and 1781, South Carolina became the theatre of mili¬ 
tary operations, and was overrun by the British forces. May 11, 1780, 
Charleston was captured by the English, who defeated the American 
troops at Camden, August 16th, and w T ere, in turn worsted in the action 
of King’s Mountain, October 7th. In the following campaign, the 
Americans were successful at the Cowpens, January 17, and at Eutaw 
Springs, in September, and the hostile forces soon after evacuated the 
state. 


XVIII. GEORGIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Georgia is bounded N. by North Caro¬ 
lina and Tennessee; E. by the Savannah, which separates it from 
South Carolina, and the ocean; S. by Florida, and W. by Florida and 
Alabama. It extends from Lat. 30° 20 ' to 35° N., and from Lon. 81° to 
85° 40' W., comprising an area of 62,000 square miles. 

2. Face of the Country. In the northwestern part of the state there 
are some mountainous ridges, belonging to the Blue Ridge and Kitta- 
tinny chains, but these are of no great extent. Like the Carolinas, 
Georgia consists of three zones or belts; the flat maritime belt, 100 
miles in breadth, much of which is daily flooded by the tides; the sand 
hill belt, or pine barrens, extending inland to the lower falls of the 
rivers, and the hilly and mountainous tract. The latter is a broken, 
elevated region, rising to from 1,200 to 2,000 feet above the level of 
the sea. 

3. Rivers. Georgia occupies a great inclined plane, sloping down 
from the Appalachian System to the Atlantic ocean, and the Gulf of 
Mexico, and discharging its waters into those basins. The Savannah, 
the Alatamaha, and the Ogeechee into the former, and the Appalachi- 
cola into the latter. The Savannah forms the northeastern boundary, 
and empties itself into the Atlantic ocean, after a course of about 600 


GEORGIA. 


96 

miles. It is navigable for large vessels to Savannah, 15 miles from the 
sea, and to Augusta, 250 miles, for steamboats of 150 tons. Beyond 
this there is boat navigation 150 miles. The Ogeechee has a course of 
about 200 miles; sloops ascend 40 miles, and large boats to Louisville. 
The Alatamaha is formed by the junction of the Oconee and Oakmul- 
gee. The tide flows up 25 miles, and large vessels go up to Darien, 12 
miles. The Oconee and Oakmulgee, have been ascended to Milledge- 
ville and Macon, in steamboats, but the navigation of these rivers is 
chiefly carried on in large flat-bottomed boats, on account of the shoals 
and rapids. The Saint Mary’s, which forms, in part, the boundary be¬ 
tween Georgia and Florida, takes its rise in an extensive swamp, called 
Okafinokee Swamp, and pursues a winding course to the sea. The 
tide flows up the river 50 miles, and its mouth forms a commodious 
harbor. The Chattahoochee and Flint rivers, drain nearly all the 
western part of the state, and by theirjunction form the Appalachicola, 
which traverses Florida. The former rises in the Blue Ridge, and has 
a course of about 450 miles. Steamboats ascend to Columbus, 300 
miles, and the produce of the upper counties is brought down stream 
in boats. Flint River has a course of 300 miles, and is navigable for 
steamboats to Bainbridge, 50 miles. 

4. Islands. Georgia is bordered toward the sea by a range of small 
islands and marshy tracts, intersected by channels and rivulets, which 
are navigable for small vessels. These islands consist of a rich grey 
soil, called hummock land. In their natural state, they are covered with 
forests of live oak, pine and hickory ; but under cultivation they pro¬ 
duce the best cotton in the world, called Sea-island cotton. 

5. Climate. The description which has been given of the climate 
of South Carolina, is applicable also to Georgia. The northern part is 
temperate and healthy. The low country, near the swamps, has its 
sickly season, during the months of July, August and September, when 
the planters retire to the high pine lands, or to the sea-islands. 

6. Soil. The coast within the islands is a salt marsh, beyond which 
is a narrow belt of good land, similar to the islands. This is succeeded 
by the Pine Barrens, which are interspersed with swampy tracts. The 
borders of the rivers are low and marshy, and subject to inundations. 
These parts are applied to the cultivation of rice. The Pine Barrens 
extend from 50 to 100 miles from the sea, and are succeeded by a re¬ 
gion of sand hills, 30 or 40 miles wide, diversified here and there with 
a verdant spot, and bounded on the N. by the elevated land, which, 
farther onward, rises into mountains. Here the soil is various, but gen¬ 
erally strong and productive. The greater part of the state is alluvial. 
Okafinokee Swamp lies in the southern part of this state, extending 
into Florida. It is a sort of marshy lake, about 180 miles incir cumfer- 
ence, and during wet seasons has the appearance of an inland sea, with 
many islands. It abounds with alligators, snakes and all sorts of rep¬ 
tiles. 

7. Curiosity. In the northwestern extremity of the state, near the 
Tennessee river, is an eminence called Raccoon Mountain. On one 
of the precipitous sides of this mountain, is a deep cavern, called Nico- 
jack Cave. Its mouth is 50 feet high and 80 feet wide. It has been 
explored for several miles without coming to the end. The floor is 
covered with a stream of cool limpid water through its whole extent, 
and the cavern is accessible only in a canoe. Three miles within, is a 


GEORGIA. 


97 


cataract, beyond which voyagers have not penetrated. The roof is a 
solid limestone rock, smooth and flat, and the cave is remarkably uni¬ 
form in size throughout. 

8. Mineral Productions. Copper and iron ore have been found, and 
gold is obtained in considerable quantities. During the four years en¬ 
ding with 1833, upwards of 740,000 dollars worth of gold were received 
at the United States Mint, from Georgia. There are Sulphureous 
springs in Butts County, called the Indian Springs, much resorted to 
for their efficacy in rheumatic and cutaneous disorders. The Madison 
Springs, 25 miles N. W. of Athens, are chalybeate waters. 

9. Divisions. Georgia is divided into 90 counties,* and contains a 
population of 516,823 souls, of which 217,531 are slaves. 

10. Canal. The Savannah and Ogeechee Canal extends from the 
city of Savannah to the river Ogeechee, a distance of 16 miles; it is to 
be continued to the Alaiamaha, 60 miles, with a navigable feeder of 14 
miles. 

11. Railroad. The Alatamaha and Brunswick railroad is to extend 
from the lower part of the Alatamaha, near Darien, to Brunswick, 12 
miles. At the latter place is one of the best harbors in the state. 

12. Toivns. The city of Savannah, on the river of the same name, 
15 miles from the ocean, is built on a low, sandy plain, and contains 
many public buildings. Among these are ten churches, an exchange, 
academy, theatre, hospital, county buildings, &c. It is regularly laid 
out, with wide streets and squares, which are ornamented with the 
China tree. Savannah is the chief commercial town of the state, and 
most of the imports and exports pass through this port. The entrance 
of the river is defended by two forts on Tybee Island, which lies at its 
mouth. Population 7,423. 

The city of Augusta, the interior emporium of the state, stands on 
the Savannah, at the head of steamboat navigation. It is regularly and 
handsomely built, and contains a city hall, the county buildings, seven 
churches, a theatre, hospital, arsenal, &c. There is a bridge across the 
Savannah to Hamburgh, 1,200 feet long. Sixteen large ware-houses 


*Appling 

Effingham 

Laurens 

Randolph 

Baker 

Elbert 

Lee 

Richmond 

Baldwin 

Emanuel 

Liberty 

Scriven 

Bibb 

F ayette 

Lincoln 

Stewart 

Bryan 

Floyd 

Forsyth 

Franklin 

Lowndes 

Sumter 

Bullock 

Lumpkin 

Talbot 

Burke 

Madison 

Taliaferro 

Butts 

Glynn 

Mackintosh 

Tatnall 

Camden 

Greene 

Marion 

Telfair 

Campbell 

Gwinnett 

Meriwether 

Thomas 

Carroll 

Gylmer 

Monroe 

Troup 

Cass 

Habersham 

Montgomery 

Twiggs 

Chatham 

Hall 

Morgan 

Upson 

Cherokee 

Hancock 

Murray 

Union 

Clarke 

Harris 

Muscogee 

Walker 

Cobb 

Heard 

N ewton 

Walton 

Columbia 

Henry 

Oglethorpe 

Ware 

Coweta 

Houston 

Paulding 

W arren 

Crawford 

Irwin 

Pike 

Washington 

Decatur 

Jackson 

Pulaski 

W ayne 

Dekalb 

Jasper 

Putnam 

Wilkes 

Dooly 

Early 

7 

Jefferson 

Jones 

Rabun. 

Wilkinson 

E 


98 GEORGIA. 

receive the merchandise, which is deposited here from the interior. 
Population 6,696. 

Milledgeville, the capital, is pleasantly situated on the Oconee, at the 
head of steamboat navigation, and contains the state-house, county 
buildings, several churches, &c. Population about 1,800. 

Macon is a flourishing town on the Oakmulgee, over which there is a 
bridge. In 1822, it contained one cabin ; in 1830 it had a population 
of 2,600 inhabitants, and contains the county buildings, several churches 
and banks, thirteen ware-houses, &c. Its trade is thriving, and there 
are 25 saw and grist mills in the vicinity. 

Columbus is a thriving town at the Falls of the Chattahoochee, 300 
miles above its junction with the Flint, and 430 miles from Appalachi- 
cola Bay. Steamboats run from here to New Orleans. It stands on 
elevated ground, and is regularly built. It was laid out in 1828, and in 
1830 contained 2,000 inhabitants. 

Darien, lies near the mouth of the Alatamaha, and Athens on the 
Oconee, 90 miles N. W. of Augusta. 

13. Agriculture. Georgia, still more than South Carolina, combines 
the productions of the tropics, with those of more northern latitudes. 
The cereala or bread grains, are cultivated in one part of the state, 
while the sugar cane, olive, and orange, rice, indigo and cotton, are 
raised in another. Tobacco is also raised. Cotton and rice are the 
staples. The cotton crop of Georgia is 250,000 bales. 

14. Commerce. The commerce of this state is chiefly carried on by 
northern vessels, and consists of the exportation of its agricultural 
products. The annual value of the exports varies from four to five 
and a half millions dollars; that of the imports is about $400,000. 

15. Government. The legislature, styled the General Assembly, con¬ 
sists of two houses, a Senate and House of Representatives, chosen an¬ 
nually by the people. The executive power is vested in a Governor, 
who is chosen for the term of two years, by the people. Suffrage is 
virtually universal for whites. 

16. Religion. The Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians, are the 
most numerous sects. There are also Christians, Episcopalians, Ro¬ 
man Catholics, Friends, Lutherans, and some Jews. 

17. Education. The University of Georgia, at Athens, is a flourish¬ 
ing institution. The state has an academic fund of $ 250,000, the pro¬ 
ceeds of which are distributed among the academies, and a free school 
fund of the same amount. There are 90 incorporated academies, many 
of which have never gone into operation, and few of them afford op¬ 
portunities for studying the higher branches of education. 

18. Indians. There are about 12,000 Cherokees residing on their 
own lands, on the borders of Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee. They 
live in villages, and have adopted the manners and arts of civilized life. 
They practise agriculture and the mechanic arts with success, and their 
country is penetrated by good roads. Many of them can read and 
write, and some of them are well educated. Schools have been estab¬ 
lished among them by the missionaries, and the mass of the tribe are 
Christians. A regular government, on the model of the state govern¬ 
ments, has been instituted, consisting of two houses, chosen by popular 
vote, and an executive elected by the legislature. There" is also a 
printing press, at New Echota, the seat of government, from which a 
newspaper and several works in the Cherokee language and character, 


FLORIDA. 


99 


have been issued. The alphabet was invented a few years since by 
one of the natives; it is syllabic, and consists of eighty-five characters. 
Georgia has lately declared the Cherokees subject to her laws. 

19. Hisloi'y. Georgia was the last settled of the Atlantic states. 
The charter, under which the colony was founded, was granted in 
1732, by George II, in honor of whom it received its name. Savannah 
was settled in the following year, by a body of colonists under the di¬ 
rection of General Oglethorpe. The country was repeatedly invaded 
by the Spaniards, who were then in possession of Florida. In 1752 
the proprietary government was abolished, and Georgia became a royal 
colony. In its recent advances in wealth and population, it lias been 
surpassed by few states in the Union. 


XIX. FLORIDA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The territory of Florida is bounded N. 
by Alabama and Georgia ; E. by the Atlantic ocean ; S. by the Florida 
stream, which separates it from Cuba, and W. by the Gulf of Mexico, and 
the river Perdido, which separates it from Alabama. It lies between 
Lat. 25° and 31° N., and Lon. 80° and 87° 44' W., and has an area of 
55,000 square miles. The southern portion forms a peninsula, 350 
miles in length by 150 in breadth, which separates the Gulf of Mexico 
from the Atlantic ocean. 

2. Rivers. The St. John’s rises in the centre of the peninsula, and 
flows northwest, nearly parallel to the Atlantic, presenting more the 
appearance of a sound than a river. Its sources are in an extensive 
marsh very little above the level of the ocean, and as its course is nearly 
300 miles its current must be sluggish. It is navigable about two thirds 
of its course for vessels of six feet draft. The Appalachicola, formed 
by the junction of the Flint and Chattahoochee, flows south into the 
Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 100 miles, through the whole of 
which it is navigable for sea vessels. All the rivers of this region have 
sand bars at their mouths. The other principal rivers are the Escam¬ 
bia and the Suwanee. 

3. Islands. The shore is lined with small low islands, separated 
from each other, and from the main land by narrow and shallow inlets 
and channels. Amelia Island, and Anastatia, on the Atlantic coast, are 
low, sandy strips about fifteen miles in length, by one in breadth. To 
the southwest is a chain of islets called Keys, (from the Spanish cayo, a 
rocky islet,) among which is Key West, or Thompson’s Island, 20 
leagues from the shore. It contains a military port of the United States, 
and has considerable trade. The Tortugas are a cluster of Keys on the 
extreme west of this chain. 

4. Harbors and Shores. The sea along both shores is for the most part 
shallow, but presents some good harbors and fine bays. On the Atlan¬ 
tic coast there are harbors at the mouths of St. Mary’s and St. John’s 
Rivers, and at St. Augustine. On the western side are Appalachicola, 
Appalachee, and Pensacola Bays. Surveys have been made for the 
purpose of ascertaining the practicability of constructing a Canal 
across the peninsula, which show the level of the waters of the gulf to 
be above that of the ocean. 

5. Climate. There is little diversity of climate in Florida, although 


100 


FLORIDA. 


the northern belt, bordering on Alabama and Georgia, is less decidedly 
tropical in its character than the peninsular portion. Water nevor 
freezes, and even in the winter months, or rainy season, the heat of the 
sun is oppressive. Except in the vicinity of marshy tracts, the air is 
in general pure and healthy, though in some parts humid. 

6. Soil. The soil may be described in general as poor, but there are 
many favorable exceptions. There is much swampy and marshy land, 
but the pine barrens constitute a great part of the country. The hum¬ 
mock land, so called, because it rises in small mounds among the pines, 
has a good soil. 

7. Vegetable Productions. The warmth and humidity of the climate 
compensate for the poverty of the soil, and give to Florida a vegetation 
of great variety and luxuriance; its forest trees rise to a great height, 
and its flowering shrubs are remarkable for their brilliancy. The 
northern and central parts are covered with a dense forest, in which 
pine prevails; but the palms, cedar, chestnut, and live oak attain an ex¬ 
traordinary size. The magnolia, so much admired for its beauty, the 
cypress, the pawpaw, with its green foliage and rich-looking fruit, the 
shady dogwood, the titi, with its beautiful blossoms, &c., are found 
here. The low savannas are covered with wild .grass and flowers of 
prodigious growth, and the cane in the swamps is of great height and 
thickness. 

8. Face of the Country. The country in general is flat, but in some 
districts is undulating and in some places hilly. The elevation of the 
ridges or table-land, between the rivers, does not exceed from 200 to 
250 feet. 

9. Divisions. By the Spaniards, Florida was divided into East and 
West Florida, separated by the river Appalachicola. These names are 
retained in common use, though the political division has ceased to 
exist. The territory is now divided into seventeen counties,* with a 
population in 1830, of 34,730, including 15,500 slaves. 

10. Towns. The largest is St. Augustine. It stands on the Atlantic 
coast; the town is regularly built, but the streets are very narrow. The 
houses are built of a soft stone, formed by a concretion of shells. They 
are generally two stories high, with thick plastered walls, and have bal¬ 
conies and piazzas. Connected with most of them are beautiful gar¬ 
dens. The town is surrounded by a ditch, and fortified by bastions, 
and the castle of St. Mark. The soil, in the neighborhood of St. Au¬ 
gustine, is sandy, yet the country is beautiful, producing orange, lemon 
and date trees. The bar, at the entrance of the harbor, has but nine 
feet of water at low tide, but the channel within has from 18 to 20 feet. 
Population about 4,000. 

Pensacola is the chief town in West Florida. It stands at the bot¬ 
tom of a large bay, and occupies a gentle acclivity. The soil here is 
sandy, but the situation is salubrious, and the place is rather thriving. 
The bay affords a very safe and capacious harbor, and the government 
of the United States have made it a naval station. Small vessels only 
can come up to the town. Population about 3,000. 


*Escambia 

Jackson 

Walton 

Washington 

Franklin 


Gadsden 

Hamilton 

Jefferson 

Leon 


Columbia 

Madison 

Alachua 

Duvall 


Mosquito 
Nassau 
St. Johns 
Monroe 


ALABAMA. 


101 


Tallahassee, in West Florida, is the seat of government, and has 
been incorporated as a city. The situation is salubrious, and the 
country around fertile. The place however is yet in its infancy. St. 
Marks, on the Gulf, is a small seaport in the neighborhood. The vil¬ 
lage of Quincy, in the same quarter farther inland, is a flourishing 
place. 

11. Agriculture. The greater portion of the country is yet in a state 
of nature. The articles of culture are maize, sweet potatoes, rice, 
sugar cane, tobacco, cotton and indigo. The land in many parts is well 
fitted for the cultivation of the sugar cane. The olive flourishes and 
bears well. Of fruits, the orange, fig, peach, pomegranate and lemon 
flourish. The cultivation of coffee and the date palm has been intro¬ 
duced. 

12. Government. The government, like that of the other organized 
districts called territories, is vested in a legislative body chosen by the 
people of the territory, and a Governor, appointed by the President of 
the United States. The territory is represented in Congress by a Dele¬ 
gate, who is chosen by the legislature, and is allowed to sit and speak 
in the House of Representatives, but has no vote. 

13. History. This part of the country was visited by Spaniards in 
1512, and the name of Florida was given it by the Spanish discoverer, 
De Leon. The French afterward attempted to form settlements here, 
and called it Carolina, from their King Charles IX. Both of these names 
were at first applied to the whole Atlantic coast, but in process of time 
became restricted to narrower limits. The Spaniards destroyed the 
French colony in 1564, and after wards retained possession of the 
country till 1763, when it was ceded to Great Britain. In 1783 it was 
restored to Spain, by whom, in 1820, it was ceded to the United States, 


XX. ALABAMA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Alabama is bounded north by Tennes¬ 
see ; E. by Georgia, and the river Perdido, which separates it from 
Florida ; S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. It extends 
from Lat. 30° 10' to 35° N., and from Lon. 85° to 88° 30' W. Length 
from N. to S. 330 miles ; mean breadth 150 ; area 52,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The northern part of the state contains the southern 
extremity of the Kittatinny chain, which enters it from the northwest 
angle of Georgia. It is here merely a range of broken, precipitous 
hills, in which rise the head branches of the river Mobile, and which 
separates their sources from those of the streams which run into the 
Tennessee. 

3. Rivers. The Gulf of Mexico is the basin into which all the 
waters of this state, except a small portion in the north, are drained. 
The principal river is the Mobile, whose branches converge from the 
northern, northeastern, and northwestern parts of the state. The Coosa 
and Talapoosa, coming from Georgia, unite and take the name of the 
Alabama, which receives the Cahawba from the northern hills. The 
united waters of the Tombeckbee and Tuscaloosa, or Black Warrior, 
from the northwest, then form a junction with the Alabama, and under 
the name of the Mobile, this combined mass of waters terminates its 
course in the bay of the same name, through two principal mouths, the 


102 


ALABAMA. 


Tensaw and the Mobile. Sea vessels go up to St. Stephens, on the 
Tombeckbee, and to Claiborne, on the Alabama, and steamboats ascend 
to a considerable distance above. The Chattahoochee, on the eastern 
border, and the Tennessee, in the north, receive no considerable tribu¬ 
taries from Alabama. The Conecuh, or Escambia, in the south, runs 
through Florida, into Pensacola Bay. 

4. Bay. This state has only about 60 miles of seacoast, in which is 
comprised Mobile Bay, or the estuary of the river Mobile. It extends 
about 30 miles inland, and communicates with Pascagoula Sound, by a 
shallow strait, through which steamboats and small sail vessels, are 
navigated by an inland chain of lakes and sounds to New Orleans. 

5. Climate. The northern part has an elevation of 2,000 feet above 
the low maritime region, producing a corresponding diversity of cli¬ 
mate in the two regions. But even in northern Alabama, the rivers are 
rarely frozen over, and the southern part of the state can hardly be 
said to have a winter. The heats of summer in the latter section are 
allayed by the sea breezes, and the climate in general is healthy, except 
upon the low moist grounds. 

6. Soil. Along the streams are tracts of very productive alluvion, 
bordering on which is what is called interval or hummock land, a sort 
of intermediate soil between the alluvial river bottoms, and the pine 
barrens. The interval land is of inferior quality, and the pine barrens, 
which comprise a large portion of the surface, are sterile. The natural 
productions of the soil are similar to those of Florida. 

7. Face of the Country. The surface in the north is mountainous 
and broken, and in the centre undulating. As we approach nearer the 
sea, we find a belt of low, level land, from fifty to sixty miles in breadth, 
containing extensive swamps, and in many places subject to inunda¬ 
tions. 

8. Divisions. Alabama is divided into 46 counties,* and contains a 
population of 309,527, in which number are included 117,550 slaves. 

9. Railroads and Canals. The State has a fund for internal im¬ 
provement, raised from the sale of public lands, and appropriations 
have been made for facilitating the navigation of the Tennessee, Coosa, 
Cahawba and Black Warrior. The Tuscumbia Railroad, from Tus- 
cumbia to Decatur, was constructed to avoid Muscle Shoals, in the 
Tennessee. A company has been incorporated for connecting the 
upper counties of Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia, 
with the Alabama, by a series of railroads, side cuts, and locks. A sur¬ 
vey has also been made for a canal from Blakely to Pensacola. 

10. Towns. The city of Mobile is the principal town in the state. 
It has a good, though shallow harbor, and is built on a dry and elevated 


*Autauga 

Dale 

Macon 

Randolph 

Baldwin 

Dallas 

Madison 

Russell 

Barbour 

Fayette 

Marengo 

Sumter 

Benton 

Franklin 

Marion 

St. Clair 

Bibb 

Greene 

Mobile 

Shelby 

Talladega 

Blount 

Henry 

Montgomery 

Butler 

J ackson 

Monroe 

Talapoosa 

Tuscaloosa 

Chambers 

Jefferson 

Morgan 

Clark 

Lauderdale 

Perry 

Walker 

Conecuh 

Lawrence 

Pickens 

Washington 

Wilcox 

Coosa 

Limestone 

Pike 

Covington 

Lowndes 


ALABAMA. 


103 


spot, but is rendered unhealthy by the surrounding swamps. It con¬ 
tains the county buildings, and four or live churches. Mobile is the 
commercial depot of nearly the whole state, and next to New Orleans, 
and Charleston, the greatest cotton market in the country. Steam¬ 
boats run up and down the river, and to New Orleans, and there is an 
active coasting trade with the latter place. Population 3,194. 

Blakely, on the opposite side of Mobile Bay, is'built on a high, open 
and healthy site, with deeper water and a harbor easier of access than 
that of Mobile. St. Stephens, on the Tombeckbee, and Cahawba, on 
the Alabama, are small villages. Tuscaloosa, in the centre of the state, 
on the Black Warrior, is the capital, and contains the state house, 
county buildings, several churches, and the halls of the University. 
Population 2,000. 

In the northern part of the state are Huntsville and Florence, on the 
Tennessee, flourishing towns, with an active trade. 

11. Agriculture. Cotton is the staple production of the state, and 
upwards of 100,000 bales are produced annually. Maize is the usual 
corn crop, but the smaller grains succeed well in the central and north¬ 
ern parts. Tobacco, rice and some sugar are also produced. 

12. Commerce . This consists chiefly in the exportation of articles of 
domestic produce, cotton, beef and pork, and naval stores. The annual 
value of the exported articles is above two and a half million dollars; 
of imports, $300,000. 

13. Government The legislature, styled the General Assembly, con¬ 
sists of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives; the for¬ 
mer is chosen for the term of three years, the latter for one. The 
executive authority is vested in the Governor, who is elected for the 
term of two years. The elections are all by the people, and the right 
of suffrage belongs to every white male citizen, who has resided one 
year within the state. 

14. Religion. The Baptists have 219 churches, and 130 ministers; 
the Methodists 44 preachers; the Presbyterians 27; Roman Catholics 
9, and Episcopalians 2. 

15. Education. The constitution enjoins it upon the General As¬ 
sembly to encourage schools and the means of education within the 
state, and by act of Congress in 1819, one section of land (640 acres) 
was granted to each township for the support of common schools. 
Two townships were likewise granted for the support of a seminary of 
learning, the proceeds of which have been appropriated to the endow¬ 
ment of the University of Alabama, a flourishing institution founded at 
Tuscaloosa in 1828. La Grange Methodist college, near Florence, and 
a Catholic college in Mobile, are the other principal seminaries. There 
are a number of academies in the state. 

16. Indians. The Choctaws amounting to about 16,000 souls, lately 
residing partly in Alabama and partly in Mississippi, have ceded their 
lands and removed beyond the Mississippi: the Creeks, about 20,000 in 
number, have also in part removed to the Indian district west of the 
Mississippi. Those Creeks who remain have become citizens of Ala¬ 
bama, and subject to its laws. 

17. History. Some inconsiderable French settlements were made 
here, early in the eighteenth century. The country was afterwards 
comprised within the limits of the colony of Georgia. In 1802 that 
state ceded her lands west of the Chattahoochee to the United States, 


104 


MISSISSIPPI. 


and in 1817 Alabama was separated from Mississippi, and erected into 
a territorial government. In 1820 it was admitted into the Union as an 
independent State. 


XXI. MISSISSIPPI. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Mississippi is bounded N. by Tennes¬ 
see ; E. by Alabama; S. by the waters of the Mexican Gulf and by Lou¬ 
isiana, and W. by Pearl River, separating it from Louisiana, and the 
Mississippi, which divides it from Arkansaw Territory and Louisi¬ 
ana. It lies between 30° 8' and 35° N. Lat. and extends from 88° 12' 
to 91° 40' W. Lon. It is about 335 miles in length from north to south, 
by 150 in breadth, with an area of 48,000 square miles. 

2. Face of the Countty. The surface in general slopes to the south¬ 
west, and to the south, as appears by the course of the rivers. There 
are no mountains within the limits of the state, but numerous ranges of 
hills of moderate elevation give to a great part of the surface an undu¬ 
lating and diversified character. Some of the eminences rise abruptly 
from the bank of a river, or from a level plain and bear the name of 
bluffs. The western border on the Mississippi is an extensive region 
of swamps, inundated by the river; and between the Mississippi and 
the Yazoo, there is a tract of 170 miles in length, by 50 in breadth, with 
an area of nearly 7,000 square miles, annually overflowed by the former. 
The southeastern counties are low, but waving, and on the shore of 
this state, the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, which further west is marshy, 
first begins to appeal* solid, dry, and covered with pines. 

3. Rivers. The Mississippi washes the western border of the state, 
and receives the Yazoo, the Big Black river and the Homochitto from 
Mississippi. The Yazoo rises in the northern part of the state, and has 
a course of about 250 miles. The Tombeckbee flows from the north¬ 
eastern corner of the state into Alabama. The Pascagoula which rises 
in the eastern part, and runs into the bay of the same name, after a 
course of 260 miles, is navigable for small vessels. The Pearl has its 
sources in the centre of the state, and, taking a southerly course, emp¬ 
ties itself into the Rigolets between Lakes Pontchartrain and Borgne. 
Its navigation is impeded by rafts, shallows and sand bars. 

4. Bays and Islands. Pascagoula Bay, or rather Sound, is 55 miles 
in length, by 8 in width, with from 10 to 18 feet of water. It commu¬ 
nicates with Mobile Bay by Heron Pass, with Lake Borgne by Christian 
Pass, and is separated from the Gulf of Mexico by a chain of low, 
narrow, sandy islands. The Passes or straits admit the passage of 
vessels drawing 6 feet of water. Lake Borgne lies principally in 
Louisiana. Ship Island, Cat Island and Horn Island are sterile banks 
of sand. 

5. Climate. The winters are several degrees colder than in the At¬ 
lantic states of the same latitude, and rarely pass without snow. The 
summers are long and hot, and long droughts often succeed excessive 
and protracted rains. Along the rivers, and stagnant waters it is un¬ 
healthy, but the settled districts are in general healthy, though even in 
these, bilious complaints prevail in autumn. 

6. Soil. The greater proportion of the soil is highly fertile; the 
southwestern counties contain large tracts of excellent land, and the 


MISSISSIPPI. 


105 


fivers throughout the state are skirted by belts of a productive soil. 
The bluff lands are the richest, and the river alluvions are next in 
point of fertility. Pine barrens constitute a considerable part of the 
country. 

7. Natural Productions. The native trees most commonly occur¬ 
ring are the pine, various species of oak, and hickory, black walnut, 
beech, persimon, and locust. Buckeye, which in the valley of the 
Ohio is a forest tree, is here a dwarf; dogwood, and papaw are also 
common, but the cane, which formerly abounded, has in a great mea¬ 
sure disappeared. 

8. Divisions. Mississippi is divided into 43 counties,* and has a 
population of 136,621, of which 65,659 are slaves. 

9. Towns. Natchez, is the only large town in the state. It stands 
principally on a bluff, or high bank upon the Mississippi, 320 miles 
above New Orleans, and 300 feet above the common level of the 
stream. The streets are broad, and some of the public buildings are 
handsome. Here is a branch of the United States bank. The busi¬ 
ness is chiefly confined to the lower town, and this is the chief place 
in the state for the shipment of cotton. Great numbers of steamboats 
and river craft are continually arriving and departing. In the rear of 
the town, the country is variegated and delightful, and the hills are 
clothed with woods and vineyards. The opposite bank of the river 
in Louisiana is a vast cypress swamp. Natchez is incorporated as a 
city, yet the insalubrity of the climate has hitherto prevented it from 
becoming more than a town of moderate size. It is often visited by 
the yellow fever. Pop. 2,790. 

Jackson, on Pearl River, is the seat of government. The situation 
is central, healthy and agreeable. Monticello, stands on Pearl river, 
and Warrenton, on the Mississippi. Vicksburg, at the Walnut Hills, on 
the Mississippi, has grown up within a few years, and exports much 
cotton to New Orleans. Steamboats regularly ply between the two 
places. It has a remarkably picturesque situation, being seated on 
the shelving side of several high hills, with the houses scattered about 
in groups upon the terraces. 

10. Intci'nal Improvements. A railroad from Woodville to St. Fran- 
cisville in Louisiana, a distance of 28 miles, along the eastern side of the 
Mississippi, and another from Vicksburg to Clinton, Hinds county, 
about 35 miles, have been undertaken. A pass or outlet from the Mis¬ 
sissippi, 30 miles below the St. Francis, to the Yazoo, is to be rendered 
navigable; this work will save a distance of 50 miles, and avoid the 
current of the Mississippi. 

11. Agriculture. Cotton is the staple of this state, and is raised in 
every part. Hardly anything else is thought worthy of attention. 


* Adams, 

Hancock, 

Amite, 

Hinds, 

Atala, 

Holmes, 

Carroll, 

Jasper, 

Choctaw, 

Jackson, 

Clark, 

Jefferson, 

Claiborne, 

Jones, 

Copiah, 

Kemper, 

Covington, 

Lauderdale : 

Franklin, 

Lawrence, 

Greene, 

Lowndes, 


Leake, 

Scott, 

Madison, 

Smith, 

Marion, 

Tallahatchee, 

Monroe, 

Warren, 

Neshoba, 

Washington, 

Noxabee, 

Wayne, 

Oktibeeha, 

Wilkinson, 

Perry, 

Pike, 

Winston, 

Yalobusha, 

Rankin, 

Yazoo. 

Simpson, 

E * 


106 


LOUISIANA, 


Sugar cane has been introduced only in the southern part. Both the 
climate and soil are adapted to the cultivation of tobacco, maize, sweet 
potatoes, rice and indigo. The palma christi, or castor oil bean, fiom 
which castor oil is made, thrives. The peach and fig are the common 
fruits, and apples are cultivated to advantage in some parts 

12. Indians. The Choctaws and Chickasaws, who till lately occu¬ 
pied the northern half of the state have recently removed to the Indian 
district west of the Mississippi. The number of the Chickasaws is 
about 4,000. 

13. Religion. The Methodists and Baptists are the most numerous 
sects. There are also Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. 

14. Education. Jefferson college at Washington, near Natchez, is 
in part a military institution. The state has a literary fund, and there 
are several flourishing seminaries, but no system of primary education 
has been established. 

15. Government. The legislative houses are styled the Legislature 
of Mississippi, and consist of a Senate, chosen for the term of four 
years, and a House of Representatives, elected for two years. The gov¬ 
ernor is chosen by the people every two years. The elections are 
popular, and suffrage universal, with the exclusion of blacks. The 
constitution was revised in 1832. 

16. History. This part of the country early formed a part of French 
Louisiana, and in 1716, a French fort was built at Natchez. In 1763 
it was ceded to Great Britain, and in 1783 fell to Spain as part of 
Florida. In 1798 that power relinquished it to the United States, and 
in 1801, the country comprising the present states of Alabama and 
Mississippi was formed into a Territory. In 1817 theflatter was admit¬ 
ted into the union as an independent State. 


XXII. LOUISIANA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Louisiana is bounded north by Arkansaw 
Territory; E.by the Mississippi and Pearl rivers, which separate it from 
Mississippi, and by the Gulf of Mexico; S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and 
W. by the river Sabine and the Mexican province of Texas. It extends 
from Lat. 29° to 33° N., and from Lon. 89° to 94° 25' W. It is 240 
miles long from north to south, and from 150 to 300 miles in breadth, 
having an area of 48,320 square miles. 

2. Face of the Country. The surface of this state is low and in gene¬ 
ral level, with some hilly ranges of little elevation in the western part, 
and numerous basins or depressions of the soil. The great Delta of the 
Mississippi, comprised within the Atchafalaya on the west, the Iberville 
on the east, and the Gulf of Mexico, and amounting to one fourth part 
of the state, has in general an elevation of not more than ten feet above 
the Gulf, and is annually inundated by the spring floods. A great part 
of the Delta is composed of sea-marsh, which also forms the whole 
southern coast to the Sabine, and which, through its whole extent, is 
subject to inundations by the high tides. North of this marsh spreads 
out the vast level of the prairies, which is but slightly elevated above the 
former. The western margin of the Mississippi, to the northern border 
of the state, is a low strip intersected with numerous river channels, and 
overflowed by the spring floods. To the west of this belt and north of 


Louisiana. 


107 


the prairies, is an extensive region comprising about one half of the sur¬ 
face of the state, considerably broken, but nowhere exceeding 200 feet 
in elevation. Phe section north of the Iberville and Lake Pontchar- 
train, and east of the Mississippi is of a similar description with 
the northwestern region, and like that is principally covered with 
pine. 

3. Rivers. The Mississippi traverses this state from north to south, 
and passes to the sea through several outlets, affording navigation for 
ships of any size. The Red River, which rises in the Rocky Mountains 
in the northern part of the Mexican United States, enters the northwest¬ 
ern corner of Louisiana, and joins the Mississippi 250 miles above New 
Orleans, after a course of 2,000 miles. The volume of its waters does 
not correspond with the length of its course, and, in common with the 
Arkansaw, it partakes in some measure the character of a river of the 
desert. Soon after entering Louisiana, the river divides into numerous 
channels, over an alluvial tract of 70 miles in length by eight or ten in 
width, and forms a maze of interlocking water courses separated by isl¬ 
ands overgrown with thickets. The bed of the river was here choked up 
for the distance of 150 miles by fallen trees, forming what is called the 
Raft, most of which has lately been removed. The river is navigable, in 
some seasons, for steamboats 1,000 miles above this place. The Wash¬ 
ita, rises in the Masserne mountains in Arkansaw, and joins the Red 
River near its mouth. The Atchafalaya, receives several bayous or out¬ 
lets from the Red River and the Mississippi, and empties itself into the 
bay of the same name. A raft, formed in the bed of this river, by the 
accumulation of floating trees and mud, obstructs its navigation. The 
Teche which rises in the prairies of Opelousas joins the Atchafalaya on 
the western side; vessels of seven feet draft ascend it to New Iberia, 
above 100 miles. The Plaquemine, and Lafourche, are mouths of the 
Mississippi. The Iberville, is the upper mouth of that stream on the 
left, and joins the Amite at Galvezton, from which place it is navigable 
for sloops. 

The Sabine rises in the Mexican provinces, and forms the western 
boundary of the United States for a considerable .part of its course. 

4. Lakes. In the northwestern part of the state there is a series of 
lakes, formed in the valley of the Red River by the overflowing of that 
river. When the water is high, it sets back and Alls these reservoirs, 
which are nearly drained again during the dry season. Similar appear¬ 
ances are presented along the Mississippi and its outlets. Lakes Maure- 
pas, and Pontchartrain are shallow bodies of water connected with each 
other, and with Lake Borgne, by narrow channels. Lake Pontchartrain 
is 45 miles in length, with a mean breadth of about 12 miles. Lakes 
Sabine, Calcasiu, and Mermentau are similar sheets of water, formed by 
the expanding of the rivers of the same names. The term lagoon is a 
more appropriate designation of these bodies of water. 

5. Islands. The Chandeleur Islands lie on the eastern coast. They 
are little more than heaps of sand covered with pine forests, yet some of 
them are cultivated. West of the Mississippi are many others, scattered 
along the coast. Here is the island of Barataria, formerly noted as a 
nest of pirates: it lies in a. bay which receives the waters ot a lake of 
the same name. The soil of these islands is generally rich. They are 
covered with thick groves of live oak and other trees, and harbor 
multitudes of deer, turkeys, and other wild game. Most of them are 


108 


LOUISIANA. 


low and level, but others rise from the flat surface around them, in 
abrupt eminences of 100 feet in height. There are some very fertile 
islands in the Mississippi. 

6. Shores, Inlets, fyc. The shores of the Gulf of Mexico are generally 
low, and bordered by wide marshes. The whole coast is intersected 
by a chain of bays and inlets, connected with each other by a thousand 
tortuous channels, generally shallow, and of difficult navigation. Ver¬ 
milion, Cote Blanche, Barataria and Atchafalaya Bays, are the largest, 
but are of little service for shipping. What is called Lake Borgne is 
properly a bay, communicating with Lake Pontchartrain by the straits 
or passes* of the Rigolets and Chef Menteur. It is important as afford¬ 
ing an inland navigation to New Orleans. 

7. Climate. What has been said of the climate of Mississippi is in 
general applicable to that of this state. In the low and wet districts the 
summers are unhealthy, and these parts are often visited by the yellow 
fever ; but a large part of the state is healthy. The climate in winter 
is more severe than in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast, and the 
streams and ponds are sometimes frozen over. 

8. Soil. A great part of the surface of this state is periodically over¬ 
flowed by the waters of the Mississippi. From a survey, made by 
order of the government of the United States, in 1828, it was found that 
the river inundated an extent of above 5,000,00(J acres, a great propor¬ 
tion of which is rendered unfit for cultivation in its present state. 
This immense alluvial tract embraces soil of various descriptions, 
which may be arranged into four classes. The first, which is thought 
to be equal to two thirds of the whole, is covered with heavy timber, 
and an almost impenetrable undergrowth of cane and other shrubbery. 
This portion is quickly drained as the river retires into its natural 
channels, and has a soil of the greatest fertility. The second class 
consists of cypress swamps. These are basins, or depressions of the 
surface, from which there is no natural outlet, and which, being filled with 
water by the floods, remain covered with it until the water is evapora¬ 
ted or absorbed by the earth. These by draining, might become excel¬ 
lent rice fields. The third class embraces the sea marsh, a belt of land 
partially covered by common tides, but subject to inundation from the 
high waters of the gulf during the equinoxial gales; it is generally 
without timber. The soil in some parts is clayey, and in others, as 
black as ink, and cracks by the heat of the sun into fissures wide 
enough to admit a man’s arm. The fourth class consists of small 
bodies of prairie lands, dispersed in different parts of the alluvial 
territory. These spots are elevated, and without timber, but of great 
fertility. 

The pine woods have generally a poor soil. The interval lands 
upon the rivers, or bottoms, as they are universally termed in the 
western states, are almost always rich. On the Red River, the soil 
contains a portion of salt, and is of a dark red color, from its containing 
oxide of iron. A great proportion of the prairies are second rate land, 
and some of them are sterile. 

The richest tract in the state, is a narrow belt called the coast, lying 
along the Mississippi on both sides, and extending from 150 miles 

* The word pass applied to straits in Louisiana is the French pas, a strait. 
Bayou, also of French origin, signifies a small stream, or outlet of a lar^e river or 
sheet of water. 


LOUISIANA. 


109 


above New Orleans, to 40 miles below. It is from one to two miles 
wide, and lies below the level of the river in ordinary inundations. It 
is defended from the river by a dike or levee, 6 or 8 feet in height, and 
sufficiently wide for a highway. The whole of this tract is under 
cultivation, and produces the richest crops of sugar. 

9. Divisions and Population. Louisiana is subdivided into thirty- 
three parishes,* and contains a population of215,739; of which, 109,588 
are slaves. 

10. Canals. Carondelet canal extends from New Orleans to the 
bayou St. John, connecting lake Pontchartrain with the Mississippi; 
length 1£ miles. Lafourche canal, passing from the Lafourche to 
Lake Verret, and Plaquemine canal, from the Mississippi to the Plaque- 
mine, are only navigable at high water. The New Orleans and 
Teche canal, 100 miles in length, is in progress. 

11. Railroad. Pontchartrain Railroad, extends from the lake to 
New Orleans, 4\ miles. An artificial harbor and a breakwater, are 
constructing at its termination. 

12. Towns. The city of New Orleans, stands on the left bank of 
the Mississippi, 105 miles from its mouth. When the river is full, the 
surface of the water is from two to four feet above the streets of the 
city ; at low water it is rather below the front street, but is above the 
swamps in the rear. To prevent inundation a levee or embarkment 
runs along the river. The city is regularly laid out with the streets 
intersecting each other at right angles. Above the city proper are the 
faubourgs or suburbs of St. Marie, Duplantier, and Annunciation; 
below are Marigny, and Duclouet, and in the rear St. John. A series 
of works has been undertaken for draining, raising and cleansing the 
city, which will probably render it less unhealthy, than it has hereto¬ 
fore been. 

The public buildings are not remarkable either for size or architec¬ 
ture. The cathedral is of brick with four towers. It fronts upon a 
large square near the river. The Presbyterian church is a handsome 
edifice of brick. The French theatre is an unsightly pile without, but 
the interior is splendid. Here are also a college, a convent of Ursuline 
nuns, an orphan asylum, and many benevolent institutions. The spot 
on which the city is built, although the most eligible which the banks 
of the river afford in this quarter, has great disadvantages. The 
ground is soft and marshy, and there are no cellars to any of the build¬ 
ings. 

As a place of trade, New Orleans has immense advantages. It is 
the outlet for all the commerce of the Mississippi and its tributaries. 
It is accessible for ships of the largest size, and its levee is constantly 
crowded with all kinds of maritime and river craft. In the cotton 
season, its streets are barricadoed with bales. There are often 1,500 


* Ascension, Concordia, ' 

Assumption, East Feliciana, 

Avoyelles, West Feliciana, 

East Baton Rouge, Iberville, 

West Baton Rouge, Jefferson, 

Carroll, Lafayette, 

Catahoola, Livingston, 

Claiborne, Lafourche (Interior,) 


Orleans, St. James, 

Natchitoches, St. John Baptist, 
Plaquemines, St. Landry, 

Pointe Coupee, St. Martin’s, 
Rapides, St. Mary’s, 

St. Bernard, St. Tammany 

St. Charles, Terre Bonne, 

St. Helena, Washington, 

Washitau. 


no 


LOUISIANA. 


flat boats in the harbor at a time. Steamboats arrive and depart every 
hour, and 50 may be often seen together. 

This city was in the possession of the Spanish and French before it 
came into the possession of the United States, and it now exhibits a 
striking mixture and contrast of manners, languages and complexions. 
Half the population is black or mulatto, and there are more French 
than Americans. It is the most dissolute city in the United States. 
Gambling houses are licensed ; and swarms of profligate persons are 
collected here from every quarter. It is but just to add, that the sta¬ 
tionary part of the population is not liable to these imputations. The 
police is energetic, and justice is promptly administered. 

Notwithstanding the insalubrity of the place, it has rapidly increased 
in population, wealth and commerce. The value of its exports has ex¬ 
ceeded sixteen and a half millions of dollars, in a single year; 360,000 
barrels of flour have been inspected here, and upwards of 400,000 
bales of cotton exported in that period. January 8th, 1815, the British 
army was totally defeated before New Orleans, by the American troops 
under General Jackson. Population 46,310. 

Baton Rouge, 50 miles above New Orleans, is a pretty village, with 
houses in the French and Spanish style, and contains a military post 
and an arsenal of the United States. It is on the lowest highland, or 
Bluff Point, in descending the river. 

Alexandria, on Red River, 150 miles from the Mississippi by the 
windings of the stream, is a pleasant village, in the centre of a rich cot¬ 
ton district, and ships large quantities of that article by steamboats and 
river craft. Natchitoches, 80 miles above, at the head of steam naviga¬ 
tion, is the frontier town of the United States towards the Mexican ter¬ 
ritories, and is more than a century old. The population is a mixture 
of Indian, Spanish, French, and American. It has been under the 
rule of all these powers, and has had its war dances, fandangoes, French 
balls, and backwoodsmen’s frolics. The trade with Mexico centres 
here ; and it transmits to that country manufactured goods, spirits and 
tobacco; and receives silver bullion, horses, and mules. Many fugi¬ 
tives from justice, and lawless characters, resort hither; yet the town 
has much respectable Society, and a newspaper in French and English 
is published in the place. 

A few miles west of Natchitoches, is the ancient town of Adayes, 
founded by the Spaniards, and exhibiting the most complete specimen 
of an old Spanish town in this country. It consists of houses a hun¬ 
dred years old, and a little old church, decorated with coarse paintings. 
The inhabitants are all Spanish. It is about 25 miles from the Mexican 
frontier. 

Madisonville, near the northern shore of Lake Pontchartrain, stands 
on a healthy spot, and is a summer residence for the people of New 
Orleans. Opelousas, and St. Martinsville, west of the Mississippi, are 
thriving settlements, surrounded by a fertile and well cultivated district. 

13. Agriculture. Sugar and cotton are the staples of the country. 
The sugar cane is raised chiefly on that tract of the river alluvion, call¬ 
ed the coast, and upon the shores of the gulf, and some of the bayous. 
It is planted in cuttings, or slips, and is cultivated nearly in the same 
way as maize. The rows are six feet apart. The soil should be of the 
richest quality, and a foot in depth. There are four varieties of cane, 
the African, Otaheitan, West Indian, and Riband cane. The last is a 


SOUTHERN STATES. 


Ill 


new variety, and its stalk is marked with parallel stripes. It ripens 
some weeks earlier than the other kinds, and will flourish farther north. 
Alter the cane is cut, it lies a few days to ferment, and is then passed 
through iron rollers, which press out the juice : this is evaporated by 
boiling, and the sugar crystallizes. The crop amounts to about 90,000 
hogsheads. Rice and sugar succeed only in the southern part of the 
state, but cotton, maize, tobacco and indigo thrive in ail parts. Of 
fruit trees, the peach, fig, and orange are most generally cultivated ; but 
the latter are often killed by the frost. Agriculture, as a science, is in 
its infancy, and the labor is performed by slaves. 

14. Commerce. All the commerce of the state centres at New Or¬ 
leans, and it is chiefly transacted by vessels belonging to other parts of 
the country. The shipping of the state amounts to 56,000 tons; the 
annual value of the imports is about $9,000,000; of the exports 16£ 
millions. The exported articles of domestic produce include all the 
agricultural and manufactured productions of the valley of the Mis¬ 
sissippi ; but sugar and cotton are the most important. 

15. Government. The legislature is styled the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The former is 
chosen for the term of four, and the latter for two years. The Gov¬ 
ernor is elected for the term of four years by the General Assembly, 
which must choose one of the two candidates voted for by the people, 
that have the greatest number of votes. The right of suffrage is ex¬ 
tended to all white male citizens. 

16. Religion. The Roman Catholics are the most numerous re¬ 
ligious sect in the state, which is divided into 20 ecclesiastical parishes. 
The Baptists have 14 ministers, the Methodists six preachers, and there 
are some Presbyterians and Episcopalians. 

17. Education. The Roman Catholic College of Orleans, in New 
Orleans, the College of Louisiana, at Jackson, and Franklin College, at 
Opelousas, are the principal seminaries. The legislature appropriates 
about $ 40,000 per annum, for the education of the poor, and the United 
States have granted to the state 46,000 acres of land for a college, and 
873,000 for schools. 

18. History. Louisiana was first explored and occupied by the 
French, by whom it was ceded to Spain, in 1763. It was afterward 
restored to the former, in 1800, and in 1803 was purchased by the 
United States for $ 15,000,000. This purchase, however, included the 
whole vast tract of country to the west of the Mississippi. In 1804, the 
southern part of the country was set off as a Territory under the name 
of the Territory of Orleans, and in 1812 was admitted into the Union as 
an independent state, by the name of Louisiana. 


XXIII. SOUTHERN STATES. 

I. Boundaries and Extent. The seven states last described, viz.: Vir¬ 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, 
and Louisiana, are known by the general designation of the Southern 
States. Their boundaries, including the territory of Florida, may be 
described in general terms as the Potomac, the Ocean, the Gulf of 
Mexico, the Mississippi, the Sabine, and the state of Tennessee. Lying 
between 25° and 40° 30' N. Lat., and extending from 75° to 94° 30' W. 


112 


SOUTHERN STATES. 


Lon., they comprise an area of 412,000 square miles, and contain a 
population of 3,744,000 souls, of which 1,557,000 are slaves. 

2. Mountains. The Appalachian chains, which range over the 
greater part of Virginia, only skirt the northwestern boundaries of the 
states further south, and disappear in the northern part of Alabama. 

3. Rivers. Most of the rivers flow through a level country. Their 
currents are sluggish, and their mouths generally barred with sand. 
With the exception of some of the streams in the western part, which 
flow westward into the upper portion of the Mississippi valley, all the 
rivers of the southern states flow southerly or easterly into the Atlantic, 
or Gulf of Mexico. They mostly have their origin in the elevated re¬ 
gion of the Appalachian mountains. 

4. Bays, Sounds , fyc. The largest are in the northern part of this 
region. Chesapeake Bay is the deepest and most convenient for navi¬ 
gation in the country. Southward of Pamlico Sound, there are no 
large bays on the Atlantic ; the coast is uniform to the Gulf of Mexico. 
The largest navigable bay in this quarter, is that of Mobile. The la¬ 
goons of Louisiana are shallow, and little available for the purposes of 
navigation. 

5. Shores and Capes. Every part of the coast is low and flat, with¬ 

out a single lofty headland, to warn the navigator of his approach to 
the land. The capes of North Carolina do not project far into the sea, 
but they are beset with shoals, and are the most dangerous spots upon 
our coast, south of Nantucket. The peninsula of Florida may be con¬ 
sidered as an immense cape, and much the largest in the United States. 
The Mississippi has formed at its mouth, by the mud brought down in 
its waters, a cape, 40 miles in extent, the extreme point of which is 
called the Balize, through the whole length of which, the river passes 
into the Gulf of Mexico. , 

6. Climate. In the northern and mountainous parts, the climate is 
temperate and healthy ; but a great portion of this territory may be 
characterized as subjected to a climate, hot, moist, and insalubrious. 

7. Soil. Some of the richest soils in our country are in the southern 
states. Almost all the good lands are alluvial; their peculiarities have 
been already described. The poor soils are commonly sandy, and these 
tracts occupy a great portion of the surface. 

8. JYatural Productions. It is in these states, that the productions 
of nature exhibit the greatest luxuriance and variety. Here may be 
seen the magnificence of the primitive forests, and the exuberant vege¬ 
tation of the marshy alluvion. The long-leaved pine, known by the 
names of the pitch pine, and the yellow pine, grows to the height of 60 
or 70 feet. Its timber is exported in great quantities, and it furnishes 
naval stores, or tar, pitch and turpentine, not only sufficient for home 
consumption, but also for exportation. About 100,000 barrels of turpen¬ 
tine, and 20,000 gallons of spirits of turpentine are exported annually. 
The turpentine is the sap procured by making incisions into the trunk ; 
by distillation this yields the spirits of turpentine, and a residue called 
rosin. Tar is made by burning the dead wood, and pitch is prepared 
from tar by evaporation. The live oak, so called from its evergreen 
leaves, is invaluable for ship building. It grows to the height of 40 or 
45 feet, and is found in this country only between the Chesapeake Bay 
and the river Sabine, and never more than twenty miles from the sea. 
The dark and gloomy cypress, the graceful palmetto, and the beautiful 


SOUTHERN STATES. 


113 


magnolia, are common in this region. The red bay, with its aromatic 
leaves, is a noble tree attaining the height of 70 or 80 feet. 

9. Inaabitants. The population ischiefly of English descent, though 
in some places somewhat mixed. There are many descendants of the 
French and Spanish, particularly in Louisiana and Florida. In Loui¬ 
siana, French is extensively spoken, and the laws are printed in that 
language as well as in English. The negroes, who form about two 
fifths of the population, constitute a separate caste and are mostly held in 
slavery. The Indians, recently numerous, have been removed, with 
the exception of some of the Cherokees, to the Indian district west of 
Arkansaw Territory. 

There is some difference in the articles of food in the northern and 
southern states. In the latter, rice is much used, chiefly boiled, and 
eaten with meat; hominy is a preparation of maize, coarsely broken 
and boiled; gritz is somewhat similar, but reduced to a finer state. 
Yams, sweet potatoes, and the fruit of the tomata are favorite vegeta¬ 
bles, but the Irish potatoe is little raised. Whiskey is more generally 
drank than any other spirituous liquor. 

10. Diseases. The most general diseases, are the bilious and inter¬ 
mittent fevers. They are the scourge of all the low countries, from the 
Potomac which flows into the Atlantic, to the Sabine which enters the 
Gulf of Mexico. From many districts, all the white inhabitants who 
have the means, remove at the approach of summer, and return not till 
after a frost. Those who remain, are sallow, slender, and feeble. The 
yellow fever is a desolating pestilence at New Orleans, but it is seldom 
very destructive in other cities. The negroes are not sickly in summer, 
except on the rice plantations, where they work much in the water; 
but in winter many of them die of pulmonary diseases. 

11. Manners and Customs. The inhabitants of this section are al¬ 
most entirely occupied with agriculture ; indeed this is so much the 
case that the commerce is principally in the hands of the northern 
people, from whom are also received most of the manufactured articles 
which are consumed. They are seldom collected together in villages 
and towns, like their northern countrymen, but live in a scattered man¬ 
ner over the country. This is owing in part to the prevalence of agri¬ 
cultural over commercial and mechanical occupations, but chiefly to the 
fact that the labor is done by slaves. Instead of small proprietors, cul¬ 
tivating their own little farms with their own hands, we here find ex¬ 
tensive plantations, carried on under the direction of the owner or his 
agent, who merely manages the pecuniary matters, directs operations, 
and oversees the laborers. This state of things has a decided influence 
upon the manners and character of the people, yet there are so great 
individual differences, that no general description will apply to the 
Virginian, the Carolinian, and the Louisianian. Hospitality and gene¬ 
rosity are among the favorable traits of the southern character. The 
poorer class of whites enjoy less advantage in respect to education and 
religious instruction, than those of the north, and are in general less in¬ 
dustrious and frugal. 

12. Slaves. The slaves, in general, are humanely treated, well fed, 
and not overtasked. Some laws relating to them are severe, but many 
of these are not enforced, or are of very rare application. It must be 
observed that the comfort of the slaves is dependent on the humanity 
of their owners, whose interest it is to keep them in health and 

8 


114 


SOUTHERN STATES. 


strength. Their food and clothing vary somewhat in different dis¬ 
tricts, but, generally, they are allowed a peck of Indian corn a week; 
This is the chief article of food, though it is occasionally varied by a 
month’s change of sweet potatoes or red peas and broken rice. Rice* 
on the plantations where it is raised, is principally given out as food. 
No one is held to give more than the above quantity, but custom pre¬ 
scribes a provision ground and garden. Humane owners allow every 
day to the working hands, molasses to eat with hominy, or a salted fish, 
though these are withheld for ill behavior. The slaves raise poultry, 
but it is to sell; eggs and chickens are too flavorless for their taste, 
which is more gratified with salted meat, fish, molasses and rum. The 
young lads who work in the fields, if only in scaring birds, have the 
full allowance of provision. They have indeed so many facilities for 
acquiring a little property, that, with common prudence, they might 
have many comforts ; yet to be a slave, is to be careless of tomorrow, 
and hopeless of the future. They sell their little productions to the 
family, or elsewhere, at their option. 

For clothes, six yards of woollen are allowed yearly to the men, and 
five to the women ; the children are measured from crown to heel, and 
they have cloth of twice the length. In winter a handkerchief is given 
to the women, and a cap to the men. The summer allowance of 
clothing, if any, is six yards* of homespun to each working hand. The 
old and infirm have flannel. There are more dresses, however, on a 
plantation than are given by the owners. When the boat or waggon 
goes to market, the negro sends his little produce or sells it nearer 
home, and the avails are often laid out in finery: the women have 
handkerchiefs for turbans, and calico gowns. The children in summer 
wear little clothing, but a shirt, and many are even without that. 

On every plantation there is a nurse ; and the overseer, who must be 
a white, has, in the absence of the owner, a chest of medicines. The 
slaves have three days at Christmas, with meat, pipes, tobacco and rum 
enough for festivity. They have Sundays, new year’s day, and a day 
for harvest. They often gain a day by doing the task of three days in 
two, and every woman who has seven children, has Saturday to wash 
and mend for them. She who has five children, has every third Satur¬ 
day. The tasks are rarely severe, except in ginning the cotton, or sep¬ 
arating it from the seed, and at the harvest on rice lands. In summer 
and spring the negroes often leave the fields at three and four o’clock, 
and in winter at one o’clock ; though in some places it is much later. 

Their marriages are rarely any thing more than a connection sub¬ 
sisting during pleasure; their amusements are few, chiefly music and 
dancing; many of them can play and sing in a rude manner. The 
laws in regard to the slaves differ considerably in different states, with 
some general points of resemblance. Slavery is hereditary, and the 
servitude of the mother determines that of the child. Some few of 
the slaves are little darker than the whites; and when such claim their 
freedom, their color, in some states, throws the burden of proof upon 
the other side; but in the case of those evidently of African descent, the 
color is held to be a sufficient indication of bondage, till the negro fur¬ 
nishes testimony of his freedom. 

The slaves are, in every state but Louisiana, chattels personal, and 
may be sold to pay the debts or bequests of the master. In some 
states, certain separations in their families are forbidden; though, gene- 


TENNESSEE. 


115 


rally, the wife may be separated from the husband, and the child from 
both. 

The slave can make no contracts, nor can he legally hold any proper¬ 
ty. He can commence no suit, nor can a free negro, without the inter¬ 
vention of a special guardian. The testimony of a negro, is not admit¬ 
ted in a civil or criminal suit against a white. There are in all the 
states restraints upon manumission; as a population of free blacks is 
felt to be dangerous to the subordination of the others. 

In all the states, negroes travelling without a pass, are liable to be 
seized, advertised, and sold. The general punishment for minor of¬ 
fences, is whipping, which may be inflicted by any owner or overseer. 
There are various laws, to restrain cruel punishments, or tasks, and to 
prescribe a sufficient allowance of food and clothing. 

The best security of the slaves, is in the force of custom, public opin¬ 
ion, and in the humanity, or interest of the masters. On some planta¬ 
tions, there are premiums and prizes allowed to the slaves for good 
conduct, and no one is punished till after conviction by a jury of his 
equals. General instruction is prohibited, as ignorance is supposed to 
be necessary to the security of the institution. The slaves may indeed 
attend the usual places of public worship, but these are few. 

A slave is tried for a capital offence by two justices, and from two to 
five freeholders; and more offences are capital in him, than in a white> 
It is punishable with death for a slave to attempt to commit murder, 
burglary, robbery, &c.—or to attempt to burn a house, or out buildings 
connected with a house. The murder of a slave, by a white, is in 
every state punishable with death. 


XXIV. TENNESSEE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Tennessee is bounded N. by Kentucky; 
E. by North Carolina; S. by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and 
W. by the river Mississippi, which separates it from Arkansaw and 
Missouri. It lies between Lat. 35° and 36° 30' N., and extends from 
Lon. 81° 4(f to 90° 15' W., comprising an area of 45,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. Several parallel chains of the Appalachian system 
traverse the eastern part of the state. The Cumberland mountains, a 
continuation of the Laurel chain, enter the state from Virginia, extend 
through it in a southwesterly direction, dividing it into two natural 
sections, called by geographers East Tennessee and West Tennessee, 
and pass into Alabama. The eastern boundary is formed by the Kit- 
tatirmy chain, under the local names of Iron Mountain, Bald Moun¬ 
tain, Unika Mountain, &c. The Cumberland chain is nowhere above 
1,000 feet in elevation, and is wooded to its summit. But it forms long 
and continuous ridges, which are interrupted only at great intervals by 
passes or gaps. 

3. Valleys. The valleys of the small rivers are extremely beautiful, 
and rich beyond any of the same description in the Western States. 
The valleys of the great streams, the Tennessee and Cumberland, 
differ little from the alluvions of the other great rivers of the West. 
In the small valleys are many fine plantations, so lonely that they 
seem lost among the mountains. 

4. Rivers. The Tennessee rises in the Alleghany Mountains, tra- 


116 


TENNESSEE. 


verses East Tennessee, and part of Alabama, re-enters Tennessee, crosses 
almost the whole width of it into Kentucky, and runs into the Ohio, 57 
miles above its junction with the Mississippi. It is near 1,200 miles in 
length, and is the largest tributary of the Ohio. It has numerous 
branches, and is navigable for boats for 1,000 miles; most of the 
branches rise among the mountains, and are too shallow for navigation, 
except during the floods, which take place occasionally at all seasons 
of the year, and admit flat boats to be floated down to the main stream. 

The principal branches are the Holston and Clinch, from the south¬ 
western part of Virginia, and the French Broad, and Hiwassee, from 
North Carolina. The current of the Tennessee is in general rapid, and 
is favorable only to downward navigation. At Muscle Shoals, the river 
expands to a width of several miles, and is very shallow. The principal 
tributaries of the Tennessee are the Elk and Duck. The river Cum¬ 
berland rises in the Cumberland mountains in Kentucky, and after a 
course of nearly 200 miles in tha^ state, passes into Tennessee, through 
which it makes a:circuit of 250 miles, when it re-enters Kentucky, and 
falls into the Ohio. In Tennessee it has several branches ; it is a broad, 
deep, and beautiful stream ; steamboats of the largest size ascend this 
river to Nashville, and keel boats, in moderate stages of the water, 300 
miles further. The Obion, Forked Deer, Big Hatchy, and Wolf rivers, 
in the western part of this state, flow into the Mississippi; these are all 
navigable for boats. No part of the western country is better watered 
than Tennessee. 

5. Climate. The climate is delightful, being milder than in Ken¬ 
tucky, and free from the intense heat which prevails in the southern 
portion of the Mississippi valley. Snows of some depth are frequent in 
the winter, but the summers, especially in the higher regions, are mild. 
In these parts, the salubrity of the climate is thought to equal that of 
any part of the United States; but the low valleys, where stagnant 
waters abound, and the alluvions of the great rivers, are unhealthy. 

6. Soil. The soil in East Tennessee is remarkably fertile, contain¬ 
ing great proportions of lime. In West Tennessee the soil is various, 
and the strata descend from the mountains in the following order; first, 
loamy soil, or mixtures of clay and sand; next, yellow clay; thirdly, a 
mixture of red sand and red clay ; lastly, white sand. In the southern 
parts, are immense beds of oyster shells, on high table land, at a dis¬ 
tance from any stream; some of these shells are of an enormous size. 
The soil of the valleys and alluvions is extremely fertile. 

7. JVatural Productions. Nearly all the forest trees of the western 
country are found in this state, but the laurel tribes are not common. 
Juniper, red cedar, and savin cover the mountains. Apples, pears, and 
plums, are raised in great perfection. The sugar maple is very abun¬ 
dant. 

8. Minerals. Gypsum, marble, and iron ore are the most valuable 
and abundant mineral productions. Lead mines have been worked, 
and saltpetre is obtained from the nitrous earth of the limestone caves. 
The gold region extends into the northeastern part of the state, but gold 
has not been found in great quantities. There are numerous sulphure¬ 
ous springs in the eastern part of Tennessee. 

9. Face of the Country. The surface is more diversified, than that of 
the other Western States. Eastern Tennessee is mountainous or hilly, 
and presents highly picturesque scenery. Towards the centre of the 


TENNESSEE. 


117 


state, the surface softens imperceptibly into less bold outlines, and west 
of the Tennessee, it slopes gradually down to the bed of the Missis¬ 
sippi. 

10. Curiosities. There are numerous large caverns, some of which 
are known to have an extent of 10 miles, containing lofty rooms, and 
considerable streams. Numerous remains of some former inhabitants 
are dug up, consisting of urns, vases, &c., and some high rocky preci¬ 
pices have been found covered with paintings. Petrifactions are also 
common. 

11. Divisions. Tennessee is divided into 64 counties, of which 24 
are in East, and 40 in West Tennessee. Population, 681,904; of which 
141,603 are slaves. 

12. Towns. Nashville, in West Tennessee, is the largest town in 
the state, and the seat of governmeflt. It stands on the south bank of 
Cumberland river, in a pleasant situation, near some high bluffs. It 
has a college, and is much frequented during the hot months, by the 
inhabitants of the lower country. The river is navigable by steamboats 
to this place. The State Bank of Tennessee, and a branch of the 
United States Bank, are established here. A state prison has recently 
been built here on the Auburn plan. Population, 5,566. 

Knoxville is the chief town of East Tennessee. It is situated on the 
Holston, and is a thriving place, with some manufactories. East Ten¬ 
nessee college is in Knoxville. Population, 3,000. 

Murfreesborough, in West Tennessee, was formerly the seat of go¬ 
vernment for the state ; the country around it is fertile, but it is a small 
town. Memphis has a fine situation on the site of old Fort Pickering, 
on the Mississippi, at a point where the great western road strikes the 
river. It is a new settlement, but is a growing place. 

13. Agriculture. Cotton is the chief article of culture, but wheat, 
rye, barley, oats, and maize, are also raised. All the fruits of the United 
States, except oranges and figs, grow luxuriantly here. The attention 
of the farmers seems likely to be diverted from cotton, in consequence 
of the low price of that article, and the inferior quality which the lands 
in this state produce. 

14. Manufactures. The manufactures of iron, hemp, cotton and 
cordage are considerable in amount, but there are no large manufac¬ 
turing establishments. 

15. Government. The legislature is called the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The members 


r est Tennessee. 

Humphreys 

Bedford 

Jackson 

Carroll 

Lawrence 

Davidson 

Lincoln 

Dickson 

Madison 

Dyer 

Maury 

Fayette 

Me Nairy 

Fentress 

Montgomery 

Franklin 

Obion 

Gibson 

Overton 

Giles 

Perry 

Hard i man 

Robertson 

Hardin 

Rutherford 

Haywood 

Shelby 

Henderson 

Smith 

Henry 

Sumner 

Hickman 

Stewart 


Tipton 

Cocke 

Warren 

Grainger 

W ayne 

Greene 

Weakly 

Hamilton 

White 

Hawkins 

Williamson 

Jefferson 

Wilson 

Knox 

East Tennessee 

Me Minn 
Marion 

Amoi 

Monroe 

Anderson 

Morgan 

Bledsoe 

Rhea 

Blount 

Roane 

Campbell 

Sevier 

Carter 

Sullivan 

Cherokee 

Washington 

Claiborne 


118 


KENTUCKY. 


of both houses are cnosen for the term of two years, by the people as is 
also the Governor. Suffrage is universal. Clergymen are excluded 
from office. 

16. Religion. The Baptists have 141 ministers; the Methodists, 
125 ; the Presbyterians, 80; the Lutherans, 10. 

17. Education. Greenville Gollege, at Greenville, was founded in 
1794. The University at Nashville, founded in 1806, is one of the 
most important institutions in the Western States. It has a good philo¬ 
sophical apparatus, and mineralogical cabinet. East Tennessee college 
is at Knoxville, and there is a Presbyterian theological institution at 
Maryville in East Tennessee. A manual labor school has recently been 
established in Maury county near Columbia. 

18. History. Tennessee is one of the oldest of the Western States, 
and the first settlements were made in the year 1757. The earliest 
inhabitants were emigrants from North Carolina and Virginia, and the 
country was included within the limits of North Carolina till 1790, 
when it was placed under a territorial government, with the name 
of the Territory South of the Ohio. In 1796, a constitution was form¬ 
ed, and Tennessee was admitted into the Union as an independent 
state. 

XXV. KENTUCKY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Kentucky is bounded N. by the river 
Ohio, separating it from Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio; E. by Virginia, 
from which it is separated by the Big Sandy river and the Cumberland 
Mountains; S. by Tennessee, and W. by the Mississippi, which sepa¬ 
rates it from Missouri. It extends from 36° 30' to 39° 10 / N. Lat., and 
from 82° to 89° 30' W. Lon., with an area of 40,500 square miles. 

2. Face of the Country. The surface has a general slope towards the 
northwest, together with a gradual declivity to the west. The elevation 
of the southeastern counties is about 1,200 feet above the sea, while that 
of the western is not more than 350. The latter form an almost ab¬ 
solute level, which towards the centre rises into rounded swells, pre¬ 
senting an agreeably diversified and undulating appearance, and forming 
a central table-land of no great elevation. The eastern part is broken 
and mountainous. On the southern border is a tract improperly called 
the Barrens, consisting of rounded, detached hills, wooded with oak, 
chestnut and elm. 

3. Rivers. The Cumberland and Tennessee have a part of then- 
course in this state, and the Ohio and Mississippi wash its borders. 
The Big Sandy rises in the Appalachian mountains in Virginia, and 
flows into the Ohio, after a northwesterly course of about 250 miles, for 
50 of which it is navigable for boats. Licking river has a course of 
200 miles, and is navigable during the season of high'water. The river 
Kentucky rises on the northwestern slope of the Cumberland Mountains, 
and has a rapid current and a deep rocky bed. Large steamboats go up 
to Frankfort 60 miles. Green River flows through a country remark¬ 
able for its fertility and beautiful scenery, and has a course of upwards 
of 200 miles, for most of which distance it is navigable for boats. 

4. Climate. The climate of this state does not differ materially from 
that of Tennessee. The air, however,,is somewhat more moist. The 
winter begins late in December, and never lasts longer than three 
months. 

5. Soil. This state has a highly fertile and productive soil, although 


KENTUCKY. 


119 


there are some sterile tracts. In the centre of the state, is a region of 
about 150 miles long, by from 50 to 100 wide, which from its richness 
is called the garden of the state. The tracts called barrens, are by no 
means unproductive, but received that name because they were origi¬ 
nally naked of trees. The whole country rests upon a bed of limestone 
from three to ten feet below the surface, which gives great vigor to the 
vegetation. 

6. Minerals. Salt and iron are the most important minerals. The 
most extensive salt-works west of the mountains, are in Kentucky. 
Iron is wrought to a considerable extent. Bituminous coal, limestone, 
marble, and nitrous earth, which yields large quantities of saltpetre, 
abound. Petroleum or mineral oil, which ignites easily and burns 
brilliantly, has been found. 

7. Mineral Waters. There are numerous salt springs, called licks by 
the inhabitants, from the circumstance that the earth about them is 
licked by the bison and deer. The Olympian springs fifty miles east 
of Lexington, and the Blue Licks, not far from Maysville, are sulphure¬ 
ous. The Harrodsburg springs in Mercer county, and the Greenville 
springs in Muhlenburg, are saline waters, and the former in particular 
are much resorted to. 

8. JVatural Curiosities. This state, like Tennessee, abounds in ex¬ 
tensive caverns. Mammoth cave, near Green River has been explored 
16 miles. About 20 rooms have been discovered, and here are found 
subterranean streams, waterfalls, and pits of an unknown depth. 

In this state are also many singular cavities or depressions in the 
surface of the ground, called ‘sink holes.’ They are commonly in the 
shape of inverted cones, 60 or 70 feet in depth, and from 60 to 600 feet 
in circumference at the top. Their sides and bottoms are generally 
covered with willows and aquatic productions. The ear can often 
distinguish the sound of waters flowing under them, and it is believed 
that they are perforations in the bed of limestone below the soil, which 
have caused the earth above to sink. Sometimes the ground has been 
opened, and disclosed a subterraneous stream of water at the bottom of 
these cavities. 

9. Divisions and Population. Kentucky is divided into 83 counties,* 


Adair. 

Estill 

Jefferson 

Oldham 

Allen 

F ayette 
Fleming 

Jessamine 

Owen 

Anderson 

Knox 

Pendleton 

Barren 

Floyd 

Laurel 

Perry 

Bath 

Franklin 

Lawrence 

Pike 

Boone 

Gallatin 

Lewis 

Pulaski 

Bourbon 

Garrard 

Lincoln 

Rockcastle 

Bracken 

Grant 

Livingston 

Russel 

Breckenridge 

Grayson 

Logan 

Spencer 

Bullitt 

Graves 

Madison 

Scott 

Butler 

Greene 

Mason 

Shelby 

Caldwell 

Greenup 

Macracken 

Simpson 

Callaway 

Hancock 

Meade 

Todd 

Campbell 

Hickman 

Morgan 

Trigg 

Casey 

Hardin 

Mercer 

Union 

Christian 

Harlan 

Monroe 

W arren 

Clarke 

Harrison 

Montgomery 

Washington 

Clay 

Hart 

Muhlenburg 

Wayne 

Cumberland 

Henderson 

Nelson 

Whitely 

Davies 

Edmonson 

Henry 

Hopkins 

Nicholas 

Ohio 

Woodford 


120 


KENTUCKY. 


and contains a population of 687,917; of which 165,213 are slaves. 

10. Railroad. The Lexington and Ohio railroad, extends from 
Lexington, through Frankfort, to Shippingport, two miles below Louis¬ 
ville, a distance of 66 miles. There are Macadamized roads from 
Maysville to Lexington 64 miles, and from Bardstown to Louisville, 
40 miles. 

11. Canal. The Louisville and Portland canal passes round the 
falls of the Ohio,-between those two towns. It is 2 miles in length, 

1 admits the passage of steamboats of the largest size. Most of it is 
cut through a solid rock of limestone. It overcomes a fall of 24 feet in 
the river. 

12. Towns. The city of Louisville stands on the southern bank of 
the Ohio, about a quarter of a mile above the principal declivity of the 
falls; a stream called Beargrass Creek, falls into the river above the 
town, and affords a harbor for the steamboats and river craft. The site of 
the city is a gently sloping plain; the principal streets run parallel with 
the Ohio, and command a fine view of the opposite shore. The main 
street is a mile in length, compactly built, and has many fine buildings. 
The town has considerable manufactures of cordage and bagging, and 
a great commerce by wav of the river. Population at present is about 
14,000. 

Lexington is the oldest town in the state, and was for many years 
the seat of government. It stands in a beautiful spot, in the centre of 
the richest tract in the state. The principal street is a mile and a quar¬ 
ter in length, spacious, and well paved. The buildings are much supe¬ 
rior in size and elegance to those of the other towns in the state, and 
may compare with those of the Atlantic country. The Transylvania 
University is established here. The town has manufactories of woollen, 
cotton, cordage, paper, &c. The general appearance of the town is 
neat, and the neighborhood is adorned with many handsome villas, and 
finely ornamented rural mansions. Population, 6,104. 

Maysville, on the Ohio, a considerable distance above Louisville, 
occupies a narrow bottom below the mouth of Limestone Creek, which 
affords a harbor for boats. It is a thriving town, and enjoys both the 
river and inland trade. It has manufactories of glass and other articles. 
Population, 2,040. 

Frankfort is the seat of government. It stands on the east bank of 
the Kentucky, 60 miles above its entrance into the Ohio, and occupies 
a deep valley. The state house is built of rough marble, taken from 
quarries in the deep limestone banks of the river. Here is also the 
state penitentiary. A chain bridge crosses the river. Vessels designed 
for the sea, have been built here, and floated down the river to New 
Orleans. Population, 1,680. 

Newport and Covington are two small towns on the Ohio, divided 
by Licking river. They are directly opposite Cincinnati, and may be 
considered as suburbs of that city. Newport has an arsenal of the 
United States. These towns exhibit a beautiful appearance, from the 
hills north of Cincinnati. 

13. Manufactures. Kentucky has become a considerable manufac¬ 
turing state. Cotton and woollen goods, cordage, glass, and iron, are 
the principal articles of manufacture. 

14. Agriculture. Hemp, wheat and tobacco are the staples of the 
state; the wheat is of the finest kind, and maize is raised in great abun- 


OHIO. 


121 


dance. All the grains and fruits of the temperate climates are culti¬ 
vated with success. Considerable wine is made ; much flax and some 
cotton are produced. 

15. Commerce. An extensive trade is carried on by the Ohio in 
steamboats and river craft; partly up the river through the Ohio canal 
and to Pittsburg, but chiefly with New Orleans. There is also an 
active overland trade with the Atlantic States. Flour, butter, cheese, 
beef, pork, maize, whiskey, cider, hemp and tobacco, are the principal 
articles of export. Cattle, horses and swine are also sent out of tlfo 
state in great numbers, down the river or across the mountains. The 
annual value of the exports exceeds three million dollars. 

16. Government. The legislature, styled the General Assembly, con¬ 
sists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senators are 
chosen for the term of four years; the Representatives for one ; the 
Governor is chosen for four years. All the elections are popular and 
suffrage is universal. 

17. Religion. The Baptists in this state have 289 ministers; the 
Methodists 77 preachers; the Presbyterians 90; the Roman Catholics 30 
priests, and the Episcopalians 5 ministers. 

18. Education. Transylvania university at Lexington, is one of the 
most important seminaries in the Western States; medical and law 
schools are connected with it. Cumberland college at Princeton, is 
patronised by the Cumberland Presbyterians: Centre college at Danville, 
by the Presbyterians; St. Joseph’s at Bardstown by the Roman Catho¬ 
lics; Augusta college at Augusta, by the Methodists; and Georgetown 
college at Georgetown, by the Baptists. The state has a literary fund, 
but the system of free schools has not been introduced. Elementary 
schools are, however, numerous. 

19. History. This state was originally a part of Virginia, and was 
first settled by the celebrated Daniel Boone and others in 1769. In 
1790 it was separated from Virginia, and admitted into the union in 
1792. The present constitution was adopted in 1799. 


XXVI. OHIO. 

1 . Boundaries and Extent. Ohio is bounded N. by Michigan Terri¬ 
tory and Lake Erie; E. by Pennsylvania ; S. E. and S. by the river 
Ohio which separates it from Virginia and Kentucky, and W. by Indi¬ 
ana. It lies between 38° 30 and 42° N. Lat., and extends from 80° 40 
to 84° 48 W. Lon.; superficial area 44,000 square miles. 

2. Face of the Country. The central portion of the state is a table¬ 
land of considerable elevation, from which the surface slopes to the Erie 
basin on the north, and the Ohio on the south. The northern or Erie 
plain has a more rapid declivity .than the southern slope, and the rivers 
which flow down its surface are much broken by falls, which are more 
rare on the Ohio side. The surface in general is undulating and 
agreeably diversified, often spreading out into extensive plains, but no¬ 
where rising into mountains. 

3. Rivers. The Ohio washes the southern border of tne state, 
affording great advantages for navigation. The principal rivers flowing 
into the Ohio basin are the Muskingum, the Scioto, and the Miami, 
the general character of which has already been described. 


122 


OHIO. 


The Muskingum rises in the northeastern part of the state, and flows 
southerly into the Ohio. It is 200 miles in length, and is navigable for 
boats 100 miles. It is connected by a canal with Lake Erie. The 
Scioto rises in the central part, and flows southerly into the Ohio. It 
is about 200 miles in length, and is navigable 130. There are rich and 
beautiful prairies on this river, and its valley is wide and fertile. The 
Ohio canal passes along this valley, and extends northeasterly to the 
Muskingum. The Great Miami rises in the western part, and flows 
southerly to the Ohio; it is about 100 miles in length, and has a strong, 
but smooth and unbroken current. The Little Miami flows nearly pa¬ 
rallel to the former, into the Ohio. Both these streams water a pleasant, 
healthy, and fertile country. The rivers of the Erie basin have a shorter 
course, and are obstructed by falls and rapids. The Maumee rises in 
the northeastern part of Indiana, and flows through the northwestern 
part of this state into Lake Erie, after a course of 220 miles; it is broad 
and deep, but has an obstruction, from shoals and rapids, 33 miles 
above its mouth. The Sandusky rises in the northern part, and flows 
northerly into Lake Erie: it is 100 miles in length, and is navigable 
for some distance. The Cuyahoga is a small stream in the northeast, 
falling into Lake Erie. The Ohio canal passes along its valley to the 
lake. 

4. Bays and Harbors. This state has above 150 miles of coast upon 
Lake Erie. This extent embraces several harbors. Sandusky Bay, in 
the west, is 20 miles in length, and from three to four wide; it commu¬ 
nicates with the lake by a narrow strait, and affords an excellent 
harbor. The harbor of Cleveland, at the outlet of the Ohio canal, and 
that of Ashtabula, farther east, are frequented by steamboats and other 
lake craft. 

5. Soil. Nine tenths of the surface of this state are susceptible of 
cultivation. The intervals of the rivers are highly fertile. In the inte¬ 
rior, are the largest tracts of rich level plain, in any settled portion of 
the United States. The prairies produce no timber except a few scat¬ 
tered trees, and now and then a small grove. Some of them are 
marshy, and the more elevated are called barrens, yet they have often 
a tolerably fertile soil. The eastern and the southeastern parts are the 
most hilly; but hardly any portion of the surface is sufficiently broken 
to be unfavorable to tillage. The marshy tracts in the north, have an 
excellent soil, and may be easily drained when all the other good land 
in the state is occupied. On the whole, Ohio may be regarded as one 
of the most fertile countries in the world. 

6. Climate. On account of the general elevation of the surface 
which is from 700 or 800 to upwards of 1000 feet above the level of 
the sea, the general temperature is several degrees lower than in the 
Atlantic regions, in the same parallel. The winters are often severe, 
and the Ohio has been frozen at Cincinnati, for two months. The 
summer is subject to tornadoes, but the autumn is always temperate, 
serene, and pleasant. Along the valley of the Ohio, the weather is 
more equable and mild than in the interior. In the southern part there 
is little snow; in the north, the snows are deep, and there is much 
sleighing in winter. Near marshy spots and stagnant waters, fevers 
and agues prevail, especially among the new settlers: but in general 
the state may be pronounced healthy. 

7. Minerals. The four most important of all mineral productions, 


OHIO. 


123 


coal, salt,'limestone and iron abound. Iron and coal are found chiefly 
in the northeastern part of the state. Marble and freestone, well adapt¬ 
ed for architectural purposes, and gypsum occur. The salt springs are 
numerous, and the brine is strong. The Yellow Springs in Green coun¬ 
ty, 64 miles north of Cincinnati, have been used with advantage in 
cases of chronic diseases. The waters are chalybeate, and have a tem¬ 
perature of 52°. 

8. Natural Vegetable Productions. The forests produce black wal¬ 
nut, various species of oaks, hickory, sugar maple, and several other 
sorts of maple, beech, birch, poplar, ash, sycamore, pawpaw, buckeye, 
cherry, dogwood, elm, hornbeam, &c. With the exception of a few 
cypress trees, this state produces hardly any evergreens. Many sorts 
of medicinal roots are to be found here, as ginseng, valerian, columbo, 
snakeroot, and bloodroot. 

9. Divisions. Ohio is divided into seventy three counties,* which 
are subdivided into townships, and has a population of 937,903, includ¬ 
ing, 9,568 free blacks. 

10. Canals. The Ohio and Erie, and the Miami canals have been 
constructed by the state. The former begins at Cleveland, passes up 
the valley of the Cuyahoga, thence crosses the Portage summit to the 
Muskingum, whose valley it follows to Dresden, above Zanesville ; 
then passing into the valley of the Scioto, below Columbus, it termi¬ 
nates at Portsmouth on the Ohio ; length, including several navigable 
feeders, 334 miles. The Miami canal, beginning at Cincinnati, runs 
north into the valley of the Miami, which it follows, to its termination 
at Dayton, 67 miles. It is intended to continue the Miami canal to the 
Maumee at fort Defiance, and down its valley to the lake. The 
Wabash and Erie canal passes into this state from Indiana. 

11. Railroads. A number of companies have been incorporated, 
with powers to construct railroads in different directions. Among the 
most prominent projects are the Mad River and Erie railroad, to extend 
from Dayton to Sandusky, 140 miles, and the Pennsylvania and Ohio 
railroad, from Pittsburg to Massillon on the canal, 110 miles. 

12. Towns. The city of Cincinnati is the principal town in the state, 
and in point of population and business, second only to New Orleans, 
among the western cities. It is situated on the north bank of the Ohio, 


* Adams 
Allen 
Ashtabula 
Athens 
Belmont 
Brown 
Butler _ \ 
Champaign 
Clark 
Clermont 
Clinton 
Columbiana 
Coschocton 
Crawford 
Cuyahoga 


Fayette 

Franklin 

Gallia 

Geauga 

Greene 


Guernsey 

Hardin 

Hamilton 

Hancock 

Harrison 

Henry 

Highland 


Lawrence 


Licking 

Lorain 

Logan 

Madison 

Marion 

Medina 

Meigs 

Mercer 

Miami 

Monroe 


Portage 

Preble 

Putnam 

Richland 

Ross 

Sandusky 

Scioto 

Seneca 


Dark 

Delaware 

Fairfield 


Jefferson 

Knox 


Hocking 

Holmes 

Huron 

Jackson 


Pickaway 

Pike 


Montgomery 

Morgan 

Muskingum 


Paulding 

Perry 


Shelby 

Stark 

Trumbull 

Tuscarawas 

Union 

Van Wert 

W arren 

Washington 

Wayne 

Williams 

Wood 


124 


OHIO. 


497 miles west of Washington, in Lat. 39° 6' N. and Lon. 84° 22' W. 
It is regularly laid out with broad, strait streets intersecting each other 
at right angles, and in general is well built. It stands on two plains, 
of which the upper is about 60 feet above the lower, which is exposed 
to occasional inundations. There are 26 churches, a theatre, two hos¬ 
pitals, county buildings, banks, &c. A water company supplies the 
city with water, which is raised from the Ohio by steam engines, into 
reservoirs 158 feet above low watermark, and thence distributed among 
the houses. The growth of this city has, perhaps, never been surpass¬ 
ed in rapidity. In 1810 it contained a population of 2,540 souls; by 
the census of 1830, the number of inhabitants had increased to 24,831, 
and it is now (1833) estimated to exceed 30,000. Its commerce and 
manufactures are extensive and increasing. There are about 40 manu¬ 
factories propelled by steam ; ten or twelve iron works are in activity, 
and much cabinet work is done here ; 150 steamboats have been built 
at Cincinnati, and river and canal craft crowd its waters. Its transit 
trade is considerable; the annual value of imports is upwards of five 
million dollars, and that of the exports is greater. The latter are 
flour, provisions, whiskey, manufactured articles, &c. The schools 
are numerous and respectable, and considerable printing is done here. 

Columbus, the seat of government, is in the centre of the state, on 
the eastern bank of the Scioto. It contains a state house, state prison, 
the county buildings, three churches, an asylum for deaf mutes, &c. 
A canal eleven miles long, connects this town with the Ohio and Erie 
canal. It is a flourishing place. Population 2,435. There are no 
large towns beside Cincinnati, but many thriving villages are springing 
up in various quarters. Steubenville is prettily situated in the eastern 
part of the state, and has three churches, cotton and woollen manu¬ 
factories, flour mills, &c. Population 2,937. Lower down the river 
is Marietta, situated in a delightful country, with a population of 1207; 
it is one of the oldest settlements in the state, having been founded in 
1787. Portsmouth stands above the junction of the Ohio and Scioto, 
and has acquired importance from its position at the termination of the 
Ohio canal. It is rapidly increasing. Population 1,063. 

In the north on Lake Erie, Cleveland and Sandusky are growing 
places. Sandusky has a pleasant situation, on the bay of the same 
name, and a flourishing transit trade. In 1830 there were upwards of 
500 arrivals here, and 2,000 wagons entered and left the town. Cleve¬ 
land, .at the mouth of the Cuyahoga, and the termination of the Ohio 
canal, is a small village but with great commercial advantages, which 
are rendering it very thriving. It has a good harbor, which admits 
vessels drawing seven feet of water. 

Chillicothe on the Scioto is beautifully situated in a pleasant plain, 
and contains a number of flourishing manufactories, and oil, flour, and 
saw mills. Population 2,847. Circleville, between Columbus and 
Chillicothe, derives its name from the numerous remains of ancient 
works in a circular form, which occupied its site. Population 1,136. 
The Ohio and Erie canal passes through these towns. 

Dayton, at the junction of the Mad river with the Miami, and at the 
termination of the Miami canal, has great natural advantages in its 
extensive water-power, afforded by the Mad river. It contains numer¬ 
ous mills and manufactories, and has received a new impulse from the 
construction of the canal. Population 2,950. 


OHIO. 


125 


13. Agriculture. The soil and climate are in a high degree suitable 
to the growth of tobacco, hemp, and flax; maize is raised in great 
quantities, and grows abundantly in all parts of the state. The other 
bread grains are produced of excellent quality, and fruits of all kinds 
are raised in profusion. The bread grains, live stock, and salted provi¬ 
sions are the staples of the state. 

14. Commerce. The advantages for trade which are secured by the 
local position of this state may be perceived by glancing at the map. 
The Ohio affords it a direct intercourse with all the country in the val¬ 
ley of the Mississippi; while by means of Lake Erie on the N. it com¬ 
municates with Canada and New York. The Ohio canal completes a 
line of internal navigation from New York to New Orleans through 
this state. Ohio enjoys the most active commerce of all the Western 
States. The northern and eastern counties export to Montreal and 
New York by the lake, great quantities of agricultural produce. But 
the chief of the exports are to New Orleans. The articles are flour, 
grain, pork, bacon, lard, whiskey, horses, and cattle. 

15. Manufactures. The domestic fabrics are considerable, and there 
are some large manufactories of woollen, cotton, paper, glass, &c. at 
places already indicated. The manufacture of steam machinery, and 
other articles from iron, is considerable. To these may be added lin¬ 
seed and castor oil, whiskey, cabinet furniture, and salt. 

16. Government. The legislature is called the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The senators 
are chosen for two years, and the representatives for one. The Go¬ 
vernor is chosen for two years. Suffrage is universal, and elections are 
popular. 

17. Education. There are five collegiate institutions in Ohio; Miami 
university at Oxford; Ohio university at Athens; Franklin college at 
New Athens; Kenyon college at Gambier, and western Reserve col¬ 
lege lately founded by the Christians at Hudson. There are also a 
Baptist theological seminary, at Granville, the Lane theological and 
literary seminary at Cincinnati, and a medical college at the same 
place. There are some incorporated academies, and in 1831, the sys¬ 
tem of free schools was established by law, the schools to be supported 
by a tax on property. 

18. Religion. The Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists are the 
most numerous sects, and there are many Lutherans, German Reform¬ 
ed, and Episcopalians. Swedenborgians, Roman Catholics, Unitarians, 
Universalists, Friends, and Shakers are also found. 

19. History. The territory lying north of the Ohio was organised 
with a territorial government in 1789, under the title of the Western 
Territory. Settlements had been formed here the year previous, 
chiefly by emigrants from New England, and in forty years from that 
date, Ohio was the fourth state of the Union in point of population. 
In 1802 the eastern part of the Territory, then called the Territory 
Northwest of the Ohio, was erected into an independent state under the 
name of Ohio. 


126 


XXVII. INDIANA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Indiana is bounded N. by Lake Michi¬ 
gan and the Territory of the same name ; E. by Ohio ; S. by the river 
Ohio, which separates it from Kentucky, and VV. by Illinois, from 
which it is in part separated by the Wabash. It extends from 37° 50' 
to 41° 50' N. Lat, and from 84° 48' to 88° W. Lon. It has an average 
breadth of 140 miles, and a length of 200, with an area of 36,400 square 
miles. 

2. Rivers. The Ohio washes the southern limit of the state. The 
Wabash rises in the northeastern part, and flows southwest nearly 
across the state, when it turns to the south, and flows into the Ohio, 
forming towards its mouth the western boundary. It is 500 miles in 
length, and is navigable for steamboats 300 miles; above this point, 
small boats may ascend to the source of the river. White River 260 
miles in length, and Tippecanoe river, are branches of the Wabash. 
Steamboats ascend the White River to Indianapolis. The Tippecanoe 
is celebrated for a battle fought upon its banks in 1811, between 
the United States troops and the Indians. White Water river, in 
the -eastern part of the state, flows southerly to the Great Miami, a 
few miles above its mouth ; its waters are remarkably cold and trans¬ 
parent. 

3. Climate. On the borders of Lake Michigan, heavy rains are com¬ 
mon, and the climate is considered unhealthy. In the other parts, it 
does not differ from that of Ohio. In the middle and southern parts 
there is seldom more than six inches depth of snow, but in the north 
there is sometimes a foot and a half. Peach trees blossom early in 
March. The forests are in leaf early in April. There are vast quanti¬ 
ties of flowering shrubs which put forth their blossoms before they are 
in leaf, and give an indescribable charm to the early spring. Frosts 
often do great injury to the vegetation, both in spring and autumn. The 
winter is seldom longer than six weeks. 

4. Soil. This state is generally level and fertile. All the rivers have 
uncommonly wide alluvial borders. The prairies along the Wabash 
are celebrated for their richness and beauty. Many of the prairies 
and intervals are too rich for wheat. In the northern part are 
swampy tracts, which are too wet for cultivation; but in general 
a better country could hardly be desired for all the purposes of agri¬ 
culture. 

5. Minerals. Iron, native copper, and coal, have been found in this 
state, and there are salt springs in some parts, yet the mineral produc¬ 
tions are, on the whole, inconsiderable. 

6. Caves. There are great numbers of caves in this state, most of 
which are very little known. On the bank of Big Blue River, a small 
stream falling into the Ohio, is the Epsom Salt Cave. About a mile 
and a half within the cave is a white column, 30 feet high, fluted from 
top to bottom, and surrounded by smaller columns of the same shape 
and appearance. The floor of the cave is covered with Epsom salt. 

7. Face of the Country. The northern part of the state is an elevated 
table land, which is level and wet, and gives rise to rivers flowing into 
Lakes Michigan and Erie, and the rivers Ohio and Mississippi. A great 
part of the surface is rolling, and agreeably diversified with hill and val¬ 
ley, The prairies form a striking feature in the face of the country. 


INDIANA. 


127 


8. Divisions . Indiana is divided into 69 couuties* with a population 
of 343,031 souls. 

9. Canals and Railroads. A canal connecting the navigable waters 
of the Wabash, with the Maumee is in progress, and the general gov¬ 
ernment has made a grant of lands to aid in its completion. Several 
companies have been incorporated for constructing railroads from the 
Ohio to Indianapolis, and to several points on the Wabash, and a rail¬ 
road has been projected from the same place to lake Michigan. 

10. Towns. Indianapolis, in the centre of the state, on the White 
River, is the seat of government. It contains the county and state 
buildings, and has a population of 1,200. 

Vincennes is an old French town, and is pleasantly situated in a 
delightful region, 150 miles from the mouth of the Wabash. The pop¬ 
ulation in 1830, amounted to only 1,500, but the place is rapidly in¬ 
creasing. 

Albany, just below Louisville, is the principal town in the state, and 
has already become an important commercial and manufacturing place, 
with about 4,000 inhabitants. 

The other villages are small, but many of them are flourishing, and 
daily growing in population. Such are Lawrenceburg, and Madison 
on the Ohio ; Vevay, chiefly settled by Swiss, who have extensive 
vineyards; and New Harmony, founded by a German society, who 
held their property in common; in 1824 it was bought by Robert 
Owen of Lanark, who wished to introduce into practice here his new 
principles of the social system, perfect equality and the abolition of the 
obligations of marriage ; his scheme failed and his followers were dis¬ 
persed, but the village is now a flourishing place. 

Lafayette and Loganport are thriving towns on the upper part of the 
Wabash. 

11. Agriculture. The articles of culture are similar to those of Ohio. 
The vineyards at Vevay are flourishing and profitable, and the products 
increase yearly. The Cape or blue grape, and the Madeira grape, have 
been principally cultivated. Recently, the native American grapes 
have grown into esteem ; they are thought to produce better wine, and 
to be more easy of culture. Foreign grapes have a tendency to grow 
too succuldfit. 

12. Government. The legislature is called the General Assembly, 


Allen 

Fountain 

Lagrange 

Ripley 

Bartholomew 

Franklin 

Laporte 

Rush 

Boone 

Gibson 

Madison 

St. Joseph 

Carroll 

Grant 

Marion 

Scott 

Cass 

Greene 

Martin 

Shelby 

Clark 

Hamilton 

Miami 

Spencer 

Clay 

Hancock 

Monroe 

Sullivan 

Clinton 

Harrison 

Montgomery 

Switzerland 

Crawford 

Hendricks 

Morgan 

Tippecanoe 

Davies 

Henry 

Orange 

Union 

Dearborn 

Huntington 

Owen 

Vanderburg 

Decatur 

Jackson 

Park 

Vfermilion 

Delaware 

J effei'son 

Perry 

Vigo 

Dubois 

Jennings 

Pike 

Wabash 

Elkhart 

Johnson 

Posey 

W arren 

F ayette 

Knox 

Putnam 

W arrick 

Floyd 

Lawrence 

Randolph 

Washington 

Wayne. 


128 


ILLINOIS. 


and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senators 
are chosen for three years, and the Representatives yearly ; one third 
of the Senators are renewed annually. The Governor is chosen for 
three years, and may be once re-elected. Elections are popular, and 
suffrage is universal. 

13. Religion. The Baptists have 127 ministers; the Methodists 34, 
and the Presbyterians 20. 

14. Education. Indiana College at Bloomington, in Munroe coun¬ 
ty, and South Hanover College, have been liberally endowed. The 
constitution makes it the duty of the General Assembly to provide by 
law for a general system of education, ascending in regular gradation 
from town schools to a state university, in which instruction shall be 
gratuitous, and land has been reserved in each township for the crea¬ 
tion of a literary fund. 

15. History. Vincennes was settled by the French early in the seven¬ 
teenth century. In 1800 Indiana was formed into a distinct Territory, 
and in 1816 was admitted into the union. 


XXVIII. ILLINOIS. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Illinois is bounded N. by Michigan Ter¬ 
ritory ; E. by lake Michigan and Indiana; S. by the Ohio and W. by 
the Mississippi. It extends from Lat. 37° to 42° 30 / N., and from Lon. 
87° to 9i° 3O' W. Greatest length from north to south 380 miles ; 
area 55,000 square miles. 

2. Face of the Counti'y. The surface forms an inclined plane, 
sloping downward from lake Michigan to the Mississippi, in a south¬ 
westerly direction. There are no elevations much above the general 
level, and the greater part of the country consists of vast plains, with a 
gently undulating or waving surface. 

3. Rivers. Illinois is highly favored in respect of navigable rivers, 
which afford it a boat navigation of above 3,000 miles. The Wabash, 
Ohio, and Mississippi wash the borders of the state. The rivers 
which have their course within its limits, mostly flow with a south¬ 
westerly course into the Mississippi. Rock River rises in Michigan 
Territory to the west of the lake, but flows into the Mississippi in Illi¬ 
nois after a course of nearly 300 miles. The Illinois is formed by the 
junction of several head streams, rising in Michigan Territory to the 
west, or in Indiana to the south, of lake Michigan. At seasons of high 
water there is an uninterrupted navigation from one of these streams, 
the Plain river, to the Chicago, which runs into the lake. The current 
of the Illinois is in general gentle, with a wide and deep bed, in some 
places opening into broad and lake-like expanses, and affording great 
advantages for navigation. Length of its course about 500 miles. 
Steamboats ascend to Peoria 160 miles, and, in certain stages of the 
water, to the rapids, 230 miles. The Kaskaskia rises in the eastern 
part of the state, and pursues a direction nearly parallel to that of the 
Illinois and Rock; it is 250 miles in length, and is navigable for boats. 
The Cahokia and Muddy rivers flow into the Mississippi, and the 
Little Wabash is one of the tributaries of the Wabash. 

4. Climate. The winters are severe over the whole state; the 
rivers are frozen over for several months, and the winds from the 


ILLINOIS. 


129 


northerly points, coming from the lakes, or from the great central table¬ 
land of North America, are very cold. The air is in general, dry, 
pure and healthy. 

5. Soil. Three different qualities of soil may be distinguished in a 
general description. First, the alluvial borders of the rivers, which 
are from one to 8 miles wide, sometimes elevated, and at others low 
and subject to inundation. These consist of alternations of wood 
and prairie, and have almost always a fertile soil. Second, between 
the alluvions and the bluffs which bound them, are level tracts from 50 
to 100 feet high. These consist mostly of prairie, either dry or marshy, 
and are less fertile than the alluvions. Third, the interior, which con¬ 
sists of an intermixture of woods and prairies; here the soil is vari 
ous, and the surface waving. One sixth of the alluvial land, is over 
flowed by the rivers, and rendered unfit for cultivation, although it is 
productive in timber. A tract called the American Bottom, beginning 
at the mouth of the Kaskaskia, and extending along the Mississippi, 
90 miles in length, and 5 in average width, consists of soil 25 feet 
deep, as rich as can be found in the world. About the French towns 
it has been cultivated, and produced maize every year without ma¬ 
nuring, for above a century. In the north there are tracts somewhat 
stony, yet in every other part the plough may pass over millions of 
acres without meeting so much as a pebble to impede its course. 

6. Minerals. Beside iron, coal, limestone and salt, Illinois contains 
the richest lead mines in the world. They lie in the northwestern 
part of the state, and the ore is inexhaustible and rich. The mines 
of Galena, on Fever River, have yielded upwards of thirteen million 
pounds in a single year; these lands have been reserved by the United 
States. Silver ore has also been found, and there are sulphureous 
and chalybeate springs in different parts of the state. 

7. Divisions and Population. Illinois is divided into 60 counties, # 
and contains a population of 157,445. Slavery is prohibited by the 
constitution. 

8. Canals and Railroads. A canal uniting the navigable waters of 
Illinois, below the rapids, with lake Michigan, by the Chicago, and a 
railroad, connecting the same points, have been projected. Length 96 
miles. The great western National or Cumberland road, which ex¬ 
tends through Ohio and Indiana, passes through the centre of this 
state to Vandalia. 

9. Towns. There are no large towns in this yet recent, but grow- 


♦Adams 

Franklin 

Lawrence 

Pope 

Alexander 

Fulton 

Macaupin 

Randolph 

Bond 

Gallatin 

Me Lean 

Rock Island 

Calhoun 

Greene 

Macon 

Schuyler 

Champaign 

Henry 

Madison 

St Clair 

Clark 

Hamilton 

Marion 

Sangamon 

Clay 

Hancock 

Mercer 

Shelby 

Tazewell 

Clinton 

Iroquois 

Monroe 

Coles 

Jackson 

Montgomery 

Union 

Cook 

Jasper 

Morgan 

Vermilion 

Crawford 

Jefferson 

Me Donough 

W abash 

Edgar 

Joe Davies 

Peoria 

Warren 

Edwards 

Johnson 

Putman 

Washington 

Effingham 

Knox 

Perry 

Wayne 

Fayette 

9 

Lasalle 

Pike 

White 

Jj*# 


130 


MISSOURI. 


ing state. Vandalia, the capital, has about 1,000 inhabitants. Kaskas- 
kia, on the river of the same name, is an old French town. While the 
French held possession of the country, Kaskaskia was a populous 
town, and the seat of government, and contained a college of 
Jesuits. After the war of the revolution it declined, but lately it has 
begun to revive. 

Cahokia is another ancient French settlement on the Mississippi; it 
is nearly as old as Kaskaskia. Belleville, in the same neighborhood, is 
a new and flourishing town. 

Shawneetown, on the Ohio, is the largest place in this state upon the 
river. It has about 600 inhabitants. Galena, in the northwest, on the 
Mississippi, is the centre of a lead-mine district. Alton on the Mis¬ 
sissippi, and Chicago on lake Michigan, are favorably situated for trade. 

10. Agriculture. The chief agricultural productions are maize, wheat, 
potatoes, hemp, flax, and tobacco. The cultivation of the castor oil bean 
lias been introduced, and considerable quantities of oil are made. Thou¬ 
sands of swine are raised without any expense. The system of agricul¬ 
ture is in general very rude and unskilful. Some cotton is raised in 
the southern part of the state, and fruits of various kinds thrive. 

11. Manufactures. The chief manufacture is that of salt, from the 
water of springs; the water is obtained by boring. The salt com¬ 
monly sells at the works for 40 or 50 cents a bushel. There are some 
lead and iron founderies, several cotton manufactories, and numerous 
steam flour and saw mills. Large quantities of flour are made and 
exported. 

12. Government. The legislature is called the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senators 
are chosen for 4 years, and the Representatives for 2. The Governor 
is chosen for 4 years. The legislature has but one stated session in two 
years. Elections are popular, and suffrage is universal. 

13. Education. Illinois College, at Jacksonville, founded in 1830, 
and Union College, in 1833, are endowed with lands, and a portion of 
the proceeds of the sale of the public lands is granted for the support 
of common schools. There is a Baptist seminary at Alton. 

14. History. Some settlements were formed here in the 17th 
century by the French, who at that time were masters of Canada, 
and claimed the lands in the Ohio valley. In 1763, they ceded the 
country east of the Mississippi, to England. In 1809, Illinois was 
erected into a territorial government, and in 1818 was admitted into 
the Union as an independent state. 

XXIX. MISSOURI. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Missouri is bounded N. and W. by the 
public domains of the United States; E. by the Mississippi, which 
separates it from Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee, and S. by Arkan- 
saw Territory. It lies between 36° and 40° 36' N. Lat., and extends 
from 89° 12 to 94° 30 / W. Lon. It is 290 miles in length from north 
to south, and from 150 to 300 miles in breadth, with an area of 64,000 
square miles. 

2. Mountains. The southern part of the state is traversed by the 
Masserne, or, as they are sometimes called, the Ozark mountains. 
Little is known of their height and character. 

3. Rivers. Washed on its eastern bonier hy the Mississippi, and 


MISSOURI. 


131 


traversed from west to east by the Missouri, this state has the advan¬ 
tage of extensive and easy water communication with the whole 
Mississippi valley. The Osage, which joins the Missouri in the centre 
of the state, is a fine navigable river, running through a fertile country; 
boats ascend it 600 miles. The Gasconade, which falls into the Mis¬ 
souri below the Osage, is navigable for boats 66 miles. The Maramec 
falls into the Mississippi below the Missouri; it is navigable 50 miles. 
The St. Francis, the Whito Water, Black, and Current rivers, rise in the 
south and pass into Arkansaw. Grand and Chariton rivers fall into the 
Missouri from the North. Salt river is a branch of the Mississippi in 
the same quarter ; these are navigable for boats. 

4. Climate. This state is subject to.greater extremes of temperature 
than any other in the western country. The summer is intensely hot, 
and the winter often so severe that the Missouri is frozen for weeks, so 
as to be passed by loaded wagons. The sky in summer is clear, and 
the air generally very dry. 

5. Soil. The soil of this state contains more sand, and is more loamy 
and friable than that of the lands upon the Ohio. The alluvial prairies 
are universally rich, and nearly as fertile as the river bottoms. The 
rich uplands have a dark gray soil, except about the lead mines, where 
the soil is formed of decomposed pyrites, and is of a reddish color. 
Nearly all the level tracts are Sufficiently fertile to produce good crops 
of maize without manure. 

The alluvial borders of the Missouri are generally loamy, with a large 
proportion of sand. The soil here contains a quantity of marl or lime, 
and is exceedingly fertile. The richer prairies and bottoms are covered 
with grass and weeds, so tall as to make it difficult to travel on horse¬ 
back. In the southwestern part are large tracts of poor sandy soil, 
covered with yellow pine, and in many parts stony. 

6. Minerals. Lead, iron, coal, salt, limestone, and gypsum constitute 
the mineral wealth of the state. The lead mines in the eastern part 
of the state, south of the Missouri, are inexhaustible, and have yielded 
upwards of 1,200,000 pounds in a year, but they have not been worked 
since 1830. They belong to the general government. Zinc exists in 
large quantities. 

7. Face of the Country. The northwestern part of the state is a wide 

prairie. The central and southwestern parts are hilly and broken ; the 
southeastern is low, swampy, full of lakes, and subject to inundation 
from the waters of the Mississippi. The best portion of the state and 
the most thickly peopled, lies between the Missouri and the Mississippi; 
it has an undulating and variegated surface, and contains large tracts 
of alluvial and hilly prairies. . 

8. Divisions and Population. The state of Missouri, is divided into 
40 counties.* Population in 1830, 140,455,of which25,091 are slaves; 
a census taken in 1833, gave a population of 176,300. 


* Audrain 
Boone 
Callaway 
Cape Girardeau 
Chariton 
Clarke 
Clay 
Cole 
Cooper 
Crawford 


Franklin 

Gasconade 

Howard 

Jackson 

Jefferson 

Lafayette 

Lewis 

Lincoln 

Madison 

Marion 


Monroe 
Montgomery 
New Madrid 
Perry 
Pettis 
Pike 
Ralls 
Randolph 
Ray 
Ripley 


St. Charles 
St. Francois 
St. Genevieve 
St. Louis 
Saline 
Scott 
Stoddard 
Van Buren 
Washington 
Wayne. 


132 


ARKANSAW TERRITORY. 


9. Towns. St. Louis, a city and the principal town in the state, is 
situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, 20 miles below its junc¬ 
tion with the Missouri. It was founded in 1764, but first became 
flourishing, since the cession of Louisiana to the United States. Its 
position has rendered it an important commercial depot, and it has 
an active river trade. It is 1,200 miles above New Orleans, and the 
river is here navigable at all stages of water for the largest steamboats, 
but is closed by ice in winter. Six steamboats run regularly to New 
Orleans, ten to Louisville, three to Fever River, 500 miles above St. 
Louis on the Mississippi, two .or three up the Missouri to fort Leaven¬ 
worth, 400 miles, and three to Pekin, on the Illinois, 180 miles, beside 
which other boats touch here occasionally. 

The situation of the city is pleasant; it is well built, and contained a 
population of 6,694 in 1830, which has been since rapidly increasing. 

There are no other towns in the state of considerable size. Jeffer¬ 
son, on the Missouri, in the centre of the state, is the capital. St. 
Charles, twenty miles above the mouth of the Missouri, and Franklin, 
200 miles further up the river, are pleasant and flourishing villages, 
with each about 1,200 inhabitants. 

Cape Girardeau, St. Genevieve and New Madrid, are favorably 
situated on the Mississippi, with good harbors. Herculaneum and 
Potosi are small villages, which derive some importance from the lead 
mines. 

10. Agriculture. Maize and the small bread grains are the staple 
productions. Cotton is cultivated in the southeastern part of the state, 
and the fruits of the temperate climate thrive. 

11. Government. The legislature is called the General Assembly, 
and consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senators 
are chosen for 4 years, and the Representatives for two. The Gover¬ 
nor is chosen for 4 years. Elections are popular, and suffrage is uni¬ 
versal. 

12. Religion. The Baptists have 67 ministers; the Methodists 23; 
the Presbyterians 10; the Episcopalians 3; there are many Catholic 
priests. 

13. Education. The college of St. Louis, a catholic institution, was 
founded in 1829. There is another catholic seminary at Bois Brule 
Bottom. There are also several convents in the state, where females 
are sent for education, and a college has recently been founded in 
Marion county. 

14. History. This state was originally a part of the great Territory 
of Louisiana. Some settlements had been made by the French in 
1764; yet, previous to the acquisition of the country by the United 
States, it contained but few inhabitants. In 1804 it was separated from 
Louisiana and erected into a Territory. A constitution was formed in 
1820, and the next year it was admitted as a state into the Union. 


XXX. ARKANSAW TERRITORY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Arkansaw is bounded N. by Missouri 
E. by the Mississippi, which separates it from Tennessee and Missis-’ 
sippi, S. by Louisiana, and W. by that part of the public domains of 


ARKANSAW TERRITORY. 


133 


the United States, to which the Indian tribes have lately been removed 
from the states. It lies between 33° and 36° 30' N. Lat., and between 
90° and 94° 30' W. Lon. It is about 240 miles from north to south, 
and from 200 to 280 from east to west, comprising an area of 54,000 
square miles. 

2. Mountains. The Masserne Mountains extend through the west¬ 
ern part of the Territory, and pass into Missouri under the name of the 
Ozark Mountains; but little is known of their elevation and character. 

3. Rivers. The Mississippi washes the eastern border of the Terri¬ 
tory, the Red River passes through the southwest corner into Louisiana, 
and the Washita, which rises in the Masserne mountains, becomes a 
fine navigable stream before leaving the Territory. The Arkansaw 
rises in the Rocky Mountains, on the northwestern frontier of the United 
Mexican States, and after traversing the great desert plains of the centre 
of North America, and receiving the Canadian, it pierces the Masserne 
Mountains, and flows through Arkansaw Territory into the Mississippi. 
The ? length of its course is about 2,000 miles, in which it has a descent 
of 5,000 feet. Its upper branches are, during the winter and spring, 
full streams, bringing down great masses of water; but in the dry 
season many of them present for hundreds of miles empty basins of 
sand, or dwindle to scanty rills with sluggish currents. The lower 
part of the Arkansaw annually overflows its banks, which are here 
formed by wooded plains, contrasting strongly with the sterile prairies 
of the upper part of its course. It is navigable to a great distance for 
steamboats, which in the wet season ascend nearly to the foot of the 
mountains. The White River rises in Missouri, and flows southeast 
into the Mississippi, 15 miles above the mouth of the Arkansaw. Its 
principal tributary is the Black River; its whole course is upwards of 
600 miles, through most of which distance it is navigable. No region 
is, indeed, better furnished with navigable streams than Arkansaw. 

4. Climate. The climate is extremely variable, and in the north 
resembles that of Missouri, while to the south it approaches that of 
Louisiana. Cotton can be cultivated in the latter, and the cerealia or 
bread grains in the former. In advancing west, as the surface rises, 
the temperature becomes lower. 

5. Soil. Tracts of highly fertile soil occur, but a large proportion 
of the soil is by no means productive. The rivers are generally 
bordered by a rich soil, and well-wooded banks. 

6. Minerals. Limestone, gypsum, and coal abound, and lead and 
iron occur. There are numerous salt springs in different parts of the 
country, and there are prairies covered with salt, which render the 
water brackish. The Hot Springs in the southwest have a temperature 
but little below that of boiling water, and are much resorted to. The 
novaculite or oil stone is found here. 

7. Face of-the Country. For some distance up the courses of 
Arkansaw and White rivers, the country is an extensive, heavily- 
timbered, and inundated swamp. Near the St. Francis Hills, and 
at Point Chico, the eastern front along the Mississippi is above the 
and overflow. The remainder of the eastern line is a continuous mo¬ 
notonous flooded forest. Arkansaw has large and level prairie plains, 
and possesses a great extent of rocky and sterile ridges, with a conside¬ 
rable surface covered with mountains. Near the S. W. part of the Ter¬ 
ritory is a singular detached elevation, called Mount Prairie. 


134 


MICHIGAN TERRITORY. 


8. Divisions and Population. The Territory is divided into 28 
counties,* with a population of 30,388 souls, including 4,578 slaves. 

9. Towns. Little Rock, the seat of government, is on the Arkan- 
saw, 300 miles by the course of the river from the Mississippi, ft was 
so called by the inhabitants in allusion to the enormous rocks in its 
vicinity. There are no large towns in the Territory. 

10. Agriculture. Cotton is the staple article of cultivation. The 
cereal grains flourish, and various kinds of fruit are raised in abun¬ 
dance. Cut almost the whole country is yet in a state of nature. 

11. Government. The executive authority is exercised by a Gover¬ 
nor appointed by the president of the United States. 

12. History. This country, which at one time formed a part of 
Louisiana, and afterward of Missouri Territory, received a separate 
territorial organization in 1819. Its limits originally extended to the 
Mexican frontier, but in 1824 were fixed as already described. 

XXXI. MICHIGAN TERRITORY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The Territory of Michigan politically 
speaking, comprises the whole extent of country lying between Lakes 
Huron and St. Clair on the east, and the Mississippi on the west, and 
between Lake Superior on the north, and the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
and Illinois on the south. This Territory extends from 41° 40 to 48° 
30 / N. Lat. and from 82° to 95° W. Lon. comprising an area of about 
150,000 square miles, f Michigan Proper, comprising that part of the 
territory lying between 82° and 87° 10' W. Lon., consists of two 
peninsulas, the one lying between Lakes Superior and Michigan, and 
the other between Michigan and Huron; and has an area of about 
60,000 square miles, of which a third is covered with water. 

2. Soil and Face of the Country. The centre forms an elevated table¬ 
land, 300 feet above the surface of the lakes, and divides the waters 
flowing into lake Michigan from those running into Lakes Erie, St. 
Clair, and Huron. The face of the country in general is level or gent¬ 
ly undulating; the southern part consists of open land, known by the 
name of the Oak Plains, with a productive soil; in the southwest are fer¬ 
tile prairies. The basins of the lakes are deep depressions sinking far 
below the level of the ocean, although their surfaces are upwards of 
600 feet above it. 

3. Rivers. The rivers are small, but, running with a rapid descent 
from the dividing ridge to the east and west, afford abundance of mill 
seats. The St. Joseph’s, Kalamazoo, and Grand Rivers are the princi- 


* Arkansaw 

Greene 

Lafayette 

Pulaski 

Carroll 

Hemstead 

Lawrence 

St. Francis 

Chicot 

Hot Spring 

Miller 

Scott 

Clark 

Independence 

Monroe 

Sevier 

Conway 

Izard 

Phillips 

Union 

Crawford 

Jackson 

Pike 

Washington 

Crittenden 

Jefferson 

Pope 

Van Buren 


f The part of the country west of the lake is often called in books and maps 
Huron, Northwest, or Wisconsin Territory, though incorrectly, as the term Territo¬ 
ry denotes a region with a distinct political organization. But as the eastern part 
will soon be erected into an independent state, and the western will then be set 
off as a distinct Territory, we shall here describe them separately as Michigan 
Proper, and Huron District. 


MICHIGAN TERRITORY. 135 

pal streams on the western, and Saginaw, Huron and Raisin on the 
eastern slope. 

4. Lakes. Lakes Superior, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie bound the 
Territory on the north and east. Lake Michigan lies almost wholly 
within its limits. It is 360 miles in length, with a mean breadth of 60 
miles, and covers an area of 17,000 square miles; its surface is 600 feet 
above that of the ocean, and'its mean depth 900 feet. Its waters are 
clear and abound with fish. It discharges itself into Lake Huron 
through the straits of Michilimackinac, 40 miles in length; in the north¬ 
western part of the lake is the large bay, called Green Bay. Saginaw 
Bay on lake Huron is 32 miles wide, and extends about 60 miles inland. 
The lake shores afford few good harbors in proportion to their extent. 

5. Climate. The winters are severe, particularly in the northern part, 
and snow lays to the depth of from 6 to 18 inches, for several weeks 
even in the southern part. The average temperature of winter is 20°, 
of summer 80°. The spring is wet and backward; summer dry; 
autumn mild ; winter dry and cold. 

6. Minerals. Salt springs occur in many places ; iron and lead ore, 
gypsum, and coal are found, and peat is abundant. 

7. Divisions. The whole Territory is divided into 40 counties, which 
are subdivided into townships. Three of these counties are in the 
Huron district. The population of Michigan Proper, by the census of 
1830, was 28,000, but at present it exceeds 60,000.* 

8. Towns. Detroit, the seat of government, is situated on the river 
of the same name, 18 miles from Lake Erie. It is regularly laid out, 
and is a flourishing town, with an active and increasing commerce. 
Population by the census of 1830, 2,222, but it has since doubled. 
Twelve steamboats run between this place and Buffalo. There are no 
other towns of importance, but some of the villages are growing rapidly. 

There are several military posts of the United States; Fort Mackinac 
is on an island of the same name in the straits of Michilimackinac; 
Fort Gratiot on Lake Huron, and Fort Brady on St. Mary’s straits. 

9. Inhabitants. The northern part was till recently occupied by 
Indians, of whom there were about 10,000. They belonged to the 
kindred tribes of Ottawas, Pottawatamies, and Chippewas, who have 
lately ceded their lands, and retired from the peninsula. On the eastern 
borders of the state are settled many French Canadians, who are 
industrious, honest and peaceable, but ignorant. 

10. History. Some settlements were made here by the French in 
the 17th century. With the rest of this part of the country, this region 
passed into the hands of the English in 1763, and afterward formed 
part of the Northwestern Territory. In 1805, it was set off into a dis¬ 
tinct Territory, with the usual territorial government. 

* We give here the 37 counties of Michigan Proper. 


Allegan 

Eaton 

Kent 

Oceana 

Arenac 

Gladwin 

Lapeer 

Ottawa 

Barry 

Gratiot 

Lenawee 

Saginaw 

Berrien 

Hillsdale 

Macomb 

St. Clair 

Branch 

Ingham 

Michilimackinac 

St. Joseph 

Calhoun 

Ionia 

Midland 

Sanilac 

Cass 

Isabella 

Monroe 

Shiawassee 

Chippeway 

Clinton 

Jackson 

Montcalm 

Van Buren 

Kalamazoo 

Oakland 

Washtenau 

Wayne 


136 


WESTERN STATES. 


XXXII. HURON OR WISCONSIN DISTRICT. 

1. Boundaries, Divisions, Population. This extensive region, though 
politically belonging to Michigan, is a distinct geographical section. It 
lies between the Mississippi, and Lake Michigan, and on the north is 
separated from the British Dominions by a chain of small lakes, and 
Lake Superior. Its area is about 90,000 square miles. The four 
counties of Michigan Territory included within its limits are Brown, 
around Green Bay, and Ioway and Crawford on the Mississippi, in the 
lead region. They contained in 1830 a population of 3,635. There 
are several military posts of the United States; these are Fort Howard 
on Green Bay, Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien, Fort Snelling on the 
Mississippi, and Fort Winnebago on the portage of the Fox and Wis¬ 
consin rivers. Most of the country is occupied by Indians; the prin¬ 
cipal tribes are the Winnebagoes, Chippewas, and Sioux or Dahcotahs. 

2. Physical Features. The southwestern part is an inclined plane, 
sloping towards the Mississippi,—400 miles in length, and 150 in 
breadth; down this descend the principal rivers of the country; among 
them are the St. Croix, Cbippeway, Wisconsin, Rock, and Fox, the two 
latter passing into Illinois. On the north the country slopes for a 
distance of 500 miles, towards Lake Superior; this northern plain is 
not more than 60 miles in width, and the rivers in this quarter are 
therefore small. The surface of the country is nowhere broken by 
hills of any magnitude, and in many parts the soil is rich, covered with 
thick forests, or opening into fertile and extensive prairies. In some 
places it is wet and marshy. This District forms a part of the rich lead 
region of the Upper Mississippi, and near the shores of Lake Superior, 
native copper has been found in large masses. 


XXXIII. WESTERN STATES. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The six states last described; viz., Ten¬ 
nessee, Missouri, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are comprised 
under the general name of Western States. This region has the 
Michigan Territory on the N.; the Middle States on the E.; the South¬ 
ern States on the E. and S., and the great Western District on the W. 
and N. It extends over 7£ degrees of latitude, from 35° to 42° SCf N., 
and stretches from 80° to 94° 30' W. Lon., having an area of 285,000 
square miles, and containing a population of 3,000,000, exclusive of the 
Indian tribes, and including 331,900 slaves. 

2. Face of the Country. The whole of this region lies in the great 
valley, drained by the Missouri and its confluents, and known under 
the name of the Mississippi Valley. It contains no mountainous chain 
of great extent or elevation, except the Ozark or Masserne mountains, 
in the extreme southwest, which may be considered as branches of the 
great Mexican system. The surface may be described in general terms 
as composed of vast level tracts, slightly broken in some places with 
low hills, and in others gently undulating, but rarely rugged or precipi¬ 
tous. The beds of the streams are often worn deep below the general 
elevation, giving their banks a hilly appearance, which, however, is 
wholly deceptive. The immense prairies of the region constitute the 


WESTERN STATES. 


137 


most remarkable feature of the country. These are level plains 
stretching as far as the eye can reach, totally destitute of trees, but cov¬ 
ered with tall g^ass or flowering shrubs. Some have an undulating 
surface, and are called rolling prairies; these are the most extensive, 
and are the favorite resort of the bison. Here, without a tree or a stream 
of water, the traveller may wander for days, and discover nothing but a 
grassy ocean bounded on all sides by the horizon. In the dry season 
the Indians set fire to the grass, and the wide conflagration which 
ensues, often surprises the bison, deer and other wild animals, who are 
unable to escape from the flames, and are burned to death. 

These tracts spread out to their greatest extent in the Western Dis¬ 
trict. The tracts called barrens, have generally an undulating surface, 
with low hills, extending in long and uniform ranges. The soil of the 
barrens is commonly clayey, of a reddish or gray color, and producing 
a tall coarse grass; trees are thinly scattered about over the surface. 

3. Rivers. Perhaps no region in the world is so bountifully supplied 
with navigable streams. The Missouri and Mississippi spread their 
hundred giant arms, throughout every portion of its vast surface. The 
principal of these branches is the Ohio, whose head streams, the Alle¬ 
ghany and Monongahela, rising in Pennsylvania and Virginia, unite 
at Pittsburg, and take the name of Ohio. From Pittsburg to the 
Mississippi, the river has a course of 950 miles, receiving numerous 
navigable streams, from the two great inclined planes, between which 
it runs. The southern or largest of these planes has a much greater 
declivity than the northern, and its rivers are more rapid, yet with few 
direct falls. The Kenhawa, Big Sandy, Kentucky, Green, Cumberland, 
and Tennessee are the principal confluents from the Appalachian slope. 
On the north it receives the Big Beaver, Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, 
and Wabash, which come from the slightly elevated table-land of Ohio, 
Indiana, and Illinois. The whole region drained by this noble river 
extends from 34° to 42° 30' N. Lat. and from 78° to 89° W. Lon., 
comprising an area of 200,000 square miles, rich in the most useful 
productions of nature, animal, vegetable and mineral, and enjoying the 
advantage of a mild and healthful climate. From Pittsburg to its mouth 
it has a descent of 400 feet, or 5 inches to a mile ; its current is gentle, and 
it is nowhere broken by falls, except at Louisville. Its breadth varies 
from 400 to 1,400 yards, being on an average about 800 yards. The an¬ 
nual range from high to low water is about 50 feet, but it sometimes con¬ 
siderably exceeds this. In August, September and October, the water is 
at the lowest, and in December, March, May and June, at the highest. 
The navigation is annually impeded by ice in winter, and by drought 
in autumn, in its upper part, but for the greater part of the year it is the 
scene of an active trade, and covered with steamboats and river craft. 

4. Climate. The cold is severe in the northern part, and in general 
the temperature is lower than in the same parallels of latitude on the 
Atlantic. The climate may be described in general terms as temperate 
and healthful. 

5. Soil. The Western States contain the most extensive tracts of 
fertile soil in the United States, and seem destined to be the granary of 
an empire. 

6. Vegetable Productions. The largest deciduous tree of the Ameri¬ 
can forest, is the occidental plane tree, popularly known under the 
various names of sycamore, buttonwood, and cotton tree. It attains its 


138 


WESTERN STATES. 


largest size in the western states, sometimes rising with a trunk from 
10 to 15 feet in diameter, to the height of 70 feet, before it begins to 
give out branches. The cotton-wood, a species of poplar, which 
abounds on the western rivers, attains the height of 80 feet; it receives 
its name from its bearing a downy matter resembling cotton. The 
tulip tree, improperly called the poplar, is second in size only to the 
buttonwood, and, from the fine form of the trunk, and the beauty of its 
foliage and flowers, may be considered one of the most magnificent 
vegetable productions of the temperate climates; its wood is also 
valuable in the arts. It is found both in the Western and Southern 
States, and grows to the height of 130 or 140 feet, with a trunk some¬ 
times perfectly strait, and 6 or 7 feet in diameter to the height of 50 
feet. The black walnut, the butternut, the sugar maple, pekan, various 
species of oak, &c., are common. The papaw is a shrub or small tree, 
which bears an oblong yellowish fruit, resembling a cucumber, with a 
soft and edible, but insipid pulp. 

The locust tree is a beautiful ornamental tree, and useful in the arts 
on account of the hardness and durability of the wood. It reaches the 
height of 80 feet, with a trunk 4 feet in diameter. There are 4 species, 
all of which are confined to North America. 

7. Minerals. Lead is the most abundant of the rnetals in this re¬ 
gion. The iron produced here is obtained mostly from the neighbor¬ 
hood of the Appalachian mountains. Bituminous coal is also abundant in 
the same region. Limestone occurs in almost every part. Salt springs 
are found in innumerable places, and no part of the Mississippi valley 
is remote from a plentiful supply of salt. 

8. Diseases. These are generally bilious fevers; pulmonary com¬ 
plaints are rare. Intermittent fevers are common and troublesome. 
In some few places, half the people are said to have agues. Many 
large districts, however, are entirely free from them, and they are every¬ 
where becoming less. 

9. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are the descendants or natives of 
almost every European country, and of every Atlantic state. There 
are separate communities of French, Swiss, and Germans; and there 
are many English, Scotch, and Irish citizens. Ohio and Indiana are 
principally peopled from New England ; and Kentucky from Virginia 
and North Carolina. 

French is spoken in some parts of Missouri and Illinois, and the 
Swiss and Germans in many places retain their own language. There 
are not many negroes except in Kentucky, Missouri and Tennessee, in 
which states slavery exists; the Indians, who were till recently nume¬ 
rous in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois have been mostly removed beyond 
the Mississippi. Amidst a population so variously composed, and of 
so recent origin, we cannot expect to find any prevailing characteristics. 

The great rivers, which form so striking a natural feature of this 
region, give to the mode of travelling and transportation in general, 
a peculiar cast, and have created a peculiar class of men, called boat¬ 
men. Craft of all descriptions are found on these waters. There 
are the rude shapeless masses, that denote the infancy of navigation, 
and the light steamboat which makes its perfection ; together with 
all the intermediate forms between these extremes. The most inar¬ 
tificial of all water craft, is the ark, or Kentucky flat, a huge frame of 
square timbers, with a roof. It is in shape a parallelogram, and lies 


WESTERN DISTRICT. 


139 


upon the water like a log; it hardly feels the oar, and trusts for motion 
mainly to the current. It is 15 feet wide, from 50 to 80 feet long, and 
carries from 200 to 400 barrels. These arks are often filled with the 
goods and families of emigrants, and carry even the carriages and do¬ 
mestic animals. They are also used for shops of various kinds of 
goods, which are sold at the different towns, and some of them are 
fitted up as the workshops of artificers. Sometimes, also, they are used 
as museums of wax figures, and other shows, or for travelling libraries. 

There are also keel-boats, and barges, which are light and well built; 
skiffs, that will carry from two persons to five tons; ‘ dug-outs,’ or 
pirogues, made of hollowed logs, and other vessels for which language 
has no name, and the sea no parallel. There are a few small boats that 
are moved by a crank, turned by a single man. These are on the 
principle of steamboats. Since the use of steamboats, numbers of the 
other craft have disappeared, and the number of river boatmen has 
been diminished by many thousands. 

10. Education. All that is practicable is done for education in the 
Western States. The importance of the subject is properly estimated 
by every legislature, and the number of native inhabitants who cannot 
read or write, is not large. A common education is within the reach 
of nearly all. 

11. Religion. In none of the Western States do the laws provide 
for the support of any form of worship. Religion receives little other 
aid from legislation, than the granting of incorporations; and by most 
of the constitutions clergymen are incapable of holding offices of honor 
or trust, in the gift of the people. There are, however, stationary cler¬ 
gymen in the towns, and there are so many missionaries and travelling 
preachers that there is generally no want of religious instruction. The 
principal sects are Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, and Catholics. 


XXXIV. WESTERN DISTRICT. 

West of the States and Territories of the Union, lies a vast tract of 
country, belonging to the United States, but as yet unsettled by the 
white race, and having no political organization. Various tribes of 
Indians wander and lurk over different parts of it, and many portions 
have never yet been explored. It extends between the Mexican terri¬ 
tories on the south, and the British and Russian on the north, to the 
Pacific ocean, and is divided by a chain of mountains into two distinct 
geographical regions, which may be designated as the Missouri District 
and the Oregon District. 

1. The Missouri District extends from 34° to 49° N. Lat., and from 
90° to 112° W. Lon., and is 1,000 miles long by 800 broad, with an area 
of about 550,000 square miles. The base of the Oregon or Rocky 
Mountains on its western border is estimated to have an elevation of 
3,000 or 4,000 feet, and some of the summits are supposed to rise from 
8,000 to 10,000 feet above the base. East of the Mountains the country 
is a vast sterile plain, watered by several large rivers, the branches of 
the Missouri, which have long courses, but shallow, and in the dry 
season almost empty beds; such are the Yellowstone, the Platte, the 
Kansas, and the Arkansaw. The banks of these streams are well- 
wooded, but the greater part of the country is dry, and naked of trees, 


140 


UNITED STATES. 


though covered with grass. In the northeast are the St. Peter’s, Des- 
moines, and loway, emptying into the Mississippi. This region is 
inhabited by numerous Indian tribes, among which are the Dahcotahs 
or Sioux, the Kansas, Osages, Pawnees, Mandans, and Sacs and Foxes, 
together with the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Shaw- 
nees and others, which have recently removed thither from the States. 

2. Oregon District extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific 
Ocean, lying between 42° and 54° N. Lat., and 107° and 125° W. Lon. 
with an area of about 400,000 square miles. Little is known of this 
extensive region, except along the coast and the banks of the great river 
Columbia or Oregon which traverses it. The soil is said to be in gene¬ 
ral fertile, and the climate is milder than in the same parallels of latitude 
in the eastern part of the continent. The Columbia is formed by the 
junction of the Lewis and Clarke, two large streams which rise in the 
Rocky Mountains, and empties itself into the Pacific, after receiving 
the Multnomah from the south. It is navigable for large vessels, and 
the tide flows up 175 miles. The country is occupied by various Indian 
tribes, among whom are the Shoshonees, Shilloots, Multnomahs, and 
Clatrops ; most of these tribes have the custom of artificially flattening 
the heads of their infants by pressure, whence they are known under 
the general name of Flatheads. 

» 

XXXV. UNITED STATES. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The United States are bounded N. by 
Russian and British America; E. by the .British province of New 
Brunswick and the Atlantic ocean; S. by the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Mexican States, and W. by the Pacific ocean. They extend from 25° 
to 54° N. Lat., and from 67° to 125° W. Lon., or through 29 degrees of 
latitude, and through 58 degrees of longitude, comprising an area of 
upwards of 2,100,000 square miles, with a frontier line of 9,500 miles, 
3,650 of which are sea-coast. 

2. Face of the Country. This vast country, comprising one twentieth 
of the habitable globe, is divided by two ranges of mountains, into 
three great natural sections, the Atlantic slope, the Mississippi valley, 
and the Pacific slope. 

i. The Alleghany chain is more remarkable for its length than height. 
Perhaps there is no tract of country in the world that preserves the 
mountain character over so great a space with so little elevation. The 
mean height of the Alleghanies is only from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, about 
one half of which consists of the elevation of the mountains above 
their base, and the other of the elevation of the adjoining country above 
the sea. To this height the country rises, by an almost imperceptible 
acclivity, from the ocean, at the distance of 200 or 300 miles on the one 
side, and from the channel of the Mississippi, at an equal distance, on 
the other. A gradual elevation of 1,000 or 1,200 feet upon a horizontal 
surface of 200 or 300 miles, would give the surface of the country, on 
the eastern side, an average rise of from 3 to 4 feet in the mile, and 
from 2 to 3 feet on the western side. This small degree of inclination 
accounts for the great extent of inland navigation which the United 
States enjoy. By the course of the Mississippi, Ohio and Alleghany 
rivers, vessels ascend over an inclined plane of 2,400 miles in extent, to 


UNITED STATES. 141 

an elevation of perhaps 1,200 or 1,400 feet, without the help of canals 
or locks. 

ii. The second great mountainous range which traverses the United 
States is the Rocky Mountains. This ridge is more elevated than the 
former, but is also more distant from the Pacific ocean on the one side 
and the Mississippi on the other. From the Mississippi to the Pacific, 
in Lat. 40°, is about 1,500 miles; and the Rocky Mountains, which 
crown this gradually swelling surface, rise, with the exception of some 
insulated peaks, to a height of about 9,000 feet. This elevation is about 
three times as great as that of the Alleghanies: and it is remarkable 
that the Mississippi, the common reservoir of the streams descending 
from both, is about three times farther from the higher chain than from 
the lower, so that the declivity on both sides of the immense basin 
included between these mountains, is nearly the same; and the streams 
flowing from the Rocky Mountains are as susceptible of navigation as 
those from the Alleghanies. 

The Mississippi valley also presents a southern declivity, by which it 
gradually sinks from the high table-land of the centre of the continent 
to the level of the ocean on the gulf of Mexico. From this table-land, 
which is estimated to have an elevation of not more than 1,500 feet 
above the sea, descend the great rivers of North America—Mackenzie’s 
to the north, the St. Lawrence to the east, and the Mississippi to the 
south. 

hi. To the west of the Rocky Mountains lies the Pacific slope, the de¬ 
clivity of which is greater and more rapid than those of the others. This 
region, as yet little known, is visited only by hunters and trading ships. 

3. Soil. With regard to soil, the territory of the United States, to 
the east of the Rocky Mountains, may be classed under five grand 
divisions: 

i. That of the New England States, east of the Hudson, where the 
Alleghanies spread out into a broken, hilly country. The soil is here, 
in general, rocky, has but little depth, is barren in many places, and 
better adapted for pasture than tillage. 

ii. The sandy soil of the sea shore, commencing from Long Island, 
and extending along the coast of the Atlantic and the gulf of Mexico, to 
the mouth of the Mississippi, with a breadth varying from 30 to 100 
miles. This tract, from the Potomac southward, approaches to a 
horizontal plain, very little raised above the sea, and traversed through 
its whole breadth by the tide water at the mouths of the great rivers. 
The surface, which consists of sea sand, is scarcely capable of cultiva¬ 
tion, and produces nothing but pines, except on the banks of rivers, 
and in marshy spots where rice is raised. 

hi. The land from the upper margin of this sandy tract to the foot 
of the Alleghany mountains, from 10 to 200 miles in breadth, the soil 
of which is generally formed from the alluvion of the mountains, and 
the decomposition of the primitive rocks beneath the surface. This 
tract is fertile, and generally well adapted for tillage. 

iv. The valleys between the ridges of the Alleghanies, the soil of 
which is various, but rather richer than that of the tract last mentioned. 

v. The extensive region west of the Alleghanies, bottomed on lime¬ 
stone, well watered, inexhaustibly productive, and containing perhaps 
as large a proportion of first rate soil as any country in the world. The 
northern and western parts of the Mississippi valley, stretching for hun- 


142 


UNITED STATES. 


dreds of miles along the foot of the Rocky Mountains, and several 
hundred miles in width, is a barren desert of sand. 

In a state of nature, the whole Atlantic slope was covered by a dense 
forest, which also spread over a great part of the basin of the St. Law¬ 
rence to the 55th° of N. Lat., and nearly the whole of the Mississippi 
valley on the east of the river, and stretched beyond the Mississippi for 
the distance of 50 or 100 miles. On this enormous forest, one of the 
largest on the globe, the efforts of man have made but partial inroads. 
This forest is bounded on its western limits by another region of much 
greater area, but of a very different character. This may be strictly 
called the grassy section of North America, which, from all that is 
correctly known, stretches from the forest region indefinitely westward, 
and from the gulf of Mexico to the farthest Arctic limits of the conti¬ 
nent The grassy or prairie region, in general, is less hilly, mountai¬ 
nous or rocky than the forest region ; but there are many exceptions to 
this remark : plains of great extent exist in the latter, and mountains of 
considerable elevation and mass, in the former. The two regions are 
not divided by any determinate limit, but frequently run into each 
other, so as to blend their respective features. 

4. Vcdley. The Valley of the Mississippi is drained by the Mississippi, 
Missouri, and their numerous tributary streams, and may be considered 
as bounded N. by the great lakes of British America; E. by the 
Appalachian Mountains; S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by the 
Rocky Mountains. The Mississippi Valley is a wide extent of level 
country, in which the various rivers inclosed between two chains of 
mountains 3,000 miles apart, find a common centre, and discharge 
their waters into the sea by a single channel. This valley extends 
from the 29th to the 49th parallel of N, Lat. and exhibits every variation 
of temperature, from the climate of Canada to that of Louisiana. 

5. Rivers. The principal rivers of the United States discharge them¬ 
selves into the Atlantic ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi, and 
the Pacific ocean. The Mississippi rises in about 47° N. Lat. in a 
number of head streams, and flows in a southerly course into the Gulf 
of Mexico, in Lat. 29° 6' N. Its length by its windings is above 3,000 
miles. Its source is in a lofty table-land, although the country here 
has the appearance of a vast marshy valley. Seven hundred miles 
from its source it is precipitated over the Falls of St. Anthony, and 
forms a beautiful cataract 17 feet in descent, embellished by wild and 
romantic scenery. Below this it receives many large streams, and a 
little S. of Lat. 39, its waters are augmented by the immense stream of 
the Missouri from the West, which is both longer and carries a greater 
bulk of water than the Mississippi, yet loses its name in the inferior 
stream. Farther onward it receives the Ohio from the east, and nearer 
the sea, it is further augmented by the addition of two great streams, 
the Arkansaw and Red Rivers. 

Below the Falls of St. Anthony its course has no considerable ob¬ 
struction. Here the stream is half a mile in width. At its junction 
with the Missouri, it is a mile and a half wide. Above this it is a clear 
placid stream, with rich and fertile alluvial banks, and broad clean 
sand-bars. Below the Missouri it becomes narrower and deeper. It 
often tears away the islands and points, and at the season of high 
waters, great masses of the banks with all the trees upon them are 
plunged into the stream. In many places it deposits immense heaps 


UNITED STATES. 


143 


of drift wood upon the sand-bars, which become as dangerous to the 
navigator as shoals and rocks at sea. These obstructions are called 
snags, sawyers, planters, chutes, races, and chains. 

From its source to the Falls of St. Anthony, it flows through wild- 
rice lakes, swamps, limestone bluffs, and craggy hills. The alluvial 
banks or bottoms are from 6 to 8 miles wide, and are skirted by bluffs. 
Below the Ohio the alluvion widens to 40 or 50 miles, and grows still 
broader as it approaches the sea. From March to June the river over¬ 
flows its banks, and exhibits in some places the appearance of an im¬ 
mense swamp stretching as far as the eye can reach; in others, vast 
and magnificent forests rising from the waters of a lake. Where the 
river meets the sea it divides into several channels, which intersect a 
wide dreary swamp, destitute of trees, and overgrown with coarse 
reeds. The water is white and turbid, and colors the ocean for a great 
distance out of sight of the land. 

Before the introduction of steamboats, the navigation of the river 
was performed by keel boats, which were partly rowed along the 
eddies of the stream, and partly drawn by ropes along the shore. In 
this tedious process, more than three months were consumed in ascen¬ 
ding from New Orleans to the falls of the Ohio. The passage is now 
made by steamboats in 10 days. The first steamboat seen upon these 
waters was in 1810. There are now 230. The number of flat boats 
or arks which yearly descend the river amounts to 5,000. 

The Missouri, in regard to its length, may be considered the main 
stream of the Mississippi, and in connexion with that stream, it is the 
longest river in the world. From its source in the Rocky Mountains 
to the Gulf of Mexico, its extreme length is 4,420 miles. It is navigable 
from the Great Falls to the sea, 4,000 miles, and has been ascended by 
steamboats 2,200 miles from the Mississippi. 

This river rises in three head streams, which unite at the base of the 
Rocky Mountains, and are named Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison. The 
source of one of these head streams is so near to that of the Oregon, on 
the other side of the mountains, that a person may drink from the 
springs of each without travelling more than a mile. For some dis¬ 
tance the river is a foaming mountain torrent, and then spreads into a 
broad and gentle stream, full of islands, and in some places bordered 
by shores of blackish and precipitous rocks, 1,000 feet in height. The 
Great Falls of the Missouri are within 60 miles of the most eastern 
ridge of the Rocky Mountains, and for the combination of beauty and 
grandeur, they are second only to Niagara. The river, which is here 
1,000 feet wide, is pressed in between perpendicular cliffs and banks, 
and falls at first in an unbroken sheet 98 feet perpendicular, and after¬ 
wards in a succession of cataracts and foaming rapids for a distance of 
17 miles. The whole descent is 360 feet. 

The general direction of the Missouri is southeasterly till it unites 
with the Mississippi. Its current is very rapid and tortuous, and it em¬ 
bosoms a vast number of islands. Like the Mississippi it is subject to 
annual floods, which begin in March and end in July; the average 
rise is 25 feet. Vast quantities of sand are brought down by its waters. 

The Missouri has a more rapid current than the Mississippi. From 
the Kansas to the Mississippi it runs from 5 to 7 miles an hour. 
Below this, sometimes 10 miles. The Mississippi below the Missouri, 
flows at a medial rate of 4 miles an hour. The Mississippi, at its junc- 


144 


UNITED STATES. 


tion witli the Missouri, is a mile and a half wide, while the Missouri, 
at the same point, has a width of but half a mile. The course of the 
Mississippi exhibits a perpetual succession of curves, in such a regular 
uniformity that the boatmen and Indians were accustomed to calculate 
their progress by the number of bends they had passed. 

The alluvial banks of the Missouri are narrower than those of the 
Mississippi, and are for the most part destitute of trees. The bluffs 
which skirt the alluvion, are generally a limestone rock. * The Missouri 
has several large tributaries. The Yellow Stone rises in the Rocky 
Mountains, and falls into the Missouri after a course estimated at 1800 
miles, nearly half of which it is navigable. The Platte joins the Mis¬ 
souri further downward, and is supposed to have a course of 2,000 
miles. The Kansas, still farther down, is 1200 miles in length: all 
these tributaries are from the South and West. 

6. Bays, Gulfs, fyc. The Gulf of Mexico borders the southern part 
of the country, and receives the waters of all the central regions. The 
coast of the Atlantic is indented by numerous deep bays, the chief of 
which are Chesapeake, Delaware and Massachusetts Bays: all these 
are navigable. 

7. Shores and Capes. In the north, the Atlantic coast is rocky, 
high, and bold, and broken into numerous headlands. Towards the 
south the land subsides into an unvarying level flat, which extends to a 
great distance into the country. The most prominent capes, are Cape 
Cod in Massachusetts, Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, Cape Florida, 
and Cape Sable, the southern extremity of the United States. 

8. Climate. Every diversity of climate is found in this country, 
from the perpetual summer of Florida and Louisiana, to the dreary 
winter of the Canadian borders. The general characteristic of the 
climate is its sudden transitions, from extreme heat to extreme cold. In 
a general view, the country may be regarded as comprised within three 
distinct zones. 1. That of the cold climate, containing the New 
England States, the northern part of New York, Michigan and the 
western districts. 2. The middle climate, comprising the Middle 
States, with Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. 
3. The hot climate, comprising the Southern States and Arkansaw. 
Throughout the country the climate is much colder than on the eastern 
continent under the same parallels of latitude. 

More rain falls in the United States in the course of a year than 
in Europe, yet the proportion of fair weather is greater here, and the 
air is drier; as the rain in America falls in much heavier showers, 
and the evaporation is more rapid than on the eastern continent. 
The spring of the United States is remarkably short. The pecu¬ 
liarities of climate in each state and division have already been minute¬ 
ly described. 

9. Minerals. The mineral products of the United States are rich 
and various. Iron, coal, lime and salt, articles of primary importance, 
exist in great abundance. Lead is found in inexhaustible quantities in 
Missouri, and Illinois. Salt, which is obtained from the sea on the 
eastern side of the Alleghanies, is procured on the western side from 
salt springs, which are numerous and copious in their produce, all over 
the Western States. The supply of coal is equally abundant: on the 
west of the mountains, immense beds of bituminous coal stretch for 
hundreds of miles through the valley of the Mississippi; and on the 


UNITED STATES. 


145 


east anthracite coal is found in various positions. Gold has recently 
been found, in considerable quantities, in some of the Southern States. 
Copper is found in Michigan. 

10. Political Divisions and Population. The United States are 
divided politically into twenty-four states, three Territories, and the 
District of Columbia; all of which, with the exception of Louisiana and 
Missouri states, and Arkansaw Territory, lie on the east of the Mississippi. 
The states are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Connecticut (familiarly known as the Eastern or New England 
States); New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland 
(Middle States): Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana (Southern States); Tennessee, Ken¬ 
tucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri (Western States). The 
Territories are Florida, Michigan, and Arkansaw. The regions to the 
west of Missouri and lake Michigan have few inhabitants, and have no 
separate governments. The constitution requires that a census or 
enumeration of the population should be taken every ten years, in 
order to determine the number of representatives, to which each state 
is entitled. Five official enumerations have been taken, which give 
the following results; in 1790, 3,929,827, including 697,897 slaves; 
1800, 5,305,925, slaves 893,041; 1810, 7,239,814, slaves 1,191,364; 
1820, 9,638,131, slaves 1,538,038 ; 1830, 12,866,020, including 2,009,043 
slaves, and 319,599 free blacks. The Indians are not included, and 
at present there are very few of them remaining east of the Missis¬ 
sippi. 

11. Agriculture. The vegetable productions of the United States are 
exceedingly various; there are some, however, common to every sec¬ 
tion of the Union. Maize, or Indian corn, an indigenous American 
plant, is cultivated from Maine to Louisiana, but succeeds best in the 
Western and Middle States. It is adapted to a greater variety of soils 
and situations than wheat, and yields generally double the produce: 
land of the first quality has been known to give 100 bushels to an acre. 
Wheat is also cultivated from one extremity of the Union to the other, 
but of superior quality in the Middle and Western States. 

The cultivation of tobacco begins in Maryland, about the parallel of 
39° or 40°, and continues through all the Southern States, and partially 
in the Western States south of the Ohio. It forms the staple of Mary¬ 
land and Virginia, w r here it is raised to a greater extent than in any 
other part of the Union. The soil and climate favorable for cotton is 
not found beyond 37°, though it can be raised as far north as 39° on 
both sides of the Alleghanies. It was first cultivated for exportation in 
1791, and is raised from the Roanoke to the Sabine, forming the staple 
of the Southern and Southwestern States. The rice crops require 
great heat and a marshy soil, commence about the same parallel with 
the cotton, and have nearly the same geographical range. Rice is cul¬ 
tivated to a great extent in the Carolinas, Georgia, &c., Louisiana, ana 
as high as St. Louis in Missouri. The sugar-cane grows m low and 
warm situations as high as the latitude of 33°; but the climate favorab e 
for its production does not extend beyond 31° 30'. It is now cultivated 
to a great extent in Louisiana; in 1829, there were 691 plantations in 
that state,producing 81,000 hogsheads of 1,000 pounds each. Oats,iye 
and barlev are raised in all the Northern, and in the upper districts of 
the Southern States. Hemp, flax and hops are produced of an excei- 
10 G 


146 UNITED STATES. 

lent quality. Hemp grows naturally in the Western States, and hops 
in the Western and Middle States. The vine has been successfully 
cultivated in various parts of the Union, and the mulberry-tree grows 
spontaneously, and has been extensively planted of late year». rruit 3 
of all kinds of the temperate and tropical climates, and the culinary 
vegetables which have been introduced from Europe, thrive here. 

12. Commerce. The United States are the second commercial power 
in the world, their maritime navigation being inferior only to that of 
Great Britain, while no country in the world displays such a length of 
internal navigable channels, natural and artificial. The amount of 
shipping owned in the United States is about 1,260,000 tons, indepen¬ 
dently of a great number of large river boats, which navigate the great 
rivers of the south and west, and the numerous coal-boats of the Penn¬ 
sylvania waters. Such has been of late years, the rapid growth of 
manufactures, the great development of internal resources, and the ex¬ 
tension of inland navigation, that the coasting trade has steadily increa¬ 
sed, at a rapid rate, while the foreign trade has been nearly stationary. 
The annual value of imports is from seventy-five to a hundred million 
dollars; of exports about eighty millions, of which twenty are articles of 
foreign produce, and the remainder of domestic. The principal articles 
of domestic produce exported are cotton, to the value of $ 25,000,000; 
bread stuffs $ 12,000,000 ; tobacco $ 5,000,000 ; rice $ 2,000,000 ; tim¬ 
ber, naval stores, and pot and pearl ashes, &c, $ 3,000,000 ; dried and 
pickled fish, whale oil, &c, $ 2,000,000. The articles of domestic ma¬ 
nufacture exported, to the value of seven millions, are chiefly cotton 
goods, manufactures of leather, soap and tallow candles, hats, furni¬ 
ture, refined sugar, tobacco, &c. 

13. Manufactures. The manufactures of the United States, though 
of recent origin, are already extensive and increasing. The vast terri¬ 
tory of the Union, with all its diversity of climate, and the immense 
water power, afforded by its rivers, furnish the raw materials for 
almost every sort of manufacture, and a cheap moving force. There 
are eight hundred cotton mills in the country, with upwards of 
1,200,000 spindles, and 35,000 looms, and producing 230 million yards 
of cloth yearly; 240 furnaces make 200,000 tons of iron, which is ma¬ 
nufactured into every variety of useful articles; five million bushels of 
salt are made from the sea and the salt springs of the interior; woollen 
goods to the value of $ 40,000,000; hats and caps to that of $ 10,000,000; 
furniture to the same amount; paper to the value of $ 3,000,000, and 
glass of the same amount, are among the leading manufactured products. 

14. Fisheries. The products of the fisheries are of great value, as ap¬ 
pears from the preceding statements relative to commerce. Cod are 
taken chiefly on the Newfoundland Banks, and dried and salted ; her¬ 
ring and mackerel are taken along shore, and the river fisheries are 
valuable. The whale fishery is chiefly prosecuted in the Southern At¬ 
lantic, the Pacific and Indian oceans, and the American seamen have 
far outstripped other nations in the pursuit of this gigantic game. Up¬ 
wards of 100,000 tons of shipping are employed in the whale fishery, 
obtaining annually above 1Q0,000 barrels of sperm oil, 115,000 barrels 
of whale or black oil, and 120,000 pounds of whale bone. 

15. Public Lands. The National Domain, or Public Lands, consist 
ofltracts of territory ceded to the general government by the several 
states; of the lands in the territory of Louisiana, purchased of France; 


UNITED STATES. 147 

and those in Florida, acquired by treaty from Spain. Avast portion 
of this land is occupied by the Indians, who are considered as proprie¬ 
tors of the soil till the government extinguishes their title by purchase. 
A General Land Office at Washington directs the sale of these territo¬ 
ries. All the lands are surveyed before sale; they are divided into 
townships of six miles square, which are subdivided into sections of 
one mile square, containing each 640 acres, and sold in sections, halfj 
quarter, and half-quarter sections. The minimum price is fixed by 
law at a dollar and a quarter. All sales are made for cash. Salt 
springs and lead mines are reserved, but may be sold by special orders 
from the President. One section of 640 acres is reserved in each town¬ 
ship as a fund for the perpetual support of schools. Five per cent, on 
all sales of land are reserved, three-fifths of which are expended by 
Congress in making roads leading to the states in which the lands are 
situated, and two-fifths are expended by the states for the promotion of 
learning. Up to the present time about 150,000,000 acres of the public 
lands have been surveyed, of which 30,000,000 have not been proclaim¬ 
ed for sale; 20,000,000 have been sold, and as much more granted by 
Congress for education, internal improvement, and other purposes. 
There remain 110,000,000 acres surveyed and unsold ; 80,000,000 of 
which are in the market. The whole quantity of land owned by the 
United States amounts to 1,062,463,171 acres. 

16. Revenue and Expenditure. The revenues of the United States 
are derived from customs, sales of land, the post office, lead mines, and 
stock of the United States Bank. Of these the customs constitute much 
the largest item. The amount of the revenue has varied during the 
last few years from 25 to 30 millions of dollars, of which from 20 to 24 
millions were received from customs or duties on foreign merchandise 
imported into the country, and from two to three millions from the sale 
of the public lands. The expenses of the government amount to about 
fourteen million dollars yearly, the surplus having been employed in 
the payment of the public debt. The appropriations for the year 1831 
were as follows; civil list $ 1,373,755; military establishment, including 
fortifications, internal improvements, &c., $4,841,835; Indian affairs 
$930,738; pensions, $1,170,000; naval establishment $3,856,183; 
miscellaneous, as supporting light-houses, taking census, &c. 1,392,336; 
for foreign intercourse $ 298,550. The expenses of the civil list are 
the payment of the executive, legislative, and judicial officers of the 
government. 

17. Army and Navy. The peace establishment of the army is fixed 
by law of congress, at 6,188 men; the army is divided into two depart¬ 
ments the Eastern and Western, and consists of 4 regiments of artillery, 
7 regiments of infantry, and one regiment of dragoons, under the com¬ 
mand of a major-general and two brigadier-generals. Connected with 
the war department is the Military Academy at West Point on the 
Hudson, for the education of officers. The Navy of the United States 
is small, but in admirable order, and is of great importance in peace by 
affording protection to commerce in foreign seas. There are navy- 
yards at Portsmouth, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, 
Norfolk, and Pensacola. The naval force comprises 12 ships of the 
line, 26 frigates, 24 sloops of war, and some smaller vessels; and 
graving or dry docks of granite have been constructed at Norfolk, and 
Charlestown, of a size to receive the largest vessels* 


148 


UNITED STATES. 


18. Posts. The post roads in the United States amount to about 
120,000 miles, and the annual transportation of the mail is about 
20,000,000 miles. The number of post offices is 9,200; the revenue 
arising from the department is expended upon the extension and im¬ 
provement of the post establishment, so as to maintain a regular and 
safe conveyance to the remotest settlements. 

19. Mint. The mint is established in Philadelphia; the coinage 
effected in 1833 amounted to $ 3,765,710 ; comprising 10,307,790 pieces 
of coin, of which $ 978,550 were in gold, $ 2,759,000 in silver, and $28, 
160 in copper coins. Of the gold coined in 1833, $ 868,000 were re¬ 
ceived from the gold region in the United States. 

20. Canals and Railroads. In no country have works of so great 
extent been executed with such rapidity as in the United States. We 
have already given a detailed account of the canals and railroads under 
the heads of the separate states. They surpass in length those of any 
other part of the world ; about 2,500 miles of canals, and 2,600 of rail¬ 
roads are actually finished or in active progress, which, taken in con¬ 
nection with the navigable rivers of the country, present an unpa¬ 
ralleled extent of inland intercommunication. 

21. Slavery. Slavery exists in 12 states, Delaware, Maryland, Vir¬ 
ginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Ten¬ 
nessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Missouri, also in the District of 
Columbia, and the Territories of Arkansaw, and Florida. There are also 
some slaves in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and 
Pennsylvania, but slavery, being abolished by law in these states, will 
cease on the exportation or death of such as are slaves at present. 
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Ohio, Illinois, and 
Indiana have no slaves, and in Maryland they are on the decrease. 
In South Carolina and Louisiana only do they exceed the free population. 

22. Religious Denominations. The Calvinists are the most numerous 
sect in the United States; they include Baptists, who have 5,075 con¬ 
gregations and 3,370 preachers; Methodists, with 2,200 preachers; 
Presbyterians, with 2,532 congregations and 2,008 preachers; Orthodox 
Congregationalists, 1,000 ministers and 1,381 congregations; Episcopa¬ 
lians, 596 clergymen and 950 churches; Dutch Reformed, 190 churches 
and 132 pastors; German Reformed 160 ministers and 570 churches, 
&c. Of the other sects the principal are the Christians, Universalists, 
Lutherans, Friends, Roman Catholics, and Unitarians, with some 
separatists from the Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians. 

23. Education. There are 63 colleges in the United States, and 
21 theological, and 21 medical schools. In some of the states the 
lower or elementary branches of instruction are made accessible to 
all But in none of the institutions are the means afforded, to the same 
extent as in Europe, for a thorough learned and scientific education. 
There is also a great deficiency of good libraries in the countiy. 

24. Government. The United States form a confederated democratic 
republic, the government of which is conducted according to the pro¬ 
visions of a written document called the constitution. The Congress 
consists of two houses, a Senate and House of Representatives. The 
senators are chosen for the term of six years, two being appointed from 
each state by its legislature. The representatives are chosen for the term 
of two years; the apportionment or determination of the number which 
the people of each state are entitled to send, takes place every ten 


UPPER CANADA. 


149 


years; the last apportionment fixed the rate at one for every 47,700 
inhabitants, giving 240 representatives. The President is chosen for a 
term of four years, by electors chosen by the legislatures or people of 
the states. Each state chooses a number of electors equal to the united 
number of its senators and representatives in Congress; the electors 
then meet in their respective states, and give their votes for President 
and Vice-President. If no choice is made of a president, the two 
houses of Congress choose one of the three candidates having the 
greatest number of votes. If no Vice-President is chosen, the vacancy 
is supplied by the senate. The seat of government is at Washington. 

25. History. The United States were originally colonies of Great 
Britain, which, in 1776, provoked by the encroachments on their liber¬ 
ties attempted by the mother country, declared themselves indepen¬ 
dent, and formed a confederation under the title of the United States. 
In 1783, after a fierce struggle of seven years, which combined the 
horrors of civil, and servile, with those of a mercenary warfare, Great 
Britain acceded to their claim of independence. In 1789 a new con¬ 
stitution, or form of government, was established by the people of the 
United States. In 1812 war was declared against Great Britain, which 
was terminated by the peace of Ghent in 1814. 


XXXVI. RUSSIAN TERRITORY. 

This country comprises an extensive region of the northwestern 
part of North America, of which very little is known except along the 
western coast. Apart of the northern coast and lying between 150° 155° 
W. Lon., has never been visited. The boundaries are wholly undeter¬ 
mined. The Russian American Company have a few factories and 
forts on the coast and islands, but almost the whole country is occupied 
by various native tribes, chiefly Esquimaux. New Archangel, on the 
island called Sitka by the natives. King George’s island by the English, 
and Baranoff by the Russians, is the residence of the governor, and 
has about 1,000 inhabitants. The fur trade only gives any value to 
these cold and sterile regions, and the sea otter, the skins of which 
furnish the fur, has now become comparatively scarce. Mount St. 
Elias, supposed to be the highest summit in the northern part of Ame¬ 
rica, is estimated to be upwards of 17,000 feet in height; Mount Fair- 
weather is about 14,000 feet in height. 


XXXVII. UPPER CANADA. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. Upper Canada, a colony of Great 
Britain, is bounded on the N. and W. by New Britain, E. by Lower 
Canada, from which it is in part separated by the river Ottawa, and te. 
by the United States, from which it is separated by the great lakes. Its 
northern and western limits are undefined. It is divided into 25 coun¬ 
ties, which are subdivided into townships, and contains a population of 

2. Face of the Country , Climate , and Soil. The surface presents 
an almost unbroken level, with a fertile soil, and a mild and healthy 
climate. 


150 


UPPER CANADA. 


The Ottawa and St. Lawrence, with the great lakes, wash its borders 
and afford important advantages for trade. The Thames flowing into 
Lake St. Clair, and the Ouse into Lake Erie, are the principal rivers 
within its limits. The river Niagara, which separates New York from 
Upper Canada, is the outlet of Lake Erie, and discharges its waters into 
Lake Ontario after a course of 36 miles. The whole descent, from the 
level of Lake Erie to that of Lake Ontario, is 330 feet. Grand Isle or 
Ararat, an island 12 miles in length by 7 in breadth, divides its channel 
for some distance, but below that island the waters are again united. 
Here they become broken by rapids, for the distance of nearly a mile, 
and at length are precipitated over a ledge of rocks, 165 feet high, form¬ 
ing the celebrated falls of Niagara. 

The descent of the river Niagara down a precipice 165 feet high, is 
one of the sublimest natural objects in the world. The river, which is 
here about one mile in width, is divided by Goat Island into two prin¬ 
cipal channels; that on the west or Canada side, called the Crescent or 
Horse Shoe falls, from the shape of the ledge of rocks over which it 
flows, is 800 yards wide, and has a descent of 15b feet. The American 
fall is divided into the Greater and Lesser fall by a small island lying 
between the shore and Goat island, to which there is a bridge; the 
height of the American fall is 165 feet, but the body of water is less 
than that of the Horse Shoe or British fall. There are cascades of 
greater height than Niagara, but none in which so large a mass of water 
descends in so unbroken a sheet from so great an elevation. The im¬ 
mense volume of water, the deep roar of the cataract as it plunges into 
the unfathomed abyss below, and the giddy height from which it leaps, 
constitute a scene of grandeur and sublimity, which fills the beholder 
with awe. Masses of mist roll up, and are wildly tossed into a thousand 
shapes by the wind, while a rainbow bends, like a spirit of peace, over 
the angry waters. 

Lakes Nipissing and Simcoe are considerable sheets of water. 

3. Towns. The capital is Toronto, lately York, on lake Ontario, with 
8,700 inhabitants. Its harbor is shallow, and the country around is 
barren. 

Kingston, on the same lake, is the next largest town of Upper Canada. 
It is agreeably situated, and well built, containing several public edifi¬ 
ces, and about 3,500 inhabitants. The harbor is excellent, and ships of 
the line can come close to the shore. It has a flourishing trade, and in 
summer the port is crowded with the various kinds of lake and river 
craft. The English government has a dock yard* here. 

There is a great number of thriving villages in Upper Canada, which, 
though lately built in the midst of the wilderness, contain from 1,000 to 
1,500 inhabitants. Bytown on the Ottawa, is connected with Hull in 
Lower Canada by a fine bridge of eleven arches, and 800 feet in length ; 
Brockville and Prescot are on the St. Lawrence; Dundas and Hamil¬ 
ton are rapidly increasing villages, at the west end of Lake Ontario. 
London, on the Thames, is a flourishing town with 2,000 inhabitants. 

Goderich, recently built on lake Huron, is the most western settlement. 
Niagara, Queenstown, and Chippewa, small towns on the river Niagara, 
became the scene of military operations during the war of 1812—14. 
Sherbrooke, at the mouth of the Ouse, Malden, and Amherstburg are 
the principal places on Lake Erie. 

* What the Americans call a navy yard. 


LOWER CANADA. 


151 


4. Canals. . Rideau Canal from Kingston to Bytown, affords a navi¬ 
gation by rivers and lakes of 160 miles, with an actual excavation of 
but “20 miles. It has 47 locks, with a total lockage of 437 feet. Wel¬ 
land canal, connecting lakes Erie and Ontario, is 41 miles in length, 
and sufficiently wide and deep to admit vessels of 120 tons. It over¬ 
comes the fall of the Niagara by 37 locks ; summit level 330 feet. A 
canal has been projected to unite the Thames at Chatham with Lake 
Erie. 

5. Inhabitants. Government. Upper Canada is peopled almost en¬ 
tirely by Irish and Scotch emigrants; there are also many English, and 
some settlers from the United States. The executive administration is 
vested in a Lieutenant-Governor, with an executive council. The 
legislature or provincial parliament is composed of a legislative council, 
and a house of assembly ; the latter is chosen by the counties and the 
three towns of Kingston, Toronto, and Niagara. The executive offi¬ 
cers and members of the legislative council are appointed by the king 
of Great Britain. 

6. Education. Religion. About one fourth of the inhabtants are 
Roman Catholics ; the rest are principally Presbyterians, Baptists, and 
Methodists. There are but few Episcopalians, yet the reservation of 
one seventh part of each township for the support of the protestant 
clergy, has been appropirated exclusively for their use. There is a uni¬ 
versity, called King’s college, and another seminary, called the college of 
Upper Canada, has lately been founded. Grammar and elementary 
schools have been established, and have received pecuniary aid from 
the provincial legislature. 


XXXVIII. LOWER CANADA. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. The British province of Lower Ca¬ 
nada lies on both sides of the St. Lawrence, having the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence on the E.; New Brunswick and the United States on the S.; 
and Upper Canada on the W. Its northern limits are undefined. It 
is divided into 40 counties, which are subdivided into seigniories and 
townships. The population is about 600,000. 

2. Rivers. The principal river is the St. Lawrence, which, issuing 
from Lake Ontario, falls into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, after a course 
of 800 miles. Considering its head waters to be the streams which 
flow from the central table land of North America into Lake Superior, 
and the great chain of lakes, with their outlets, the rivers St. Mary, 
Detroit, and Niagara, to be parts of this river, the St. Lawrence has a 
course of about 2,500 miles, and in point of depth, width, and volume of 
waters is one of the principal rivers of the world. Below lake Ontario 
it expands successively into the lake of the Thousand Isles, lake 
St. Francis, and lake St. Peter. It is navigable for ships of the line 
to Quebec, 400 miles, and for the largest merchant ships to Montreal, 
180 miles further; the tide flows up about 500 miles. The other 
rivers of Lower Canada are its tributaries; on the north are the Ottawa 
or Uttawa, and the Saguenay, large navigable rivers, flowing through a 
region litdo known ; the former is supposed to have a course of 1,000 
or 1,200 miles, but its navigation is much interrupted by rapids. The 
Saguenay is remarkable for its depth, and is navigable for 90 miles to 


152 


LOWER CANADA. 


its falls;—for about fifty miles it has the appearance of a long mountain 
lake, and the scenery around is wild and magnificent. At its junction 
with the St. Lawrence it is 840 feet in depth, being GOO feet deeper 
than the latter river. The St. Maurice is also a considerable stream 
from the northj and the Montmorenci, which falls into the St. Lawrence 
at Quebec, is celebrated for its cataract, which is 240 feet in height, and 
which, when the river is full, pours a large volume of water over its 
precipitous bank. On the south the principal tributaries are the Sorel 
or Richelieu, the outlet of Lake Champlain, the Chaudiere, with a 
beautiful cascade rushing down a precipice 100 feet in height, and 
the St. Francis. 

3. Soil and Climate. The winters are long and severe; the ther¬ 
mometer often falling to 40° below zero. The heat is intense for a 
short time in summer. The air is pure, clear, and healthy. The 
country on the south of the St. Lawrence is mountainous, and chiefly 
covered with forests; to the north the surface is also in general broken 
and rugged, and rising by successive banks, called steps or ramps, into 
an elevated table-land; little is known of the interior. The soil along 
the rivers is fertile, and the productions are similar to those of the 
northern part of the United States. 

4. Canals. Lachine canal, above Montreal, avoids a bend and rapids 
in the St. Lawrence; length 9 miles. Granville canal passes round 
rapids in the Ottawa; 12 miles in length. There are several other 
similar side cuts on the St. Lawrence above Montreal. 

5. Toion3. Quebec, the capital of Lower Canada, lies on the north¬ 
ern bank of the St. Lawrence, which is here but half a mile wide, 
although it is several miles in width above and below the city. Below 
is the harbor, which lies between Quebec and the Isle of Orleans, and 
is five miles long, by four wide. The city is divided into the Upper 
and the Lower City. The latter, the seat of business, has narrow, steep, 
and dirty streets, crowded with old and mean buildings. From this 
you ascend by a winding street, or by a long flight of stairs to the 
Upper City, which is built on a lofty promontory, about 300 feet above 
the river. The streets of the Upper City are narrow, but clean and 
well paved, and the public and private buildings are neat. Quebec is 
styled the Gibraltar of America, its military works being deemed 
impregnable. It is surrounded with walls, and the citadel on Cape 
Diamond, which rises abruptly from the water to the height of 340 
feet, is a work of great strength. In front of the citadel are the Plains 
of Abraham. There is a garrison stationed here. Quebec contains 
about 30,000 inhabitants, two thirds of whom are Canadian French, 
and has an active and extensive commerce. 

The most remarkable buildings are the chateau or castle of St. Louis, 
which is the residence of the Governor; the Provincial Parliament 
house ; a catholic cathedral, a large and splendid edifice ; a protestant 
cathedral; the barracks, formerly the Jesuit’s college; the arsenal or 
armoury; three nunneries, &c. There are also hero a French college, 
and other institutions of education. In the vicinity is the little hamlet 
of Loretto, inhabited by the miserable remnant of the once powerful 
Iroquois or Hurons, and on the opposite shore stands Point Levi, 
near the falls of the Chaudiere. The view from Cape Diamond is 
celebrated for its grandeur and beauty. 

Montreal, 180 miles above Quebec, stands on an island of the samo 


LOWER CANADA. 153 

name, in the St. Lawrence, near a hill about 800 feet high, from which 
it derives its name. Its population, including the suburbs, is estimated 
to exceed 40,000 souls, and it is a place of great trade. The streets in 
general are narrow, and the houses mean; but the upper or modern 
part of the city has some handsome buildings. The most remarkable 
structure is the Catholic Cathedral, built in 1829, which is the most 
splendid temple in British America. It is 255 feet in length, 234 in 
breadth, and 112 high, with 6 towel's, and 7 altars, and can accommodate 
10,000 persons. Three nunneries, the French college, the University 
of Macgill college, the Government House, the Barracks, the General 
Hospital, and the Catholic Seminary, also deserve mention. 

Three Rivers below Montreal, and Lachine above it, on the St. Law- 
lence, and Hull, opposite By town on the Ottawa, are flourishing com¬ 
mercial towns. St. Ann’s is a pretty village at the mouth of the Ottawa. 
Kamouraska, on the St. Lawrence, is a favorite bathing place. 

6. Government and Laws. The executive authority is vested in a 
Governor, who is also Captain-general of British America, and an 
executive council. The provincial parliament is composed of two 
branches, styled the Legislative Council, the members of which are 
appointed for life, and the House of Assembly, elected by the freehold¬ 
ers. The executive and judicial officers, and the members of the 
councils are appointed by the king of England. The laws are princi¬ 
pally the old French Customs, somewhat modified by English legisla¬ 
tion. The tenure of land in the seigniories is feudal. The seigniories 
consist of tracts of land, granted by the French kings, with certain feudal 
privileges to the possessors, styled seigneurs or lords, who in turn 
granted smaller parcels to tenants or habitans, who pay certain services 
and rents to their lord. 

7. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are mostly of French descent, and 
the French is the prevalent language. The Canadian French peasant¬ 
ry, or habitans, are frugal, honest, polite, and hospitable, but deficient 
in enterprise. They are attached to old customs, reverence their 
priests, thank the saints and the blessed Virgin with great piety, and 
are gay and contented. They are, however, generally ignorant, and 
their mode of agriculture is clumsy. The voyageurs or boatmen are 
hardy and skilful in the often dangerous navigation of the rapid and 
broken rivers, and endurcrgreat privations with unyielding cheerfulness, 
enlivening their long and perilous voyages with rude songs. The 
Coureurs du Bois, are a race of hunters and trappers, who have in 
many respects adopted the manners and habits of the Indians, passing 
their whole lives in the unsettled fur regions. The Bois Brutes are 
half breeds, descended from the coureurs du bois, and Indian women; 
they are mere savages in their dispositions aud mode of life, which is 
passed far beyond the restraints of religion and society. The Indians 
fare still numerous in the Canadas. 

8. Education and Religion. The inhabitants are chiefly Roman 
Catholics. That sect has several colleges and seminaries, in which 
an elementary or classical education may be obtained, and numerous 
elementary schools have been established. 

G # 


154 


XXXIX. NEW BRUNSWICK. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. The British province of New Bruns¬ 
wick is bounded N. by Lower Canada, from which it is separated by 
the river Restigouche and the bay of Chaleur; E. by the gull ot ot. 
Lawrence; S. by Nova Scotia and the bay of Fundy,and W. by Maine. 
It is divided into 10 counties, and is but thinly inhabited, having a popu¬ 
lation of 110,000 souls. The interior is inhabited by Indians, and is 
mostly unexplored, the settlements being chiefly on the St. John, the 
Mirarnichi, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

2. Soil and Face of the Country. The surface is mostly broken and 
uneven, but not mountainous. There is much fertile soil on the rivers, 
consisting of alluvial or interval lands, and most of the country is cover¬ 
ed with a dense forest. 

3. Rivers. The river St. John rises in the northeastern part of 
Maine, and traversing the northern part of that state, enters New 
Brunswick, through which it flows southeasterly into the Bay of Fun- 
dy. It is navigable for sloops to Fredericton, 80 miles, and for boats, 
200 miles, although its course is much broken by falls and rapids. 
Just above its mouth are falls, which can be .passed only at high tide, 
and soon after entering New Brunswick, the whole body of the river 
plunges over a precipice of rocks 75 feet in height, exhibiting a scene 
of great grandeur. 

The St. Francis a small branch from the north, forms the boundary 
line between Maine and Lower Canada, proposed by the king of 
Holland. 

The Mirarnichi which flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is navi¬ 
gable for sea vessels about 40 miles. 

4. Bays. The coast on the Gulf of St. Lawrence is sandy, and most 
of the harbors are obstructed by bars. The Bay of Chaleur is 80 miles 
in length, and from fifteen to thirty in breadth, and contains some good 
harbors. 

On the south are the fine Bay of Passamaquoddy, and the Bay of 
Fundy. The latter is 200 miles in length, and about 40 in breadth, and 
is remarkable for the great and rapid rise of its tides, which attain the 
height of 70 feet. The islands of Campobello and Grand Manan lie at 
the entrance of the bay. 

5. Towns. The principal town is the city of St. John, at the mouth 
of the river of the same name, with 12,000 inhabitants. It has a good 
harbor, and a number of public buildings, among which are several 
churches. The streets are irregular and steep. 

Fredericton on the St. John is the seat of government. It has 2,000 
inhabitants, and contains some government buildings, and the college 
of New Brunswick. New Castle on the Mirarnichi is noted for its 
lumber trade and ship building. 

St. Andrews is a thriving town with a brisk trade, at the mouth of 
the St. Croix. It is pleasantly situated, and has a good harbor, the 
entrance of which, however, is obstructed by a bar. Population 3,000. 

6. Government. The chief executive officer, styled Lieutenant-Gov¬ 
ernor, is appointed by the king, and there is a provincial legislature, 
consisting of a council and a legislative assembly. 


155 


XL. NOVA SCOTIA. 

L Boundaries and Divisions. Having the bay of Fundy on the IV 
the Gujf of St. Lawrence on the E., and the Atlantic Ocean on the s! 
and W., Nova Scotia forms a peninsula joined to the mainland by a 
narrow neck, about 10 miles in width. Including the island of Cape 
.Breton, it is divided into 12 counties, with 155,000 inhabitants. The 
peninsula has a surface of 16,000 square miles. 

2. Soil, Face of the Country , and Climate. A great proportion of the 
soil is fertile and well adapted to grazing or tillage. The surface is 
uneven, and in some pans rugged and hilly, but nowhere rises above 
800 feet. The climate is healthy ; the cold is severe, but the air is dry 
except in some particular exposures. On the Atlantic coasts disagree¬ 
able sea-fogs prevail. 

3. Rivers and Bays. There are no rivers of much extent; the An¬ 
napolis, emptying itself into the Bay of Fundy, is the principal, and 
has a course of 60 miles. There is a very great number of excellent 
harbors. Chedabucto and Mahone Bays, and the basins of Mines and 
Cumberland, running up from the bay of Fundy, are the chief bays. 

4. Islands. The isle of Cape Breton, separated from the mainland 
by the Gut of Canseau, is about 100 miles long, by from 30 to 80 broad, 
and contains about 500,000 acres of arable land. It sustains a popula¬ 
tion of 25,000 inhabitants, and has some excellent harbors. Sable 
Island, to the southeast of Nova Scotia, is a dangerous bank of sand, on 
the track of vessels sailing betw r een Europe and North America. 

5. Minerals. Gypsum or plaster of Paris, limestone, iron and bitu¬ 
minous coal are found in Nova Scotia. 

6. Canals. The Shubenacadie canal, extends across the peninsula, 
from the harbor of Halifax to the bason of Mines, 54 miles, and it is pro¬ 
posed to cut a canal across the isthmus from Cumberland Basin to Verte 
Bay, 11 miles. 

7. Towns. Halifax, the capital, stands on Chebucto bay, with a fine 
harbor, safe, capacious, and easy of access. It is regularly built on 
rising ground with wide, strait streets, and contains several government 
buildings, a dock-yard or navy-yard, and 16,000 inhabitants. The 
Government House or residence of the lieutenant-governor, the pro¬ 
vince building, a handsome edifice of the Ionic order, containing the 
legislative halls and public offices, eight churches, Dalhousie college, 
&c., are the principal public buildings. Several English regiments are 
stationed here, and there are generally some ships of war in the har¬ 
bor. It is the centre of a profitable fishery and a thriving trade. 
Dartmouth, a little village, lies opposite to Halifax. 

Lunenburg, with 1,200 inhabitants, chiefly Germans, and Liverpool, 
a flourishing trading town, with 1,800 inhabitants, lie south west of 
Halifax. 

On the northern coast are Annapolis, formerly Port Royal, an 
old French settlement; Digby, famous for its red herrings; and Wind¬ 
sor, containing the University of King’s College, and a collegiate 
school. 

Pictou on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with an excellent harbor, is a 
busy town in the coal region. Pictou college is a respectable semi¬ 
nary. 

On the island of Cape Breton are Sydney, which has derived some 


156 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 


importance from its coal trade, and the ruins of Louisburg, once a for¬ 
midable French fortress, captured by the Americans and English in 
1745, and a second time by the English in 1758, when its works were 
demolished. Louisburg formerly contained about 5,000 inhabitants, but 
is now reduced to a few fishing huts. 

Arichat, on Madam Island, between Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, 
has 2,000 inhabitants. 

8. Government The chief executive officer is styled lieutenant- 
governor, and there is a council, appointed by the king, which is at 
once an executive council and a legislative body. The other legisla¬ 
tive house, called the Assembly, is chosen by the freeholders. 

9. Inhabitants. • Nova Scotia originally belonged to France, and was 
then called Acadia. The Acadian French, Scotch, and Irish, are the 
most numerous classes ; there are also many English, refugee loyalists 
from the United States, or their descendants, some Germans, and about 
3,000 negroes. One third of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 
about one fourth Presbyterians, nearly as many Episcopalians, and 
there are great nu mbers of Methodists and Baptists. 


XLI. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 

Prince Edward Island, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, is separated from 
Nova Scotia, by Northumberland strait, nine miles in width. It is 140 
miles in length by from 15 to 30 in breadth, having an area of 2,000 
square miles, and containing 35,000 inhabitants. It is divided into 
three counties, which are subdivided into 67 townships. 

The capital Charlottetown, has an excellent harbor, at the junction 
of the rivers York, Elliot, and Hillsborough, which empty their united 
waters into Hillsborough bay. Population 3,500. 

The climate of the island is mild, dry, and healthy, and the soil fer¬ 
tile ; the shores abound with fish. The inhabitants are chiefly Scotch, 
with many Irish and Acadian French. The local government is like 
that of Nova Scotia. 


XLII. NEWFOUNDLAND. 

This island is separated from the continent by the straits of Belleisle 
and the gulf of St. Lawrence. It is 380 miles in length, and from 50 
to 300 in breadth, and is on all sides indented with spacious bays, 
forming a great number of harbors. Its interior is little known, having 
been but recently traversed, and a great proportion has never been 
visited by the whites. The surface is described as generally level, or 
moderately uneven, with a good soil, and a mild climate, the winter 
being less severe than in the same latitude on the continent. 

The inhabitants are entirely occupied in trade and fishing; the cod 
fishery is prosecuted on the coasts and on the Labrador shores, and 
the seal fishery has been lately undertaken and carried on with great 
boldness and activity, on the icebergs or floating mountains of ice, 
which are brought down from the north by the ocean currents. About 
500 vessels and 10,000 men are engaged in the seal fishery, and 25,000 
men in the cod fishery. 
















VIEWS IN THE UNITED STATES, 



INDI A N 'I' E N T. 



INDIAN ENCAMPMENT 






































VIEWS IN WEST INDIES AND SOUTH AMERICA 



li A VAN A. 



RIO JANEIRO. 





































NEW BRITAIN. 


157 


The island has a separate government with a provincial legislature 
like the other British provinces. Population 85,000. The western 
coast and the interior are uninhabited. 

St. John’s, the capital, lies on a bay of the same name, and has a fine 
harbor. The streets are narrow and dirty, and the houses mean. It 
contains a Government House, four churches, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
Harbor Grace, on Conception Bay, is a fishing village with about 4,000 
inhabitants, and contains four churches. 

The uninhabited island of Anticosti in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 
the Labrador coast are dependencies of the government of New¬ 
foundland. 

St. Pierre or Peter’s and Miquelon are two small islands near the 
southern coast, belonging to France. 

The Great Bank of Newfoundland, to the southeast of Newfound¬ 
land, is the most extensive submarine elevation known. It is 600 
miles in length and 200 in some parts in breadth, and appears to be a 
solid mass of rock. The soundings vary from four to ten, thirty, and a 
hundred fathoms. The Outer Bank or Flemish Cape, appears to be a 
continuation of the grand bank. These banks form a well known 
fishing ground. The perpetual fogs, which hover over them, and 
which also cover the coasts of Newfoundland and Cape Breton, are 
produced by the meeting of the cold waters of the north, with the 
warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 


XLIII. NEW BRITAIN. 

1. To the north of the provinces already described, and stretching 
from the Rocky Mountains, or the Pacific ocean on the W., to the At- 
antic ocean on the E., lies a vast tract, belonging to Great Britain, and 
sometimes called New Britain. Its limits are too undefined to be 
described with precision, and its surface is but partially and imperfectly 
known. Hudson’s Bay makes up far inland from the north, forming 
a large peninsula, of which the eastern coast is called Labrador, and 
the western, East Main, from its position in regard to the bay. An 
extensive tract west of the bay has received the name of New South 
Wales, or Western Main. 

A great part of New Britain consists of immense forests, while the 
western portion is composed of wide, desolate plains, destitute of wood, 
except on the borders of the rivers. 

2. Rivers and Lakes . The Saskashawan, rising in the Rocky 
Mountains, flows easterly through lake Winnipeg, and taking the name 
of Nelson runs into Hudson’s Bay. The Mackenzie or Peace River, 
also rises in the Rocky Mountains, and pursuing a northerly course, 
passes through lake Athapesco and Great Slave Lake, into the Arctic 
Ocean. It is 2,500 miles in length, and much of the country on its 
banks is covered with a rich vegetation. Coppermine River rises near 
Slave Lake, and flows through a barren region into the Arctic Ocean. 
The lakes are among the largest in the world, and seem to be innu¬ 
merable. The Winnipeg, Athapesco, Great Slave Lake, and Great Bear 
Lake, are the principal. 

3. Inhabitants. This region is thinly peopled by small tribes of 
Indians, who rather roam from district to district, than occupy any fixed 


158 


ICELAND. 


tract. They live by hunting and fishing, and present a degraded pic¬ 
ture of humanity. The northern coasts are inhabited by Esquimaux 
tribes. On the coast of Labrador, there are several Moravian missions, 
the principal of which is Nain. The Hudson’s Bay Fur Company has 
factories and posts scattered at great distances through the fur countries. 

4. Islands. The whole of the coast on the Arctic Ocean has not 
been examined by whites. The northeastern termination of the con¬ 
tinent is in 74° N. Lat. The name of Boothia has recently been given 
to an extensive tract here. West from Baffin’s Bay, stretches Bar¬ 
row’s Strait to an unknown extent, bordered on the north by the 
North Georgian islands, and to the south by a range of islands, sepa¬ 
rated from the northern coasts of the continent by a wide sea. 


XLIV. GREENLAND. 

This extensive island, lying to the east of Davis’s Strait, and Baffin’s 
Bay, belongs to the crown of Denmark, and, on the western coast, 
there are several Danish factories and Moravian missionary stations. 
But, except a few hundred leagues of coast, nothing is known of it. 
It is inhabited by the Karalits, an Esquimaux tribe, and its coasts are 
resorted to in summer by whalers and seal catchers. The eastern 
coast has been for several hundred years rendered inaccessible by ice, 
but the sea having recently been more open, the English and Danes 
have landed at several points. 

An almost incessant winter, interrupted only by a few weeks of hot 
weather, broods over these desolate and dreary regions* in which no 
tree appears. The ignorant, filthy, and degraded inhabitants seem to 
be reduced to the lowest degree of barbarism, living on fish and blub¬ 
ber, and clad in seal-skin, having no domestic animals, and displaying 
no art or skill, except in the construction and management of their 
frail canoes. 


XLV. ICELAND. 

1. Situation and Population. Iceland, an island to the east of 
Greenland, politically belonging to Denmark, lies between 63° and 66° 
N. Lat., and between 13° and 25° W. Lon. It is 300 miles in length, 
by 140 in breadth, and has an area of about 40,000 square miles, not 
more than half of which has been explored. It is inhabited by de¬ 
scendants of Norwegians, who first formed settlements here in 874, 
and contains about 50,000 inhabitants. 

There are no large towns; Reikiavik the capital has but 500 or 600 
inhabitants, but it contains a printing establishment, a lyceum, a library 
of 5,000 volumes, and several learned societies. At Lambhuus, a little 
village in the neighborhood, there is an observatory. The only per¬ 
manent settlements are near the coasts. 

2. Mountains. The island contains numerous lofty mountains, 
many of which are volcanic, presenting the singular "spectacle of 
eternal fires bursting out through eternal snows. Glaciers or icy sum¬ 
mits cover a great part of the island. Snsefell, the loftiest mountain, 
is 6,862 feet high. Hecla, 5,210 feet in height, is a volcanic mountain, 
more remarkable for the frequency than the violence of its eruptions. 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 


159 


Hot springs and boiling fountains abound, and are used for cooking 
by the inhabitants. The most noted of these are the Geysers, near 
mount Hecla. Great Geyser throws up a column of water to the 
height of 200 feet, at intervals of six hours; these emissions are pre¬ 
ceded by loud reports, or a low rumbling, resembling the noise of 
artillery. On the Sulphur Mountain, are seen caldrons of boiling mud, * 
emitting sulphureous exhalations. 

3. Minerals. Sulphur is found in inexhaustible quantities; fossil 
wood, impregnated with bitumen, and called surturbrand, is abundant, 
and furnishes a good fuel, but peat and drift-wood are more generally 
used. Iron and copper exist, but are not worked. 

4. Vegetable Productions. Several varieties of moss and lichen, 
with a few dwarf birch and willow trees, constitute almost the whole 
vegetation. Fish, butter, and milk are the principal articles of food; 
bread is a luxury. 

5. Education and Religion. The Icelanders are Lutherans, and 
remarkable for their strict morals. There are few who cannot read 
and write, and most of them are well educated. The language is 
Scandinavian, and the literature is rich in poetry and prose. There was a 
printing press established here in 1530, the first ever set up in America. 


XLVI. MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The Mexican confederacy, or, as it is 
generally called, Mexico, is bounded on the N. by the United States; 
E. by the United States and the Gulf of Mexico; S. by the Republic 
of Central America, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from 
Lat. 16° to 42° N. and from Lon. 87° to 124° W. being about 2,000 
miles in length from N. to S., and from 150 to 1,200 in breadth, with 
an area estimated at about 1,600,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The confederacy is traversed from south to north 
by a chain of elevated mountains, which is composed of several bran¬ 
ches. The Central Chain enters the country on the south, and bears 
the local names of the Cordilleras of Mexico, the Sierra Madre, Sierra 
Mindres, &c.; passing into the United States it is known as the Rocky 
Mountains. It consists strictly speaking of an elevated table-land from 
6,000 to 8,000 feet high, from which, as from a base, rise irregular 
ridges, and lofty summits. The principal summits are Popocatepetl 
17,884 feet high ; Orizava, 17,373 ; Istaccihuatl 15,704. There are five 
volcanoes in activity near the parallel of 19° N.; Orizava, Popocatepetl, 
Tustla, Colima and Jorullo. This chain of mountains, is remarkable 
for its rich silver mines. Near Guanaxuato it sends off* two branches, 
the Eastern or Sierra of Catorce, of which the Masserne Mountains are 
a continuation, and the Western which sinks down in California. 
Another chain rises in the Californian peninsula, and passes north 
into Oregon District. 

3. Rivers. The Mexican rivers rise in the central plateau or table¬ 
land, and flow easterly into the Gulf of Mexico, or westerly into the 
Pacific. In the south, where the distance from the mountains to the 
sea is small, there are no considerable rivers. In the north are the 
head waters of the Red River and the Arkansaw, which pass into the 
United States. The Rio del Norte or North River, the largest river in 


160 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 


the country, rises in the northern part of New Mexico, and traversing 
that Territory, and the states of Cohahuila and Tamaulipas, flows into 
the Gulf of Mexico. It is about 2,000 miles in length, but receives 
few tributaries, and its navigation is impeded by sand-bars and falls. 
The Colorado of the East rises in the mountains of New Mexico, and 
traversing the state of Cohahuila, flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The 
principal rivers of the West are the Francisco, Western Colorado, and 
Gila, flowing through regions imperfectly known. The Tampico on 
the eastern, and the Grande on the western declivity of the central table¬ 
land are the principal streams in the south. The southern and most 
populous part of the country suffers from want of water. 

4. Lakes. There is a number of lakes of no great extent in the 
valley of Mexico, in the state of that name, the waters of which are 
diminishing. Tezcuco, the principal, formerly received the waters of 
San Christoval, Zumpango, Chaleo, and Xochimilco, and was subject 
to inundations. To prevent this disaster, its waters have been made to 
discharge themselves into the river Tampico; The celebrated floating 
gardens or chinampas, formed by covering a sort of raft, composed of 
rushes and shrubs, with a layer of rich earth, were formerly numerous 
on these lakes; but most of those now called by that name are fixed, 
though some move from place to place. Lake Chapala, in the state of 
Xalisco, is distinguished for the beauty of its scenery. In the north 
are lakes Timpanogos and Buenaveutura or Salt Lake, large sheets of 
water, of which little is known. 

5. Bays and Harbors. Although this country has a very great extent 
of sea coast, it presents few good harbors; but there are some on the 
western shores. Most of the rivers are obstructed by sand-bars, and 
both coasts are rendered inaccessible for several months by violent 
tempests. The Gulf of California is 800 miles in length by 80 or 100 
in breadth, but its navigation is rendered difficult by numerous shoals. 
The Gulf of Tehuantepec in the state of Oaxaca, and the bay of Cam- 
peachy between Yucatan and Tabasco, are the other chief bays. 

6. Climate. About one third of the country lies within the torrid 
zone, but the remarkable elevation of its surface modifies its climate in 
a striking manner. The low country along the coasts has a tropical 
climate, and produces sugar, indigo, &c., while the region which occu¬ 
pies the central table-land from 6,000 to 9,500 feet in height, is mild 
and temperate, and yields the cereal grains of the temperate zone. 
The intervening space, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet in height, exhibits an 
intermediate climate. Thus in ascending the successive terraces, which 
rise from the sea to the surface of the table-land, the climates succeed 
each other, as it were, in layers, and in two days the whole scale of 
vegetation is presented to view. Some of the farms or haciendas are at 
an elevation of 10,000 feet. Above this table-land, single prominences 
rise into colder regions, and terminate in that of perpetual ice and 
snow. The year is divided into two seasons; the rainy, lasting about 
4 months from the end of May, and the dry season, comprising the 
rest of the year. The northern part has a climate resembling that of 
the Mississippi valley in corresponding latitudes, but to the west of the 
mountains the cold is less severe. 

7. Soil. The low plains on the coast are fertile, and have a luxuriant 
vegetation. Much of the central table-land is dry and sterile, but in 
those parts which are well watered the vegetation is remarkably 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 161 

vigorous. In the northwest and northeast are extensive tracts of rich 
soil. 

8. Vegetables. The variety of the indigenous vegetation is immense, 
owing to the great diversity of soil and climate. The banana grows 
in the warm and humid valleys, and its fruit, which is 10 or 11 inches 
in circumference, and 7 or 8 in length, is an important article of food. 
Various preparations are made of it, both in its ripe and immature 
state. When ripe it is dried, cut into slices, and converted into meal 
by pounding. Manioc, the root of which also furnishes a nutritive 
flour called cassava, likewise grows in the hot regions. The juice is an 
active poison, which is expressed after the root is ground; the remain¬ 
der or cassava is made into bread. Tapioca, the purest and most 
wholesome part of the manioc, is prepared from cassava, by kneading 
it with the hand, and then stirring it over a slow fire, until it forms 
into grains. 

The maguey or American agave yields a refreshing drink, called 
pulque, resembling cider. It is obtained by cutting off the flower stalk 
at the moment of flowering. Into the cavity thus formed, the juice, 
that would have gone to nourish the blossoms, is deposited, and con¬ 
tinues to run for several months. This liquid is called honey-water, 
and being allowed to ferment, becomes pulque, from which by distilla¬ 
tion an intoxicating drink, called mexical, is obtained. The ancient 
Mexicans used the leaves of the agave for making paper, and its prickles 
for pins and nails. The root of the jalap, a twining vine, furnishes a 
valuable purgative medicine. Logwood or Campeachy-wood, used in 
dyeing black and purple, is abundant along the bay of Cam peachy, 
and mahogany is cut on the shores of Honduras Bay in great quantities. 

The sugar-cane, indigo, cotton, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco, cochineal, 
&c. are among the productions of the Mexican states. Horses and 
horned cattle are reared in immense numbers. 

9. Minerals. Copper, tin, iron, lead, quicksilver, gold, and silver 
occur, the two last named in greatest abundance. The gold is obtained 
principally from washings; the silver from mines, which are the richest 
in the world. Those of Guanaxuato and Zacatecas, in the states of 
the same name, and of Catorce, in the state of San Luis Potosi, are the 
most productive. At one period 3,000 mines were worked in 500 
different places. Before the Mexican revolution in 1810, their annual 
produce was $ 24,000,000, but since that period it has diminished more 
than one half. 

10. Divisions. The Mexican confederacy consists of 19 states, 5 
territories, and the federal district, which contains the capital. The 
states are subdivided into partidos or districts. 


States and Territories. 

Population. 

Capitals. 

Population. 

Chiapas 

93,750 

Chiapas 

3,000 

Yucatan 

500,000 

Merida 

10,000 

Tabasco 

75,000 

Tabasco or Hermosa 

5,000 

Oaxaca 

600,000 

Oaxaca 

40,000 

Vera Cruz 

233,700 

Vera Cruz 

30,000 

Puebla 

680,000 

Puebla 

70,000 

Mexico 

1,000,000 

Tlalpan 

6,000 

M echoacan 

450,000 

Valladolid 

25,000 

Queretaro 

200,000 

Queretaro 

40,000 

Guanaxuato 

450,000 

Guanaxuato 

60,000 

Xalisco 

800,000 

Guadalaxara 

60,000 


11 


162 MEXICAN UNITED 

Zacatecas 272,900 

STATES. 

Zacatecas 

25,000 

San Luis Potosi 

250,000 

San Luis Potosi 

40,000 

New Leon 

100,000 

Monterey 

15,000 

6,000 

Tamaulipas 

150,000 

Aguayo 

Cohahuila and Texas 

125,000 

Monclova 

3,000 

Chihuahua 

112,694 

Chihuahua 

30,000 

Durango 

175,000 

Durango 

25,000 

4,000 

Sonora and Cinaloa 

180,000 

Villa Fuerte 

Federal District 

Territory of Tlascala 

of New Mexico 

150,000 

Mexico 

Tlascala 

Santa Fe 

180,000 
small town 
3,500 

of Colima 

150,000 

Colima 

small town 

of Upper California 

25,000 

Monterey 

2,500 

of Lower California 

15,000 

Loreto 



The population of the confederacy is estimated at present to be about 
8,000,000 souls, including about 3,000,000 Indians. 

11. Toivns. Mexico, the capital city of the republic, is situated in 
the Federal District, at about an equal distance from the sea on each 
side, at Vera Cruz and Acapulco. It lies in a large valley, 63 miles in 
length, by 43 in breadth, which has the volcanic summits of Popocata- 
petl and Iztaccihuatl on the south, and contains the five lakes already 
mentioned. This great basin, called the valley of Mexico, is in no part 
less than 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

The city is one of the most beautiful in the world; the streets are 
broad and regularly laid out, well paved, clean, and provided with wide 
footpaths; the houses are generally handsome, and their flat roofs, 
ornamented with shrubs and flowers, have a pretty appearance, and 
form an agreeable promenade. Many of the public buildings are 
magnificent, surpassing those of any other American city. The cathe¬ 
dral is a splendid edifice, of which the centre is surmounted by a dome 
resting upon four beautiful columns, and the front is adorned with two 
lofty towers,ornamented with statues and pilasters; the gold and silver 
ornaments in the chapel, attached to the cathedral, are the richest in 
the world. Opposite the cathedral on the same square, is the Govern¬ 
ment-house, an immense quadrangular building, nearly a mile in circuit, 
in which, besides the president’s house, are contained the mint, the 
national library and printing office, a prison, &c. and in the spacious 
grounds attached to it, is the public botanic garden. There are several 
churches and convents, which are equally remarkable for beauty and 
grandeur of style, their vast extent, and the richness of their decora¬ 
tions, among which are statues and altars of massy silver, fine paintings 
and works of sculpture, &e. The mineria or mining school, the 
spacious prisons of the acordada, the buildings of the University, the 
palace of the inquisition, and the hospital are also worthy of note. The 
population of Mexico is estimated at about 180,000, of which about one 
half are Creoles, one fourth Indians, and the remainder of mixed races. 

In the vicinity of Mexico is Huehuetoca, celebrated for the desagua 
or canal by which the waters of lake Zumpango are discharged into 
the river Tula. It is one of the most gigantic works of the kind ever 
constructed, being about 13 miles in length, and in some places 197 feet 
in depth, and 360 at top in breadth. Guadaloupe, a little village, is 
remarkable for a rich shrine of the Virgin Mary, to which thousands 
of pilgrims annually resort. Otumba, a small town to the northeast 
of the capital, contains some remarkable monuments of the Aztecs or 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 163 

ancient inhabitants of Mexico, among which are two teocallis or 
Mexican pyramids. 

Puebla, the capital of the state of the same name, is situated on an 
elevated plain, in the midst of a fertile country. It is inferior only to 
the capital in population and beauty, being regularly laid out, con¬ 
taining many handsome buildings, and having an active trade and im¬ 
portant manufactures. Population 70,000. The churches and monas¬ 
teries resemble those of Mexico in extent and the richness of their 
decorations. The cathedral, a vast and superb edifice, with magnifi¬ 
cent ornaments, and the house of religious retreat, the richest charitable 
institution in the world, are among the most remarkable buildings. The 
Palafoxian seminary is one of the best institutions for education in 
Mexico. 

In the vicinity are Cholula and Tiascala, noted for their ancient 
greatness, before the conquest of the country by the Spaniards. The 
latter is the capital of the territory of the same name, situated between 
the states of Mexico and Puebla. 

Oaxaca, capital of the state of the same name, lies in a beautiful 
valley, and is one of the prettiest cities in the Mexican states. Popula¬ 
tion 30,000. 

Vera Cruz, the principal commercial place in the confederacy, is 
prettily built and regularly laid out on the borders of the gulf of 
Mexico; but it is situated in an arid plain, surrounded with moving 
sand hills, and is rendered unhealthy by the marshes in its neighbor¬ 
hood. The water is also bad, and the heat excessive. The black 
vomit or yellow fever carries off a great many strangers. Popula¬ 
tion 10,000. 

Xalapa, in the vicinity, is delightfully situated, and its cool, clear sky, 
and beautiful gardens and groves, render it an agreeable retreat from 
the intense heat and sickly air of the port. It contains 13,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. 

The other principal towns in the state of Vera Cruz are Orizava, a 
flourishing place near the volcanic mountain of that name, and Cor¬ 
dova, noted for the extent of their tobacco plantations; and Perote, 
which contains a citadel and a military academy, and near which rises 
the lofty peak, called the coffer of Perote, to the height of 14,000 feet. 

Acapulco, in the state of Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean, is one of the 
finest harbors in the country, but like Vera Cruz, lying in the hot, low 
region, is unhealthy. Population 4,000. 

Q,ueretaro, capital of the state of that name, is distinguished for the 
beauty of its situation, the magnificence of its edifices, and the wealth 
and industry of the inhabitants. The convent of Santa Clara, is the 
largest in the world, being two miles in circuit, and is said to resemble 
a little town in its interior. The woollen manufactures of Queretaro 
are extensive. Population 40,000. 

Guanaxuato, capital of the state of Guanaxuato, is situated in the 
centre of the richest silver mines in the world, which have rendered it 
a place of great wealth. It contains a mint, a college, some fine 
churches, a londiga or immense warehouse, &c. The town and vicinity 
had formerly a population of 70,000, which has dwindled down to 
30,000. Irapuato and Salamanca, in the same state, have each a popula¬ 
tion of about 16,000. In the northern part of the state lies the hacien¬ 
da or estate of Jaral, the proprietor of which is the most extensive 
landholder in the world; his landed estate in this and the neighboring 


164 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 


state of Zacatecas, amounts to about 50,000 square miles, and his live 
stock to three million head. 

Valladolid, the capital of Mechoacan, is a well built city, in which the 
aqueduct, and cathedral are remarkable constructions. Population 
15,000. In the southeast part of the state is the volcano of Jorullo, 
which suddenly rose out of a plain in 1759, to the height of 1,600 feet, 
and has continued burning ever since. 

Guadalaxara, capital of Xalisco, one of the most important states 
of the confederacy, is a large and beautiful city, inferior in wealth, 
population, and magnificence only to Mexico and Puebla. Its streets, 
broad, airy, and strait, its twelve fountains supplied by an aqueduct 15 
miles in length, its fourteen squares, and its pretty alameda or public 
walk, give it an appearance of elegance which is heightened by the 
magnificence of the public buildings, and the neatness of the dwelling 
houses. The cathedral is a vast building surmounted by two towel's, 
and richly ornamented with gold and silver lamps and vessels, and 
fine paintings of the Spanish masters. Several other churches and 
convents, the mint, the university, and the college, are also fine struc 
tures. Guadalaxara has about 60,000 inhabitants. The port of San Bias 
in this state contains a navy yard. The situation is unhealthy, and the 
town contains but 3,000 inhabitants, who desert it in the sickly season. 

Zacatecas, capital of the state of the same name, owes its importance 
to the rich silver mines in its vicinity. There are here a college, a 
mint, and the magnificent church of our Lady of Guadaloupe. Popu¬ 
lation 22,000. 

Aguas Calientes, Sombrerete, Fresnillo, Pino, and Nochistlan are 
the other principal towns in the state, and contain each from 12,000 to 
15,000 inhabitants. 

San Luis Potosi, capital of the stale of San Luis Potosi, is one of 
the most important commercial cities in the country, being the natural 
depot for the trade of Tampico with the northern and western states, 
some of which it also supplies with various domestic fabrics. Includ¬ 
ing the suburbs, the population amounts to nearly 50,000. It is well 
built, and contains several convents, remarkable for their extent, a mint, 
a college, and numerous churches. Tampico in the state of Tamauli- 
pas, near the mouth of the river of the same name, is a thriving town, 
and has considerable foreign commerce. Population 5,000. The old 
town of Tampico, on the south side of the river, in the state of Vera 
Cruz, is in an unhealthy situation. 

Chihuahua, capital of the state of that name, is a large and handsome 
city, on a branch of the river Norte. Its principal church is one of 
the most splendid in the Mexican States; the state house, and military 
academy are also worthy of note. In its neighborhood there are rich 
silver mines. According to some travellers Chihuahua had once a 
population of 70,000 souls, but it is now very much reduced. 

The city of Durango, also the capital of a state, and situated in a rich 
mining-district, contains a mint, a college, and other public buildings. 
Population 22,000. 

Santa Fe, the capital of the Territory of New Mexico, is a thriving 
town, remarkable as the emporium of the over-land trade carried on 
between the United States and the Mexican States, by caravans. It 
has about 3000 inhabitants. 

The state of Cohahuila and Texas, which borders on the United 
States, has no large towns. Nacogdoches, Galveztown and San Felipe 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 165 

de Austin, are the principal settlements. There are many emigrants 
from the United States in this state. 

Upper California contains a few small towns and missions on the 
coast, but the interior is wholly occupied by independent Indians. 
Monterey the principal town has 2,500 inhabitants. The harbor of 
San Francisco is one of the finest in the world, being safe, capacious, 
and easy of access. 

The Missions are stations in which the converted Indians are col¬ 
lected under the care of a priest. 

12. Agriculture. Although the inhabitants are nourished by the 
soil, yet agriculture, is by no means in a flourishing condition. The 
variety of soil and climate, however, furnishes a corresponding diver¬ 
sity of cultivated as well as indigenous vegetation. The temperate 
regions are favorable to the cereal grasses, and all the culinary vegetables 
and fruit trees of Europe thrive. The cultivation of the sugar cane, in¬ 
digo, cotton, vanilla, cocoa, and tobacco has been successfully prosecuted. 

13. Commerce and Manufactures. The inhabitants are chiefly devot¬ 
ed to agricultural and mining operations, and the commerce is not ex¬ 
tensive. The principal articles of export are gold and silver in bullion, 
coin or ornamental work, hides, cochineal, vanilla, jalap, &c. The 
imports are cotton, woollen, silk, and linen goods, quicksilver which is 
used in the extraction of silver from the ore, paper, &c. Commerce is 
principally carried on by foreigners. The cotton and woollen manu¬ 
factures, formerly considerable, have declined; jewelry, and gold and 
silver ornamental w r ork, leather, soap, and tobacco are the chief 
productions of manufacturing industry. 

14. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of the Mexican States are compos¬ 
ed of several distinct races, Creoles, Indians, and Negroes, with seve¬ 
ral mixed breeds, the mulattoes, mestizoes, zambos, &c. While this 
country belonged to Spain, it was the policy of that government to 
foster these distinctions, and to attach political privileges or disabilities 
to them; since the revolution the political distinctions have been done 
away, but the natural features remain. 1. The Creoles are the native 
whites, or Spaniards born in the country; European Spaniards have 
been expelled from the states. 2. The native Indian races have con¬ 
tinued to occupy large portions of the country, instead of receding 
before the whites as in the United States. They are quiet, indolent, 
and taciturn, and have embraced the Catholic religion. In the north¬ 
ern parts beyond the white settlements, there are, however, various 
independent and warlike tribes, of whom the Comanches, Apaches, and 
Yaquis are the most powerful. 3. The Negroes are not numerous, 
and are all free, slavery having been abolished by a late law of the re¬ 
public. 4. Mestizoes are descendants of whites and Indians; they are 
numerous and differ little from the Creoles. 5. The Mulattoes are 
bora of negro and white parents; and 6. the Zambos, or, as they are 
sometimes called, Chinese, of Indians and negroes. The whites are to 
be found chiefly on the central table land, where the Indians are also 
numerous, while the low countries on the coast are principally occu¬ 
pied by Zambos and negroes. 

15. Religion and Education. The Roman Catholic religion is the 
religion of the state, but other forms of religion are now tolerated. 
The clergy is not well educated, and the great mass of the Mexican 
population is in a deplorable state of ignorance. This is owing to the 


166 


MEXICAN UNITED STATES. 


hateful policy of the Spanish government, which confided all civil, 
military, and ecclesiastical dignities only to Europeans, and discourag¬ 
ed the education of those classes which now compose the population 
of the republic. Since the revolution the country has been too much 
disturbed to allow the cure of this disorder, yet steps have already been 
taken in the different states towards providing means for general edu¬ 
cation. 

16. Antiquities . The Aztecs or native Indians, who possessed a 
great part of this country at the time of its discovery and conquest by 
the Spaniards, were acquainted with the arts of civilized life; they 
lived in cities among which their capital Tenochtitlan was remarkable 
for extent and splendor. It was demolished by the Spaniards, who 
built the present city of Mexico near its site. Paintings, executed on 
skins, cotton cloth, and the leaves of the agave, and containing the his¬ 
tory of their nation, have been preserved, and the Aztec calendar, 
carved in porphyry, and discovered in 1790, shows the Aztecs to have 
been acquainted with astronomy. Some remarkable monuments of their 
architecture also remain. 

The Aztec pyramids or teocallis are numerous; some of them are 
constructed of alternate layers of clay and brick, and faced with stone; 
such are the two teocallis of Teotihuacan near Mexico, called the tem¬ 
ples of the sun and the moon; one of these is 150 and the other 144 
feet in height, and they are surrounded by a group of smaller ones 
regularly disposed. The great teocalli of Cholula near Puebla, is at 
present but 177 feet high, but its base is larger than that of any of the 
pyramids of the Eastern continent, being 1,440 feet in breadth. In the 
northern part of the state of Vera Cruz near the village of Papantla, 
there is a teocalli, constructed of immense blocks of porphyry, 60 feet 
high, with a base of 82 feet square. In the state of Oaxaca are ruins 
called the palace or tombs of Mitla, consisting of three buildings, with 
massive porphyry columns. 

The fort of Xochicalco, in the valley of Mexico, consists of a hill 
387 feet high, surrounded with ditches, and divided into five terraces, 
covered with masonry ; some of the stones are adorned with sculpture. 
In the state of Chiapa near Palenque are ruins of great extent, exhibiting 
proofs of much mechanical skill on the part of the unknown builders. 

. 17. History. This part of North America was discovered by Fer¬ 

nando Cortez, a Spaniard, in 1519. He soon conquered the Aztecs, who 
were ignorant of the use of fire arms, and the country became a Span¬ 
ish province under the name of New Spain. It continued to be gov¬ 
erned by a Spanish viceroy until 1810, when the revolution began ; in 
1813 the Mexican provinces declared themselves independent. The 
war continued with some interruptions and various success, until 1819, 
when the insurgents were completely reduced. The struggle was 
renewed a few years afterwards, and Iturbide, a Creole, who had been in 
the Spanish or royal interest, joining the patriots, the latter proved 
successful. In 1822 Iturbide caused himself to be proclaimed em¬ 
peror, but he was soon after dethroned and banished, and in 1824, a 
constitution was adopted on the plan of that of the United States. The 
states of the confederacy, have each a separate government, which 
manages its internal concerns. The general government is adminis¬ 
tered by a president, chosen for four years by the legislatures of the 
states, and a congress, which is composed of a senate and a house of 


REPUBLIC OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 


167 


deputies, the former elected by the state legislatures, and the latter by 
the people, as in the United States. The official style of the republic 
is the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos). 


XLVII. REPUBLIC OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. The republic of Central America is 
bounded N. by the Mexican United States; E. by the Caribbean sea; 
S. by the republic of New Grenada, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. It 
lies between Lat. 8° and 17° N,, and Lon. 87° and 99° W., having an 
area of 185,000 square miles, with a population of about two millions. 
It is composed of five states, which are subdivided into partidos or 
districts, and of the Federal District, which contains the seat of govern¬ 
ment. 


States. 

Population. 

Capitals. 

Population. 

Guatemala 

850,000 

Old Guatemala 

20,000 

San Salvador 

350,000 

San Salvador 

40,000 

Honduras 

280,000 

Comayagua 

18,000 

Nicaragua 

270,000 

Leon 

38,000 

Costa Rica 

150,000 

San Jose 

20,000 

Federal District 


New Guatemala 

50,000. 


2. Mountains. A lofty chain of mountains, forming a part of the 
great Mexican and Rocky Mountain range, traverses the country. It 
extends along the western coast not far from the Pacific, and presents 
a series of 21 volcanic summits in constant activity. This part of the ' 
country is subject to the most tremendous convulsions of nature, which 
have buried cities in ruins, and destroyed whole tribes of people. The 
volcano of Agua, and that of Fuego, both near Guatemala, rise to the 
height of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet. 

3. Lakes and Rivers. The largest rivers flow down the eastern 
declivity of the mountains into the Caribbean Sea. There is none of 
great extent, but several are navigable. The Motagua, which flows 
through the State of Guatemala, the Ulua and Segovia of Honduras, 
and the San Juan, 64 miles long, which forms the outlet of lake Nicar¬ 
agua, are the principal. Lake Nicaragua, 120 miles in length by 41 in 
breadth, is navigable for the largest vessels, and receives the waters of 
lake Leon, which is ten miles to the northwest, by a navigable river. 
Lake Leon is but five miles from the Tosta, which runs into the Pa¬ 
cific ocean. A union of the two oceans through these channels is 
contemplated. In the state of Guatemala is Lake Dulce or Izaval, 
communicating with the bay of Honduras. 

4. Soil and Climate. The soil is in general good, and the climate 
exhibits the same variety as in the Mexican States. The productions 
are also similar, including indigo, tobacco, cochineal, cotton, wheat, 
maize, &c. 

5. Coasts and Bays. In the northeast, between Honduras and the 
Mexican state of Yucatan, lies the large bay of Honduras, the naviga¬ 
tion of which is rendered dangerous by numerous reefs and keys. 
On this bay is an English settlement called Balise, formed for the pur¬ 
pose of cutting dye wood and mahogany. It consists of about 200 
whites and 3,000 slaves. A great extent of coast to the south of the 


168 


NORTH AMERICA. 


bay is occupied by the Sambo and Mosquito Indians, who have never 
been subdued by the whites. 

6. Towns. New Guatemala, the capital of the republic, is situated 
in a pleasant and fertile valley, which enjoys a delightful climate. It 
was built in 1774, in consequence of the almost entire destruction of 
Old Guatemala by an earthquake. The streets are broad, clean, and 
strait; the houses are generally low, on account of the frequency of 
earthquakes, and provided with gardens and fountains. The cathedral, 
the government house, the archbishop’s palace, the mint, and several 
of the churches are handsome buildings. The commerce and manu¬ 
factures of the city are extensive. Population 50,000. 

Old Guatemala, capital of the state of Guatemala, has been several times 
destroyed by earthquakes, and lies between the volcanoes of Agua and 
Fuego. It suffered much from an earthquake in 1830. It formerly 
contained fifty or sixty churches, and several large convents, which are 
now in ruins. Its cathedral is one of the largest in America. Popu¬ 
lation 18,000. Chiquimula, in the same state, is a place of about 35,000 
inhabitants. 

San Salvador, the capital of the state of the same name, is agreeably 
situated, hi the midst of fine indigo and tobacco plantations, and has 
an active commerce and extensive manufactures. Population 39,000. 

Comayagua, the capital of Honduras, with 20,000 inhabitants, contains 
a college ; Truxillo and Omoa in the same state have good harbors on 
the bay of Honduras, but they are sickly. 

Leon, capital of Nicaragua, is regularly laid out and handsomely 
built, and contains a university and a cathedral. It has 38,000 inhabit¬ 
ants. Nicaragua is the second town in the state. Riolejo has an ex¬ 
cellent port. 

San Jose or Costa Rica, with 20,000 inhabitants, and Cartago with 
about 25,000 inhabitants, are the principal towns of Costa Rica. 

7. Commerce. Cochineal and indigo are the two staple productions, 
and furnish the largest articles of export. Gold and silver, and cacao 
are also extensively exported. 

8. Inhabitants and Government. The inhabitants resemble those of 
the Mexican States ; about one fifth are creoles, two fifths mixed, and 
the remainder Indians, with a few negroes. Slavery is abolished. 
The government is a copy of that of the United States. 

9. History. The country was conquered by Alvarado, who was 

sent from Mexico by Cortez, in 1523. The natives called Quiches 
lived in cities, and some ruins of their works are yet visible. The 
province was erected by the Spaniards into a captain generalship by 
the name of Guatemala, and continued dependent upon Spain until 
1821, when it declared itself independent. A constitution was adopted 
in 1824. P 

XLYIII. NORTH AMERICA. GENERAL VIEW. 

1. Boundaries and Extent North America is bounded on the N. by 
the Arctic or Frozen Ocean, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the W. 
by the Pacific. Behring’s Strait on the northwest separates it from 
Asia. The isthmus of Panama connects it with South America on the 
south. It is estimated to contain an area of about 8,000,000 square 
miles, with a population of about 26,000,000. 



MOUNTAINS OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Appalachian — 1. Mt. Hdyoke, 910 feet — 2. Cumberland, 1000 do. — 3. 
Mt. Tom, 1200 do, — 4. Wachusett, 3000 do, — 5. Taconic, 3000 do. — 6. Mo- 
nadnock. 3254 do. — 7, Ascutney, 3320 do. — 8. Killington Peak, 3675.— 
9. Round Top, 3804. —10. Saddle Lit., 4000. —11. Camel’s Rump, 4188.— 
12. Mansfield, 4279. —13. Mt. Washington, 6428. —Rocky — 1. Spanish 
Peak, 11,500 feet— 2. James’ Peak, 12,000 do.— 3. Long’s Peak, 14,000 do.— 
4. Mt. Fairweather, 14,000 do. — 5. Mt. St. Elias, 17,000 do.— Cordil¬ 
leras — 1 Nevado of Tolucca, 15,500 feet — Iztaccihuatl, 15,700do. — Ori- 
zava. 17.375 do.—4. Popocatepetl, 17.884. 


























ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 



1. Bison. 

2. Moose. 

3. Badger. 

4. Grizzly Bear. 

5 . Owl. 


9. MuskOx. 

10. American Elk. 

11. Antelope. 

12. Ruffed Grouse. 

13. Wild Cat. 


o. yj wi. . , 

6. Pinnated Grouse. 14. Prairie Marmot. 

7. Kocky Mountain Goat. 15. Virginia Deer. 


17. Prairie Wolf. 

18. Black Tailed Deer. 

19. Raccoon. 

20. Opossum. 

21. Alligator. 

22. Wild Turkey. 

23. Eagle. 


I Turkey Buzzard. ' Id'. Rocky Mountain Sheep. 24. Rattlesnake 




















































NORTH AMERICA. 


169 


2. Mountains. A great mountainous system covers the western part 
of the continent with its numerous chains, running parallel with the 
coast, and extending with slight interruptions from the northwestern 
coast to the isthmus of Panama, where it joins the Andes. It is known 
in different parts of its course, under the various names of the Cordille¬ 
ra of Guatemala, the Cordillera of Mexico and the Rocky Mountains; 
its principal peaks are Mount Fairweather (14,000. feet) and Mount St. 
Elias (17,000), in Russian America; Spanish Peak (11,500), James’ 
Peak (12,000),and Long’s Peak (14,000),in the United States; Popocat- 
apetl (17,884), Orizava (17,373), Iztaccihuatl (15,700), and the Nevado 
of Toluca (15,500), in the Mexican States; and the volcanoes of Agua, 
and Fuego in Central America. The Alleghany or Appalachian sys¬ 
tem, which runs nearly parallel with the eastern coast, is the only other 
considerable series of mountainous chains. 

3. Rivers. The great rivers of North America rise in the central 
part of the continent, and, flowing in different directions, pour their 
waters into the Arctic, Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Mackenzie, 
the Saskashawan, the St. Lawrence, the Missouri, the Mississippi, and 
the Columbia are the principal streams. The Mississippi lias the long¬ 
est course, but the St. Lawrence discharges the greatest volume of water. 

4. Bays and Gulfs. Baffin’s Bay, a large sea lying to the west of 
Greenland, communicates with the Atlantic ocean on the south through 
Davis’s Strait. Its northern coast has never been explored, but it pro¬ 
bably communicates with the ocean to the north of Greenland, and 
separates that region from the continent. Barrow’s Strait, is an outlet 
on the west, which has been explored to 110° W. Lon. Its termination 
is unknown. Hudson’s Bay, is about 1,000 miles in length from north 
to south by 800 in breadth. It is full of sand-banks, reefs, and islands, 
and its navigation is obstructed during the greater part of the year by 
fixed or drift ice. The Gulf of St. Lawrence is a large inland sea, 
communicating with the ocean on the north by the strait, of Belleisle, 
and on the south by a broad channel between cape Ray in Newfound¬ 
land and North Cape on Cape Breton, and by the gut of Canso, which 
separates Cape Breton from Nova Scotia. Breadth from east to west 
240 miles; length 300. The Gulf of Mexico extends north and south, 
from Florida to Yucatan, 600 miles, and east and^west from Cuba to 
the Mexican States, 700 miles. It communicates with the Atlantic on 
the north of Cuba by the Florida channel, and with the Caribbean sea 
on the south by Cuba channel. 

5. Lakes. North America contains the largest bodies of fresh water 

on the face of the globe, and is not less remarkable for the number 
than the magnitude of its lakes. Slave lake, Athapescow, and Great 
Bear lake are large sheets of water which discharge themselves into 
the Arctic Ocean through Mackenzie’s River. Lake Winnipeg, which 
is 250 miles in length by 60 in breadth, pours its waters into Hudson s 
Bay through Nelson’s River. Between the United States and Canada 
lies a series of great lakes, communicating with each other by a succes¬ 
sion of narrow channels or rivers, and finally emptying themselves 
through the St. Lawrence. . 

The largest of these, and the largest fresh water lake in the world is 
Lake Superior, which is 420 miles in length by 170 in breadth; having 
a circuit of 1,500 miles, and covering an area of 35,000 square miles. 
It discharges its waters through the river or strait of St. Mary, 50 miles 

H 


170 


NORTH AMERICA. 


long into Lake Huron, which likewise receives those of Lake Michi¬ 
gan Lake Huron is 280 miles in length, and 90 in breadth, exclusive 
of the large bay on the northeastern shore, called Georgian Bay, which 
is about 80 miles in length by 50 in breadth. An outlet, called the 
river St. Clair, expands, after a course of 40 miles, into a lake of the 
same name, 24 miles in length, and 30 in breadth, which again con¬ 
tracts, and enters Lake Erie under the name of the river Detroit, 25 
miles in length. Lake Erie, the next link in this great chain, is 270 
miles in length by from 25 to 50 in breadth. The river Niagara, 36 
miles long, carries its surplus waters, over a perpendicular precipice 
365 feet high, into Lake Ontario, which is about 190 miles in length, 
by 40 in breadth. The surface of Lake Superior is 625 feet above the 
level of the sea; its medium depth 900 feet; the descent to Lake Huron 
is by the Sault or Fall of St. Mary 23 feet, and by rapids and the grad¬ 
ual descent of the river, 21 feet, giving 580 feet for the elevation of the 
surface of Lake Huron, whose depth is equal to that of Lake Superior. 
Lake Erie is much shallower, not exceeding a mean of 120 feet, and 
having its surface 560 feet above high water, while Lake Ontario has a 
depth of 500 feet, and its surface is 330 lower than that of Lake Erie. 
The waters of these lakes are clear and potable, and they abound with 
fish, among which are trout, weighing from 75 to 100 pounds, sturgeon, 
white fish, pike, bass, &c. They are navigable by large vessels, and 
a great number of steamboats navigate their waters. 

6. Table-lands. The great Mexican table-land, upon which are 
situated most of the principal cities, and upon which is concentrated 
most of the population of the Mexican States, has an elevation of from 
4,000 to 8,000 feet, and extends from Chihuahua in the north to the 
state of San Salvador in Central America on the south. The Allegha- 
nian plateau or table-land, extending from New York to Alabama and 
Georgia, from 34° to 42° N. Lat., has an elevation of from 1,200 to 3,000 
feet. It comprises the western part of Pennsylvania, Virginia and 
North Carolina, the northwestern part of South Carolina and Georgia, 
the northern part of Alabama, and the eastern part of Tennessee and 
Kentucky. The Central Table-land of North America, which com¬ 
prises the region containing the sources of the Mackenzie, the Saska- 
shawan, the Columbia, the Missouri, the Mississippi, the Western 
Colorado, and the Rio del Norte, is from 2,300 to 3,500 feet high. 

7. Plain. The vast plain, which extends entirely across the conti¬ 
nent from the mouth of the Mackenzie, to the Delta of the Mississippi, 
aifJ spreads out between the Rocky and the Appalachian Mountains, is 
the largest in the world, having an area of 3,250,000 square miles. It 
embraces the valleys of the Mackenzie, the Saskashawan, the Missouri, 
the St. Lawrence, and the Mississippi, and stretches from regions of 
perpetual ice to the tropical climate of the Gulf of Mexico. It is in this 
plain that the traveller meets those wide expanses, called prairies, over 
which the eye wanders, as over a sea, till the vision is lost in the 
distance, and finds himself obliged to regulate his course by the 
compass or by the observation of the heavenly bodies. They afford 
abundant pasture to the bison and deer, but are so destitute of wood, 
that the hunter is under the necessity of taking fuel with him, or in dry 
weather of making a fire of the dung of the bison. These magnificent 
plains occur on the Arkansaw and Missouri, and around the Saska- 
shawan and the Mackenzie. 


NORTH AMERICA. 171 

& Animals. Most of the American quadrupeds are of a distinct 
species, even when they bear the same name of those of the eastern 
—t. We shall describe them in natural groups as briefly as 

The bison is a species of ox found only in North America, and is 
distinguished by the hump on its shoulders, and the length and fineness 
of its hair, which is sometimes manufactured into hats and coarse 
cloth. It was formerly found over a great part of the continent from 

. to 60° N., but is now never seen to the east of the river Mis¬ 
sissippi. The flesh is tender and well flavored, and the tongue and 
hump are considered great delicacies. The skins, dressed with the 
hair on, are familiarly known as buffalo robes, the animal being gene¬ 
rally though improperly called buffalo. The bison has been domesti¬ 
cated, and in a wild state does not attack man, unless when wounded 
and at bay. It feeds in the vast prairies of the west in herds of several 
thousands, which are usually led by a bull, remarkable for strength and 
fierceness. While feeding, the bisons are scattered over a great extent 
of country, but when they move in mass, they form a dense column, 
which, once in motion, is scarcely to be impeded. Their march is 
seldom interrupted even by rivers, across which they swim without 
hesitation, nearly in the order that they traverse the plains. When 
flying before their pursuers, it would be in vain for the foremost to 
halt, as the throng in the rear still rushes onward, and the leaders must 
advance. The Indians take advantage of this circumstance to destroy 
great quantities of this favorite game; luring a herd to the vicinity of a 
precipice, they terrify them by shouts and artifices, until they drive them 
headlong down the descent. 

The musk ox inhabits the barren lands to the north of 60°; it is 
about the size of a small domestic ox, and is covered with a long brown 
hair, among which is found a fine, soft wool. Its food is grass and lichen, 
and the flesh is well flavored, hut when lean smells of musk, whence 
the name of the animal. 

The moose is a large animal of the deer kind, above 6 feet in height, 
with long, thick, and coarse fur, and enormous antlers. It was formerly 
found as far south as the Ohio, but at present occurs only in the 
extreme northern parts of the United States, and beyond the great 
lakes. It browses upon the leaves and tender twigs of trees, lives in 
small herds, and is inoffensive except when irritated by a wound. 

The reindeer of the barren grounds, is found only in the northern 
part of the continent; its skin is closely covered with hair, and forms a 
valuable article of clothing in that cold region, and its flesh is much 
esteemed as food. Pemmican is formed by pounding the dried flesh 
of the reindeer, and pouring melted fat over it. 

There is another variety of reindeer, called the caribou, which is 
larger than the former, and inhabits more southern districts to the 
south of Hudson’s Bay, and is sometimes seen on this side of the St. 
Lawrence. This animal appears to be the same as the reindeer of 
Europe, but is not domesticated by the inhabitants. 

The common or Virginia deer is the smallest and most abundant of 
the deer kind in North America, and is found all over the country to 
the south of the great lakes and the St. Lawrence. It is remarkable 
for the slenderness and delicacy of its form, the celerity of its course, 
and the vivacity of its movements. It is uncertain whether the animal 


172 NORTH AMERICA. 

called the Mexican deer, and found in the Mexican states, is the same 
or a different species. ..... 

The elk or wapiti is but little inferior to the moose, with which it is 
often confounded. Its lofty antlers, towering to the height of 4 or 5 
feet, are formidable weapons, and though it is capable of being domes¬ 
ticated, it is sometimes dangerous. Its flesh is much prized by hunters; 
the horn is also useful for bows, and the hide3 for articles of dress, and 
other purposes. The elk was formerly common over a great part of 
North America, but has now retired to the western wilderness. 

The long-tailed deer is common on the west of the Rocky Mountains, 
and resembles the common deer in shape and size, but the tail is much 
longer. 

The black-tailed or mule deer is found on the declivities of the 
Rocky Mountains as far north as the Saskashawan. 

There is only one species of antelope found in America, called the 
prong-horned antelope. It is a gentle, timid animal, remarkable for the 
delicacy and grace of its form and the swiftness of its course, and it 
inhabits the great plains of the Missouri and the Saskashawan. 

The Rocky Mountain sheep inhabit the mountainous chain from 
which they derive their name, from about 40° to 68° N. Lat. They 
live in herds, and seek their food, consisting of lichens or small shrubs, 
on lofty and craggy ridges, where their vigilance and agility baffle the 
pursuit of the hunter and the wolf. They are much larger than the 
domestic sheep, and their flesh is superior. The hair is short, fine and 
flexible, but in winter becomes coarse and dry. They'are called by the 
hunters bighorn from the size of their horns, which are sometimes 
nearly 3 feet in length, and one foot iri circumference at the base. 

The Rocky Mountain goat seems to have nearly the same range as 
the preceding. Its flesh is hard, dry, and unsavory ; it is covered with 
long hair, beneath which is a white, soft, and very fine wool. The 
skin is thick, and is used for moccasins. 

The puma or cougar, commonly called the panther or catamount, is 
the largest animal of the cat kind found in North America. It is cun¬ 
ning, cowardly,and cautious, but sanguinary, ferocious, and destructive; 
springing from a thicket, or from the branches of a tree upon the back 
of its prey, which it soon tears in pieces with its formidable claws. It 
is still occasionally killed in the more unsettled parts of the United 
States. 

Of the lynx or short-tailed cat, which is not much larger than the 
domestic cat, there are several species in North America. The Canada 
lynx is abundant in the regions about Hudson’s Bay, and preys upon 
rabbits and hares. Its skins are exported in great numbers. 

Four species of bear inhabit North America; the brown, black, 
grizzly, and white bear. The white or polar bear is common to the 
northeastern part of America and the northwestern part of the eastern 
continent, and is principally confined to the maritime districts of the 
Arctic regions. He is strong, ferocious, and daring, uniting the strength 
of the lion with the untameable fierceness of the hyena; he is an excel¬ 
lent diver and swimmer, and preys chiefly upon seals, fish, and carcass¬ 
es of whales. A long shaggy covering of soft white hair and a copious 
supply of fat, protect him from the effects of the rigorous climate. 

The grizzly bear is the most formidable animal of North America. 
It is as large as the polar bear, but even more fierce, vindictive, and 


NORTH AMERICA. 


173 


daring; his range seems to be from about 40° to 61° N. on the Rocky 
Mountains, and their eastern plains. There he reigns undisputed 
monarch; such is his strength that he will carry off the carcass of a 
bison weighing a thousand pounds; he attacks man without fear, and 
his extraordinary tenacity of life renders him extremely dangerous, even 
after repeated wounds, which would prove mortal to any other creature. 

The brown bear, which inhabits the barren lands stretching on the 
north and east of Slave lake to the Arctic ocean, feeds on fish, berries, 
and small quadrupeds, and is smaller and less fierce than the prece¬ 
ding. 

The black bear is spread over nearly the whole of North America, 
and occurs in the thinly settled regions of the United States. Its fur is 
long, black, and shining; it feeds on roots, berries, insects, birds, fish, 
and small quadrupeds, and is fond of maize and honey, and being an 
expert climber, often ascends trees to plunder the hoards of the wild 
bee. It seldom exceeds five feet in length, and is rather timid and 
mild. In cold regions it sleeps through the winter. 

The badger, a small animal weighing 15 or 16 pounds, belongs to 
the bear family. It is found in the western part of the United States, 
and in the British territories; its food consists of vegetables, insects, and 
small birds, and it passes the day, at the bottom of the long, winding 
cavern, which it excavates with great rapidity. It is a harmless crea¬ 
ture, but will often defend itself resolutely when attacked. 

One species of glutton, the wolverene, also of the same family, is 
found in the northern parts of North America. Its body is about 28 
inches in length, and it is remarkable for its slowness, voracity, and 
strength. It destroys young foxes, beaver, and other small quadrupeds; 
its fur is valued for the length and thickness of the hair. 

The canine species are numerous in North America. The common 
brown wolf, which was formerly spread over a great part of the conti¬ 
nent, and which is not yet exterminated even in the inhabited parts of the 
United States, nearly resembles the European wolf, but appears to differ 
from it in some* respects. The gray wolf, which is numerous in the 
more northern regions, is perhaps also a distinct variety. The habits 
and character, however, are very similar; though cruel and blood¬ 
thirsty, and, at times when pressed by hunger, bold, they are in general 
timid. They run down the deer and fox, and in the vicinity of settled 
districts attack domestic animals. 

The prairie or barking wolf frequents the prairies of the great central 
plain of North America. It is a distinct species from the preceding, 
hunts in packs, and is remarkable for its swiftness. 

The dogs of America appear to be nothing more than domesticated 
wolves, and they retain some of their wolfish habits. There are several 
varieties used for draft, or the chase, in the northern regions, and it has 
been found by travellers, that the larger species will run down and 
devour the smaller. 

The Hare Indian dog is found on the banks of the river Mackenzie, 
and the Great Bear lake, and is used by the Hare Indians and a few 
other tribes for the chase, as it is too small to be useful as a beast of 
draft or burden. It resembles the prairie wolf, but is smaller. It is 
playful and affectionate, but not docile, and it dislikes confinement. 

The North American dog is much in use in the Hudson’s Bay 
countries and in Canada, and is in size between the Esquimaux and 


174 


NORTH AMERICA. 


Hare Indian dog; but it wants the strength of the former, and the 
playful disposition of the latter. It is used in the chase, and by some 
tribes as a beast of burden or draft. Its color is generally black and 
gray, striped with white. It has a thick and woolly coat. The flesh of 
the North American dog is much esteemed by the Canadian voyageurs. 

The Esquimaux dog is about the size of the Newfoundland dog, and 
has a very majestic appearance. It is of great use to the Esquimaux 
and the traders, in drawing their furs and other baggage. The weight, 
that several of these animals will draw over the snow, is surprising. 
The number of dogs attached to a sledge is usually five. They are 
harnessed two abreast, the leader being usually well broken and long 
trained. He is guided by the voice of his master, and is generally 
perfectly obedient. The Esquimaux dog bears the same near relation 
to the gray wolf, that the Hare Indian dog does to the prairie wolf. 

The Newfoundland dog, which is thought to have proceeded from 
the mixture of a domestic dog with the wolf, is remarkable for its 
sagacity, strength, size, and beauty. He swims with great ease, is much 
used for drawing sledges, and is strongly attached to his master. 
There are two varieties, the long-haired and the short-haired, of which 
the latter is the less esteemed. 

The red fox common throughout North America, is a distinct species 
from the common European fox, being larger and having a longer and 
finer fur. The black fox, crossed fox, and gray fox do not differ mate¬ 
rially from the red fox. The Arctic fox is much smaller, and its hair 
is long, soft, and woolly. It inhabits the Arctic regions, and in winter 
becomes perfectly white. Small quadrupeds, birds, and fish compose 
its food. The swift fox, which lives in the plains of the west, is a very 
slender little creature; it forms its habitation by burrowing, and is 
much smaller than the other species. It is covered with a thick, soft, 
fine hair, and in speed it even surpasses the antelope. 

The weasel tribe are small, but active, sanguinary, and destructive 
animals. The ermine is found over the continent as far south as the 
Middle States, and its winter-robe, which is pure white, with the excep¬ 
tion of the black tip of the tail, is a well known ornament. The mink 
swims and dives with great facility, and lives near the water preying upon 
frogs, fish, &c.; it is found from Carolina to Hudson’s Bay. The pine 
marten, is much larger than the preceding, approaching nearly the size 
of the cat. It frequents forests, where it climbs the trees in pursuit of 
birds and squirrels. The fur is much used for hats, and for ornament. 
The fisher or pekan, is peculiar to this continent, and is found from 62 Q 
N. Lat. to Pennsylvania; in its habits it resembles the pine marten. 

The raccoon is peculiar to the American 'continent; the body is about 
20 inches in length, and the fur is valuable. It is a sanguinary animal, 
feeds on birds, insects, maize, &c., and climbs trees with great facility. 
It may be tamed, and becomes playful, but is very mischievous. 

The American otter inhabits the whole continent; it is about feet 
long, and is covered with a very thick, fine fur, which is an article of 
commerce. The otter lives principally in the water and feeds on fish. 
This creature has a singular way of amusing itself by slidingdown hills 
of snow, or smooth banks of earth upon its belly. The sea otter, which 
is of the size of a large mastiff, is found only near the salt water, from 
49° to 60° N. Lat. Its fur sells at a high price in China, and it is taken 
in great numbers on the northwest coast, in nets or from boats. 


NORTH AMERICA. 


175 


There are various species of marmots inhabiting this continent. The 
most remarkable is the wistonwish, sometimes called from its warning 
cry, which resembles the barking of a small dog, the prairie dog, or 
the barking squirrel. These little creatures live in communities, called 
prairie-dog villages, which are composed of a great number of burrows. 
Like other marmots, they become torpid during the winter, on the ap¬ 
proach of which they make a nice round cell of fine dry grass at the 
bottom of the burrow, and then stopping up the hole, sleep till the re¬ 
turn of the mild season. The woodchuck or ground hog, and the 
Quebec marmot are also of this genus. 

The beaver, formerly common over a great part of the continent, is 
now become comparatively scarce. It is celebrated for the ingenuity 
which it displays in constructing its dwelling, and many fables have 
been related concerning it. It is about two feet in length, with a tail 
nearly a foot long, which is covered with scales. The body is covered 
with two sorts of hair, of which one is long and stiff, and the other 
short, thick, and soft. The food of the beavers is roots of aquatic 
plants, berries, and the bark of trees. Their houses, which are only 
for winter residence, are built on the banks of a stream, or pond, and 
they generally select in preference running and rather deep waters, 
which are less apt to freeze. These habitations are constructed of the 
trunks and branches of small trees, which they fell for the purpose so 
as to cause them to fall into the water. These are mixed with mud 
and stones, which they carry in their fore paws. When they build on 
running water, they often construct dams of considerable size and 
much strength, and of the same material as their houses. 

The muskrat or musquash, an animal of the beaver kind, but much 
smaller than the common beaver, is found from 30° to 70° N. lat. Its 
fur is much valued, and several hundred thousand are annually ob¬ 
tained. The musk rat feeds on the leaves and roots of aquatic plants 
and on shell fish, and burrows or builds houses, like those of the beaver. 

The opossum belongs to that singular class of quadrupeds, called 
marsupial or pouched animals, the females being furnished with a 
pouch under the belly, into which the young retreat from danger, or to 
sleep. The opossum is a timid, nocturnal animal, awkward and clum¬ 
sy on the ground, but moving with great ease and rapidity on trees. 
Its tail is used as an organ of motion in the latter case. Its prey is 
small birds and quadrupeds, and it also feeds on roots and plants. It 
will feign itself (lead when pursued* whence the common proverb, he 
is playing ''possum , to signify that a person is attempting to deceive. 

The porcupine, is a sluggish animal about two feet long, armed with 
short sharp spines, which defend it from the attacks of its enemies. It 
-is found in the northern parts of the United States and in Canada. Its 
food consists of fruit, bark of trees, &c. 

The skunk is peculiar to America; it is a nocturnal, carnivorous 
animal, about the size of a cat, and preys upon birds, small quadru¬ 
peds, eggs, &c. Its only defence against its enemies, is the power of 
ejecting an acrid fluid of an intolerable odor, which speedily puts 
them to flight. If killed unawares, the flesh is well flavored. 

Several species of hares, one of which is incorrectly called rabbit, 
squirrels, moles, &c. also inhabit this continent. 

The birds of North America are too numerous to be described here 
We can only mention a few of them. 


176 


NORTH AMERICA. 


The most remarkable of the American eagles is the bald eagle; lie 
feeds principally on fish, but carries off* lambs, pigs, &c. He is occa¬ 
sionally met with from a very high northern latitude to the borders of 
the torrid zone, but chiefly in the vicinity of the sea, and along the 
shores and cliffs of lakes and large rivers. Formed by nature for 
bearing the severest cold ; feeding equally upon the produce of the sea 
and the land ; possessing powers of flight, capable of outstripping even 
the tempests themselves; and from the ethereal height to which he 
soars, looking abroad at one glance on an immeasurable expanse of 
forests, fields, lakes, and ocean deep below him, he appears indifferent 
to the change of seasons, as in a few moments, he can pass from 
summer to winter, from the lower to the higher regions of the atmos¬ 
phere, the abode of eternal cold, and thence descend at will to the 
torrid or the Arctic regions. He is therefore found at all seasons in 
the countries he inhabits, but prefers such places as have been men¬ 
tioned above, from the great partiality he lias for fish. His character 
is fierce, daring, and tyrannical, and he is unawed by anything but man. 

The turkey is a native of America, and is yet abundant in the wild 
state, in the western parts of the United States. Berries, insects, rep¬ 
tiles, nuts, and corn form its food. 

The buzzard or turkey buzzard is very numerous over a great part 
of the continent. It is of the vulture family, and in warm climates is 
very useful in destroying putrid carcasses. 

The black vulture or carrion crow of the Southern States somewhat 
resembles the buzzard, but is more familiar with man, and is often to 
be seen sauntering about the streets, and sunning itself on the houses 
of towns and villages. 

The quail, which is called partridge at the south, differs from both 
the partridge and quail of Europe; it being smaller than the former, and 
larger than the latter. Quails frequent the forest, and are most numer¬ 
ous in the vicinity of well cultivated plantations, where there is plenty 
of grain. In winter they approach the barns, and sometimes mingle 
with the poultry. At this time great numbers of them are taken in 
traps. This interesting and beautiful bird is found from Canada to 
Honduras. 

Among the various species of grouse, the most remarkable are the 
pinnated grouse or heath hen, which inhabits the open plains of the 
west, feeding on berries, and the ruffed grouse, which is called par¬ 
tridge in New England, and pheasant in the south. It prefers the 
woods, is seldom found in coveys of more than four or five together, 
and more usually in pairs, or single. The male makes a peculiar noise 
called drumming, by striking short quick strokes with its stiffened 
wings. 

Of the owls the great horned owl is most worthy of notice. He 
preys on young rabbits, squirrels, and small birds, and his favorite resi¬ 
dence is in the dark solitudes of "wooded swamps, where, as soon as 
evening comes on, he begins his melancholy hooting. 

The mocking bird, which is found from New England to Brazil, 
is famous for his powers of imitation, as well as for the bolduess, full¬ 
ness and variety of his natural note. The squeak of a hurt chicken, 
the barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, the creaking of a wheel, 
with all sorts of notes of all sorts of birds, follow each other in rapid 
succession from his little throat. The cat-bird, which, like the 


NORTH AMERICA. 


177 


mocking bird, is a species of thrush, has some of his powers of 
imitation. 

The humming-bird, which has no song, is, however, admired for the 
brilliancy of his plumage, and the courage which animates his tiny 
form. He feeds on insects and the honey of flowers. While feeding 
he generally remains poised in the air, supporting himself by the 
rapid motion of his wings, which produces the humming noise, whence 
the name is derived. 

The various kinds of water-birds are numerous on the shores and 
rivers of North America, and the vast forests, wide plains, and gloomy 
swamps are peopled, each with its peculiar tribes. 

The most gigantic of reptiles, the cayman or alligator, belonging 
to the crocodile family, is found in the rivers of some of the Southern 
States, and of Mexico. It grows to the length of from 15 to 20 feet, 
and is covered with thick bullet-proof scales. In the water alligators 
move with great rapidity, but on land their motions are slow and 
awkward. They utter a loud roar, and feed upon fish, carrion, and 
such small quadrupeds as come within their reach. The females make 
their nests in the neighborhood of each other, and defend their young 
with great courage. Their nests are built of mud and grass, in a con¬ 
ical form, about four feet high, and contain from 100 to 200 eggs, about 
the size of those of the hen. The alligator is very ferocious, and 
where he has not learned from experience the danger of the conflict, 
even attacks man. 

Of the three hundred known species of serpents, the greater part 
inhabit the tropical regions; but few species, and those mostly harm¬ 
less, are found in cold climates, and of the whole number of species, 
not more than fifty or sixty are venomous. The rattlesnake, the cop¬ 
per head, and the elaps fulvius are the principal venomous serpents of 
North America. The hog-nosed snake, the black snake, the chain 
snake, the coach-whip snake, the water snake, the striped or garter 
snake, the green snake, the pine snake, which is often eight feet long, 
and is sometimes tamed and kept about houses, &c.,- are all harmless. 
What is called the glass snake in the Southern States, on account of its 
extreme brittleness, is a species of lizard. 

There are several species of rattlesnake, which differ in size ; they 
derive their name from the rattle contained in the tail and com¬ 
posed of a number of little bones, which move against each other when 
the tail is agitated. The number of these rattles or bells increases 
with age, an additional one being formed at every casting of the 
skin. The snake has two hollow fangs in the upper jaw, through 
which the poison is emitted into the wound, when the animal bites. 
The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hare, rats, and rep¬ 
tiles. 

9. Indians. The natives of America consist of two distinct races. 
To the first belong the Esquimaux, who inhabit Greenland, Labrador, 
the shores of Hudson’s Bay, and the Arctic ocean. Although known 
under different names, and spread over a wide extent of country, they 
all speak the same language, and, like the Malays of the eastern conti¬ 
nent, they live only along the sea coast. They are of a smaller stature 
than the other American aborigines, and are more lively and loqua¬ 
cious ; their hair is straight and black, but their skin is white. They 
are ignorant, superstitious, and extremely filthy; living in a region 
12 h* 


178 


NORTH AMERICA- 


where the soil is frozen during nine months in a year, they cannot rely 
upon the vegetable productions of the earth for subsistence, and as they 
have no domestic animals but dogs, hunting and fishing are almost 
their sole resource. 

It is in the ‘‘management of their canoes, and the stratagems by 
which they take the seal, the walrus, or the whale, that they display 
their highest exertions of intellect. Their dress is of skin; and their 
houses are tents of skins, or huts of snow and ice. 

The second race is dispersed over the rest of the American continent, 
and is composed of numerous tribes, speaking different languages, yet 
evidently sprung from the same original stock. They are larger, more 
warlike, and more taciturn than the Esquimaux, from whom they also 
differ in the color of their skin, which is of a coppery tinge. The 
greater part of these nations were found by the Europeans, and still 
continue, in a state of barbarism. Armed with bows and arrows, war- 
clubs, lances, and tomahawks; even in the preparation of these simple 
weapons, they made no use of metal or of metallic instruments; without 
domestic animals or settled habitations, rarely cultivating the ground, 
and then only in a rude manner, they wandered from place to place, 
subsisting by the chase or by fishing, and living in temporary tents or 
lodges of mats or skins, or in huts composed of the branches of trees, 
owning no property and following no regular occupation. The men, 
who despised labor, passed the time not consumed in hunting or in war, 
in stupid inaction, while the labor was all done by the women. They 
lived collected in small bands or tribes, several of whom were often 
united under a common chief or leader, rather for the purpose of defence 
or making war against jheir neighbors, than for the objects of civil 
government. Many of these tribes have become extinct since the 
whites have occupied the great forest, through which they hunted; 
others have in some degree modified their primitive habits, and even 
adopted the arts of civilized life, while others, occupying the greater 
part of the immense regions west of the Mississippi, and those north of 
the Canadas, retain the customs of their ancestors. An examination 
of their languages has shown them to consist of several great families 
or nations, each comprising numerous kindred tribes. 

i. The Algonquin or Chippeway nation is spread over all the north¬ 
ern part of the continent, east of the Rocky Mountains. Among the 
various tribes of this family, are the Knistenaux or Crees, in the region 
of Slave lake, the Saskashawan, and Hudson’s Bay ; the Micmacs, in the 
British Provinces; the Chippeways, around Lake Superior; the Ottawas, 
in Michigan Territory, to which tribe the celebrated Pontiac belonged; 
the Pottawatomies, of the same region; the Sacs and Foxes, or Saukis 
and Ottogamis, who have lately been obliged to confine themselves to 
the west of the Mississippi; and the Shawnees, Rickapoos, Menomo- 
nies, Miamis and Delawares, of the same region. The Mohegans and 
Abenaquis, who formerly inhabited the Middle and Eastern States, 
belonged also to this family. 

ii. The Wyandot or Huron family included the confederacy called 
the Iroquois or Six Nations, comprising the Mohawks, Senecas, Onon- 
dagos, Oneidas, Cayugas, and Tuscaroras, and the Wyandots. The Six 
Nations resided on the St. Lawrence, and some of them still remain in 
New York and Canada. The last remnants of the Mohegans have been 
incorporated with them. 


WEST INDIES. 


179 


in. The Southern or Floridian family comprised the Cherokees, 
Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Seminoles, and Natchez. 'The last 
mentioned, now extinct, resided on the Mississippi, and had attained a 
much higher degree of civilization than their neighbors. The others, 
with the exception of the Cherokees, have been removed from their 
former habitations in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, to 
Arkansaw Territory. 

iv. The Sioux or Dahcotahs are a numerous family, inhabiting the 
region to the west of the Mississippi, on the Missouri, Platte, and 
Arkansaw. One tribe of this family, the Winnebagos, formerly resided 
near lake Michigan, but they have lately been obliged to retire to the 
northwest of the Wisconsin. The other tribes are the Dahcotahs, 
living about the Upper Mississippi; the Hohays or Assiniboins, further 
north; the Omawhaws, near the Platte; the Mandans on the Missouri, 
further north ; the Kansas, on the river of the same name; the Osages, 
further south ; the Ioways, the Otoes, the Missouris, the Quapaws, &c. 
Several of these tribes are more civilized and peaceable than the more 
eastern nations. 

v. The Pawnee family are a fierce and warlike people, consisting of 
several tribes, who have learned how to manage the horse which has 
become numerous in those regions. The principal tribes are the Paw¬ 
nees, the Arrapahoes, and the Cumanches, who roam through the 
regions on the Platte, the Arkansaw, and Norte. 

vi. Of the Columbian family, on the west of the Rocky Mountains 
little is known. There are many tribes, known under the names of 
Flatheads, Shoshonees, Esheloots, &c. 

vn. The great Mexican family comprises the Aztecs, Toltecs, and 
Tarascos of Mechoacan; these nations had established civil govern¬ 
ments, practised the useful arts, and built cities at the time of the 
conquest of the country by the Spaniards. Many remnants of their 
works survive, and have already been described. Their descendants 
are incorporated, to a considerable degree, with the Spanish population. 


XLIX. WEST INDIES. 

1. Situation and Divisions. Between the Gulf of Mexico, the Car¬ 
ibbean Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean, lies a group of islands called the 
West Indies, extending from 10° to 28° N. Lat. It is composed 
of several clusters, known under the names of the Bahamas, the Greater 
Antilles (the four large islands, Cuba, Hayti, Porto Rico, and Jamaica), 
the Lesser Antilles, and the Caribbee islands. 

2. Climate. The climate of these islands is for a great part of the 
year mild and pleasant, the heat being in some measure moderated by 
the uniform length of the nights, and by refreshing sea breezes. The 
seasons are divided between the wet and the dry; the former, occurring 
in May and October, are of short continuance, and during the rest of 
the year the sky is clear, and the nights are remarkable for their 
brilliancy. 

3. Productions. The West Indies abound in all the productions of 
warm climates; the fruits are oranges, lemons, pine-apples, bananas, 
plantains, &c.; manioc, yams, maize, &c., with sugar, guava, cocoa, 
cotton, coffee, indigo, tobacco, &c., furnish important articles of food or 


180 


WEST INDIES. 


of commerce. The forests contain mahogany, lignumvitae, iron wood, 
and other woods useful in the arts. 

4. Hurricanes . In the interval between the months of August and 
October, the islands are visited by those terrible storms, called hurri¬ 
canes, to which the regions of the torrid zone are liable. They begin 
in various ways, and are in general preceded by a profound calm; tiiis 
is soon followed by a chaos of warring elements, lightning and thunder, 
rain, hail, and impetuous blasts of wind, which move with a swiftness 
exceeding that of a cannon ball. Corn, vines, forests, and houses are 
swept away before their violence, which, however, is but of short 
duration. These tempests are supposed to be of electric origin, and 
they serve in the hands of Providence the benevolent purpose of 
purifying the atmosphere. 

5. Inhabitants. The native races of these islands are now extinct; 
when, first discovered by the Spaniards, they were inhabited by two 
distinct nations; the Arrowauks, a mild and peaceful people, who had 
made some advances in civilisation, occupied the Bahamas and the 
Great Antilles; and the Caribs, a fierce and warlike race, inhabited the 
more southerly isles. At a later period many of the islands have at 
different times belonged to different European nations, and in some of 
them there is a strange mixture of people and languages. All except 
Hayti still belong to European powers, and contain a large proportion 
of negro slaves. The whites are either Europeans, or Creoles, that is, 
descendants of Europeans, and form but comparatively a small part of 
the population. The different mixed races are numerous. 

By an act of the British Parliament, passed in the year 1833, provi¬ 
sion is made for the perpetual abolition of slavery in the British colo¬ 
nies. The act provides that all children of slaves born after the passing 
of the law, or at'that time of six years of age and under, shall be imme¬ 
diately free, or shall be bound as apprentices to their former masters, 
the males to the age of 26 years, and the females to that of 20 years. 
The adults are to be set free after an apprenticeship of six years, begin¬ 
ning in August 1834, during which one fourth of their time is to be at 
their own disposal, and the civil disabilities, to which they were sub¬ 
jected as slaves, are to cease. 

6. Bahamas. The Bahama or Lucayas islands are a group of islands 
lying to the southeast of Florida, from which they are separated by the 
Florida channel. They extend from 21° to 28° N. Lat., and from 71° 
to 80° W. Lon., and consist of about 650 islands and keys. The princi¬ 
pal islands or groups, in passing from the southern to the northern 
extremity, are the following; viz. 

1. Turk’s Islands 5. Crooked Island 8. The Exumas 12. Andros. 

2. Caicos. Group 9. San Salvador 13. Lucaya or Abaco 

3. Heneagas 6. LongTsland 10. Eleuthera 14. Bahama 

4. Mayaguana 7. Wallings 11. Providence 

These islands belong to Great Britain, and have a population of 
about 16,500, including 9,268 slaves, and 3,000 free blacks. Nassau, 
the capital, is a flourishing town on the island of Providence, with 5,000 
inhabitants. The salt ponds of Turk’s Islands supply great quantities 
of salt, which is obtained by evaporation. 

7. Bermudas. To the northeast of the Bahamas, lie the Bermudas, 
a group of small islands of difficult access, and visited by terrible 
storms, which though not strictly belonging to the West Indies may be 


WEST INDIES. 


181 


described here. The nearest land is North Carolina from which they 
are 600 miles distant. They contain about 10,000 inhabitants; the 
capital, St. George, has a population of 3,000, and the English, to whom 
these islands belong, have a naval and military station there. 

8. Cuba. The largest and most valuable of the West India islands 
is Cuba, which belongs to Spain. It extends nearly from Florida to 
Yucatan, being separated from the one by the Florida stream, and from 
the other by the Cuba channel. It lies between 20° and 23° N. Lat., 
and between 74° and 85° W. Lon., and is 780 miles in length, arid about 
52 in mean breadth, with an area of 43,270 square miles. Population, 
704,487, of which 311,051 are whites, 286,942 slaves, and the remain¬ 
der free colored persons. 

More than four fifths of the surface is composed of low lands, but it 
is traversed in various directions by ranges of mountains, some of 
which reach the height of 7,675 feet. There are no rivers of much 
size, and sotne parts of the country are subject to droughts, yet the soil 
is in general fertile. The common cereal or bread grasses are cultivat¬ 
ed with success, and the various tropical productions are abundant. 
The principal articles of export are tobacco, coffee, sugar, wax, and 
fruits; the tobacco is eveiywhere celebrated for its aromatic quality. 
Annual value of exports about $20,000,000. 

Havana, the capital and principal city of the island, situated on the 
northern coast, is one of the largest and richest cities in America, and 
has one of the best harbors in the world. The public buildings are 
less remarkable for beauty than for solidity, and the streets are in gene¬ 
ral narrow, dirty, and unpaved. There are, however, fine public 
walks, and the palace of the governor, the theatre, and some of the 
private houses, are handsome edifices. The entrance of the port is 
defended by two forts, and there are several other military works, 
which render Havana one of the strongest places in the world. Its 
commerce is extensive; population 112,023, of which 22,830 are slaves. 
Here are 11 churches, one of which is a cathedral, 11 convents, 3 hos¬ 
pitals, a university, &c. Owing to the heat of the climate, and the filth 
of the town, strangers are exposed to the fatal attacks of the yellow fever 
or black vomit, particularly in August and September. The environs 
are healthy. Sixty miles east of Havana is Matanzas, a flourishing 
place, with a fine harbor, a healthy situation, and an extensive and in¬ 
creasing commerce. Population, 14,340. 

Puerto Principe, lying in the interior, a place of 49,000 inhabitants, 
is remarkable only for its narrow, winding, and filthy streets. 

On the southern coast is Santiago, a flourishing place with an exten¬ 
sive commerce; its harbor is excellent, but the town is unhealthy. 
Population, 26,738. 

Trinidad is a well built place, on the southern coast, with 13,000 
inhabitants. 

Bayamo or St. Salvador, about 20 miles from the coast, is a thriving 
town with 7,486 inhabitants. 

9. Porto Rico. Porto Rico, which also belongs to Spain, is the most 
easterly of the Great Antilles. It is 110 miles in length, by 36 in 
breadth, with an area of 3,850 square miles; it has a fine climate, and a 
fertile soil, and is, like Cuba, in a very flourishing condition. Popula¬ 
tion, 350,000, including 160,000 whites and 32,000 slaves. The princi¬ 
pal productions are coffee, sugar, and tobacco. 


182 


WEST INDIES. 


St. John, or San Juan de Puerto Rico, the capital, on the northern 
coast of the island, with a spacious, secure, and strongly fortified 
harbor, has a population of about 30,000 souls, and considerable com¬ 
merce. 

Guayama on the southern coast is an important commercial town. 

10. Hayti. Hayti, the second of the Great Antilles in point of size 
and population, lies between 18° and 20° N. Lat., and between 68° and 
75° W. Lon. It formerly belonged to France and Spain, the former 
holding the western, and the latter, the eastern and larger portion of 
the island, and was known under the names of St. Domingo and His¬ 
paniola. Since 1822 the whole has formed an independent republic of 
blacks, the slaves having risen against their white masters, and expelled 
them from the island. 

The territory of the republic has an area of about 30,000 square 
miles, and is divided into six departments, with a population of about 
800,000 blacks and mulattoes. With a fine climate and a fertile soil, 
watered by several considerable rivers, which descend from the central 
chain of mountains, and having an extensive seacoast and excellent har¬ 
bors, nothing but a continuance of free institutions and the diffusion of 
intelligence among the people, is wanting, to secure it a respectable 
rank among independent nations. 

Port au Prince or Republican Port, capital of the republic, is situated 
on a gulf on the western coast of the island, and has a safe and con¬ 
venient harbor. The streets are well laid out, but the buildings are 
rather ordinary. The president’s house is a handsome structure, and 
here are a lyceum, hospital, and several literary institutions. The com¬ 
merce is extensive ; the population about 20,000. 

Cape Haytian, formerly Cape Fran^ais, is the handsomest city on the 
island, and it has a fine harbor with a flourishing commerce. Its broad, 
straight streets are ornamented with pretty squares and fountains, and the 
private houses and public buildings are in good taste. The church of 
Notre Dame, the theatre, the arsenal, and the palace of Christophe, who 
in 1811 assumed the title of king of Hayti, are the principal buildings. 
Population about 12,000. 

Saint Domingo on the southern coast, is a well built city, containing, 
among other remarkable public edifices, a noble cathedral, an arsenal, 
remarkable for its extent, the palace, which was once occupied by the 
Spanish governor, the Jesuits’ college, now used for military purposes, 
&c. It has much declined, since the expulsion of the Spaniards. 
Population 10,000. 

Les Cayes or Aux Cayes is one of the most important commercial 
places on the island. It was destroyed by a hurricane in 1831. Jac- 
mel, Jeremie, and Savana la Mar are places of some trade. 

11. Jamaica. Jamaica is the largest and most important of the En¬ 
glish West India colonies. It is about 150 miles in length, by 50 in 
breadth, with an area of 5,500 square miles. The surface is much 
diversified; the Blue Mountains, which run through the island from 
east to west, rise to the height of 7,500 feet. On the north the acclivity 
is gentle, and numerous fine vales are interspersed ; here every valley 
has its rivulet and every hill its cascade. On the south the surface is 
more broken. The soil is in general productive, and is well watered 
by about 100 rapid streams, some of which are navigable for boats. 
The heat is tempered by the sea breezes and the inequalities of surface, 


WEST INDIES. 


183 


and the vegetable productions are various and abundant. Population 
about 380,000, comprising 30,000 whites, and 330,000 slaves. 

Spanish Town, the capital, on a small river, a few miles from the 
southern coast, contains 7,000 inhabitants. 

Kingston, the principal town in the island, is well built, with broad, 
straight streets, handsome houses, and an excellent harbor. Its com¬ 
merce is extensive. Population 35,000, about half of which are 
slaves. 

Port Royal is also a place of extensive commerce, and is remarkable 
for the strength of its military works. It has suffered much from 
earthquakes. Population 15,000. 

Montego Bay, on the northern coast, has a good harbor and consid¬ 
erable commerce, with about 4,000 inhabitants. 

12. English Islands. The other English possessions in the West 
Indies are as follows. Trinidad is a fertile and beautiful island near 
the coast of Venezuela, with a delightful and healthy climate. It is 
79 miles long by 56 broad, and has a population of 44,163, of which 
only 4,200 are whites; there are 24,000 slaves and the remainder 
free colored persons. The principal town, Port Spain has 10,000 
inhabitants. 

Tobago, a small island to the north of Trinidad, with a fine climate 
and fertile soil, has a population of 14,050, comprising 322 whites 
and 12,550 slaves. The town of Scarborough has 3,000 inhabitants. 

Grenada is another small island with 28,732 inhabitants, of whom 
800 are whites, and 24,150 slaves. Georgetown, the principal town, 
has a good harbor, and contains 8,000 inhabitants. 

Barbadoes, the most easterly of the West Indian islands, has a fertile 
soil. Population 102,000, of which 81,900 are slaves, and 14,960 
whites. It has suffered much from hurricanes. Bridgetown and 
Speightstown are the principal towns. 

St. Vincent has a rugged and mountainous surface, and is well wa¬ 
tered. It has been exposed to great ravages by the eruptions of a vol¬ 
canic mountain, called the Soufrier or Sulphur Mountain. Kingston 
the capital has about 8,000 inhabitants. The population of the island 
is 27,714, comprising 23,589 slaves, and 2,824 free colored persons. 

St. Lucia has a healthy and agreeable climate, and the soil yields 
cocoa, fugtic, sugar, and coffee. It contains 18,350 inhabitants, of 
whom only 972 are whites. It has several good harbors, on one 
of which is the town of Little Carenage, with a population of 5,000. 

Dominica contains several volcanic mountains, and its forests pro¬ 
duce a variety of ornamental woods. Out of a population of 19,838, 
only 840 are whites. Roseau, the capital, has a fine harbor and about 
5,000 inhabitants. 

Antigua contains a great number of excellent harbors ; among these 
are English Harbor, where the British government has established a 
dock-yard and an arsenal, and St. John’s, the capital, which has 16,000 
inhabitants. Population 35,715, comprising 2,000 whites and 30,000 
slaves. 

Antigua forms one government with St. Christopher, commonly call¬ 
ed St. Kitts, Montserrat, Nevis, Barbuda, and Anguilla, and several small 
islands in the group called the Virgin islands. 

The government of all the English islands is conducted by houses 
of Assembly, chosen by the inhabitants, and governors and councils, 


184 


NEW GRENADA. 


appointed by the king. The total population of the English Isl¬ 
ands is about 760,000, comprising about 620,000 slaves, and 70,000 
whites. 

13. French Islands. Martinique is one of the largest of the Caribbee 
isles, being about 50 miles long and 16 broad. It has often been visited 
by the yellow fever, by earthquakes, and by hurricanes. The surface 
is much broken, and there are some lofty summits. Population of 
the island 110,000, of which 87,000 are slaves. The capital is Fort 
Royal, a small town with 7,000 inhabitants. St. Pierre is the prin¬ 
cipal place, and carries on an extensive commerce. Population 
18,000. 

Guadeloupe is divided into two parts by a narrow channel, called 
the Salt River. Basse Terre on the western division is the capital, but 
the principal town is Point a Pitre on the eastern division, which has a 
thriving commerce and contains 15,000 inhabitants. Population of the 
island 110,000, of which 10,000 are whites, 97,000 slaves. Mariegalantc 
and Deseada are small islands, dependent on Guadeloupe. Part of St. 
Martin belongs to France, and part to Holland. 

14. Danish Isles. Santa Cruz, or Sainte Croix is the principal Da¬ 
nish island. The small islands of St. Thomas and St. John are 
dependencies. Christianstadt, the capital, on the island of Santa Cruz, 
has an active commerce, with a population of 5,000. St. Thomas, on 
the island of the same name, is a small town with 3000 inhabitants, but 
its commerce is extensive. 

15. Dutch Islands. Curasao, near the coasts of Venezuela, produces 
sugar and tobacco, and has several good harbors. The capital Will- 
elmstadt, a prettily built town, with a commodious harbor, and strong 
military works, contains 8,000 inhabitants, composing nearly the whole 
population of the island. 

St. Eustatia, near St. Kitt’s, is an enormous rock rising out of the 
sea, and presenting but one landing place, which is difficult of access 
and strongly fortified. Sugar and tobacco are the principal produc¬ 
tions. The capital, of the same name, is a small town with 6,000 inhab¬ 
itants. An active smuggling trade is carried on with the neighboring 
islands, through St. Eustatia. Population of the island 18,000, of whom 
4,000 are whites. 

16. Swedish Island. Saint Bartholomew is the only American colo¬ 
ny belonging to Sweden. It is a small island, but is highly cultivated, 
and carries on an extensive commerce. Gustavia, the capital, has about 
10,000 inhabitants. 


L. NEW GRENADA. 

1. Situation and Extent. The republic of New Grenada is bounded 
on the north by the Caribbean Sea ; on the west by the Pacific Ocean ; 
on the E. by the republic of Venezuela, and on the S. by republic of 
the Equator. On the northwest it borders on the- Central American 
confederacy. It extends from Lat. 2° S. to 12° N., being 980 miles in 
length, from north to south, with an area of 380,000 square miles, and 
1,300,000 inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The country is traversed by several chains of the Andes, 
the basis of which, as in the mountainous chains of Mexico, are ele- 


NEW GRENADA. 


185 


vated plains or table-lands, which are from 6,000 to 9,500 feet above the 
level of the sea. Near the southern frontier in the vicinity of Popayan, 
the great chain of the Andes diverges into three principal chains; the 
eastern separates the valley of the Magdalena from the head streams of 
the Orinoco, and, running in a northeasterly direction to the east of 
Bogota and Pampelona, passes into Venezuela; the central chain, call- 
ea the Quindiu mountains, lies north and south between the Magdalena 
and the Cauca, attaining in some places an elevation of about 18,000 
feet; the western or Choco chain passes in a northwesterly direction, 
into the isthmus of Panama, where it is connected with the great 
mountainous system, that traverses North America. The valleys be¬ 
tween these chains, form the great plateau of New Grenada, upon 
which the population is chiefly concentred. Near the northern coast 
is the Sierra of Santa Martha, some of the summits of which rise to the 
height of above 19,000 feet. 

3. Rivers. The Magdalena rises at the point where the several 
chains above described separate, and flows north into the Caribbean 
sea, which it enters by several mouths, after a course of 900 miles. It 
receives numerous tributaries, of which the Cauca is the principal. 
These rivers are navigable for steam vessels. The head branches of 
the Amazon water the southeastern part of the country. The Guav- 
iare and Meta, tributaries of the Orinoco, and the Negro and Caqueta, 
tributaries of the Amazon, are large rivers rising in the eastern chain of 
the Andes. 

4. Bays. The gulf of Darien and the bay of Panama in the north 
are separated by the narrow strip of land called the isthmus of Panama 
or Darien. 

5. Climate and, Soil. The description already given of the climate 
of Mexico applies in a great measure to that of this country. The low 
country on the coast is hot and unhealthy, but the traveller, on ascend¬ 
ing the table-land, enters a region of perpetual spring. So rapid is the 
transition, that the eye can at once embrace plains covered with the 
oaks, elms, cereal grasses, and other plants of the temperate zone, look 
down upon the tropical regions of the palms, the bananas, and the 
sugar cane, and behold above him mountains, over which broods an 
eternal winter. The soil is extremely fertile, and produces in great 
richness and abundance, the varied vegetation of its different climates. 

6. Minerals. Rich mines of silver are found in the mountains, but 
have been little worked ; the gold washings in the mountains of Choco, 
in which platina also occurs, furnish about 20,000 marcs of gold, of 
the value of nearly $ 3,000,000 a year. Precious stones of different 
kinds abound. The emerald mines of Muzo, near Bogota, and those 
of Somondoco in the department of Boyaca, have furnished great quan¬ 
tities of emeralds. 

7. Natural Curiosities. The cataract of Tequendama near Bogota 
presents an assemblage of all that is picturesque. The river of Bogota, 
which just above the fall is 144 yards in breadth, is contracted, at a 
crevice in the rock, to a width of 12 yards, and is poured by two de¬ 
scents down a depth of 574 feet. The natural bridge of Icononzo, is a 
natural arch of stone, 50 feet long and 40 wide, stretching over a deep 
chasm, through which rolls a torrent forming two beautiful cascades. 
The height of the bridge above the stream is 318 feet. Sixty four feet 
below this bridge is a second, composed of three enormous masses of 


186 


VENEZUELA. 


rock, which have fallen so as to support each other. The cavern below 
is haunted by thousands of nocturnal birds. At the village of Turbaco 
near Carthagena there is a singular group of air-volcanoes, consisting 
of conical hillocks from 20 to 25 high, on the summit of which are 
cavities filled with water; from these issue bubbles of gas, which often 
project the water to a considerable height, while a constant succession 
of explosions is heard under ground. 

8. Divisions. New Grenada comprises the territories of the former 
Spanish province, styled the viceroyalty of New Grenada, and is divid¬ 
ed into five departments, which are subdivided into 18 provinces. 


Capitals. 

Panama, 


Departments. 

The Isthmus, 

Magdalena, 

Boyaca, 

Cundinamarca 

Cauca, 


Carthagena, 


T unja. 
Bogota. 
Popayan 


9. Towns. Bogota, the capital of the republic, is situated on the 
table-land of New Grenada, and is in general well built. The houses 
are low, consisting of only one or two stories on account of the frequen¬ 
cy of earthquakes. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, 
the Government palace, which contains the Executive offices, the 
Representatives Hall, and the residence of the president, several con¬ 
vents, more remarkable for their size and solidity, than for beauty, the 
mint, &c. Here are also a university, and several other learned insti¬ 
tutions. Population, 40,000. The beautiful plain in which the city 
stands having an elevation of 8,700 feet, it enjoys a mild and healthful 
climate. 

Carthagena possesses the finest harbor in the country, and has a 
thriving commerce, with 18,000 inhabitants. It is built on a sandy 
island, which is connected with the continent by bridges, and the 
narrow, dark, and crooked streets give it a gloomy appearance. Its 
strong military works, and its vast reservoirs for supplying the inhabit¬ 
ants with water, deserve notice. The marshes in the vicinity render it 
unhealthy. 

Santa Martha, on the coast to the northeast of Carthagena, has a good 
harbor, strongly defended, an active commerce, and a population of 
6 , 000 . 

Porto Bello, on the isthmus of Panama, celebrated for the great fair 
formerly held in it, is now much declined on account of the insalubrity 
of its climate. Rio Hacha is a small town, but important for its 
pearl fishery and trade. 

Panama, on the south side of the isthmus, and at the head of the bay 
of the same name, has a thriving and extensive commerce, with about 
10,000 inhabitants. 

Popayan, with 7,000 inhabitants, situated at the foot of the great vol¬ 
canoes of Purace and Sotara, is a handsome and Well built town. 

Pasto, near the southern frontier, surrounded by volcanic mountains, 
was completely destroyed by an earthquake in 1834. Population, 
10 , 000 . 

10. Inhabitants. The population like that of Mexico is composed of 
Creoles, Indians, negroes, and the different mixed races, and bears a 
general resemblance to that of the Mexican States. The whites are, 
however, less numerous, and there is a greater proportion of negroes. 


VENEZUELA. 


187 


The country is very thinly peopled, and there are extensive unoccupied 
tracts and wildernesses. 

In the mountainous regions the usual mode of travelling is in chairs 
tied to the backs of cargueros or porters. The mountains are so diffi¬ 
cult to be crossed, that they must either be passed on foot or in this 
manner. Travellers in traversing the great forest of the Quindiu 
mountains, which extends for 12 or 15 days journgy, take a month’s 
provision, as the melting of snows, or violent rains, often prevent them 
from proceeding. The cargueros provide themselves with the large 
leaves of a species of banana, and on the spot where they wish to pass 
the night, or are compelled to stop by rain, erect a frame of branches 
of trees, and cover it with these leaves, which being water-proof, afford 
a comfortable shelter. 

11. History. The Spanish province of New Grenada declared itself 
an independent state in 1811, and after a long and severe struggle 
with the mother country, expelled the Spaniards from its territory. 
The memorable victory of Carabobo in 1821 completed the downfal of 
the Spanish authority. In 1819 New Grenada formed a union with 
Venezuela, under the title of the republic of Colombia, and Quito 
subsequently acceded to the confederacy; but this connection has 
recently been dissolved, and New Grenada has again formed a separate 
government, upon republican principles. The Roman Catholic is the 
established religion of the state, and the inhabitants are rigidly devoted 
to this form of religion. 


LI. VENEZUELA. 

1. Extent and Population. The republic of Venezuela comprises 
the territories of the former Spanish Captain-generalship of Venezuela 
or Caraccas, and extends from New Grenada on the west, and Brazil 
on the south, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic ocean, having an 
area of 450,000 square miles, and a population of about 900,000 souls. 

2. Mountains. The great eastern chain of the Andes enters the 
republic from New Grenada, and extends, nearly parallel to the coast, 
across the northern phrt to the gulf of Paria. It is known under the 
name of the Maritime Cordilleras of Caraccas or Venezuela, and some 
of the summits rise to the height of 18,000 feet. The Silla of Caraccas, 
near the city of that name, has an elevation of 8,750 feet. There are 
some mountainous ridges in the south, called the Parima Mountains, 
the direction of which is imperfectly known. Mount Duida, near 
Esmeraldas, has an elevation of about 8,000 feet. 

3. Plain. The most remarkable feature of this country is the vast 
plain which constitutes the greater part of its surface. It extends from 
the Caqueta in New Grenada to the mouths of the Orinoco, occupying 
the whole space between the mountainous chains already described. 
Including a part of New Grenada, it has an area of 350,000 square 
miles, but slightly broken, and intersected by numerous rivers. On 
the borders of the streams and ponds there are thickets of palm, but 
the rest of this great level consists of open plains, called by the Span¬ 
iards llanos, covered only with grass. In the dry season the llanos 
present the aspect of a desert; the grass is reduced to powder, the 
ground cracks with the heat and drought, and the alligators and ser- 


188 


VENEZUELA. 


pents, having buried themselves in the mud, remain in a torpid state, 
until they are revived by the wet season. 

4. Rivei’s. The Orinoco is one of the largest rivers in the world. 
Rising in the mountains of Parima, it flows, after a very circuitous 
course of upwards of 1,500 miles, by about fifty mouths, into the 
Atlantic ocean. The principal mouth is nearly 6 leagues wide. The 
Orinoco receives a great number of tributaries, several of which are 
large navigable rivers. The Guaviare, Apure, and Meta, which rise in 
the Andes of New Grenada, and the Ventuari and Caroni, which have 
their sources in the Parima Mountains, are the principal. During the 
rainy season it inundates the vast plains through which it flows, pre¬ 
senting in some places an expanse of water 80 or 90 miles in extent. 
Immediately on its banks are impenetrable forests, from which are 
heard the cries of the jaguar, the puma, innumerable troops of mon¬ 
keys, pecaries, and other animals. While the gigantic boa swings from 
the branches of the trees, ready to seize its prey, huge alligators, long 
files of river porpoises, and great numbers of manatees, crowd its wa¬ 
ters. 

5. Lakes. The principal lakes are that of Maracaybo, which is, 
properly speaking, a gulf of the Caribbean Sea, and is deep and navi¬ 
gable, and the lake of Valencia. The latter is 34 miles in length, by 6 
or 8 in breadth, covered with beautiful islands, and well stocked with 


fish 


6. Climate and Soil. The seasons are here divided into the wet and 
the dry, and as there is little variety of surface, a high temperature 
prevails throughout the country during the whole year. The soil is 
fertile, producing coffee, cotton, sugar, cocoa, indigo, cassava, plantains, 
and various medicinal plants and edible roots. The vegetation is 
characterised by great vigor and freshness, and such is the nutritious 
quality of the vegetable food here used, compared with that of the cereal 
grains of the temperate climates, that a much smaller extent of ground 
is able to maintain a given number of persons. 

7. Divisions. Venezuela is divided into 4 departments, which are 
subdivided into 12 provinces. 


Departments. 

Zulia, 

Venezuela, 

Maturin, 

Orinoco, 


Capitals. 

Maracaybo 

Caraccas. 

Cumana. 

Varinas. 


8. Towns. The capital is Caraccas, which, before it was ravaged by 
an earthquake in 1812, contained 45,000 inhabitants. It is now much 
reduced, but is the centre of an extensive commerce. Its situation is 
pleasant, and being elevated it enjoys a perpetual spring. The popula¬ 
tion at present does not exceed 20,000. La Guayra, its port, has a poor 
harbor, and is extremely unhealthy. It contains about 6,000 inhab¬ 
itants. 

Maracaybo, on the gulf of the same name, with 20,000 inhabitants; 
Puerto Cabello, with a fine harbor and strong military works, 3,000 
inhabitants; Valencia, a pleasant town, with a delightful climate, and 
15,000-inhabitants; Barcelona, a great mart for the smuggling trade 
with the English islands, with a population of 5,000, and Cumana, 
which has much declined, but still contains about 10,000 inhabitants, 
are commercial places on the northern coast. 


REPUBLIC OF THE EQUATOR. 


189 


In the interior Varinas and Angostura, with 3,000 inhabitants each, 
are the principal towns. 

Merida with 5,000 inhabitants, and Coro, with 4,000, are the other 
most important towns. 

9. Inhabitants . The whole country is thinly inhabited, and the 
greater portion is occupied by Indians, the whites being only about 
220,000, and the blacks 60,000. Many of what are called the wild 
Indians or Indios bravos, dwell in villages, and raise plantains, cassava, 
and cotton. The civilized Indians are those among whom the Span¬ 
iards have established missions, and introduced Christianity. They 
are indolent, peaceful, and ignorant. The population may in general 
be divided into three classes, corresponding to the three great natural 
divisions of the country. Along the shore, in the valleys, and on the 
mountains, agriculture and commerce are pursued, and here the whites 
are most numerous. In the great plains, the inhabitants or llaneros, as 
they are called, lead a pastoral life, raising large flocks and herds, and 
keeping great numbers of horses, all of which abound in these natural 
pastures. These are chiefly Indians and mixed races. In the woody 
and mountainous regions of the south, beyond the Orinoco, are tribes 
of hunters, many of whom are at perpetual war with each other, and 
have all the characteristics of savages. 

10. Government. Since the separation of Venezuela from New 
Grenada, a new constitution has been adopted, resembling that of the 
latter. 


LII. REPUBLIC OF THE EQUATOR. 

1. Extent and Population. The republic of the Equator (Ecuador) 
is bounded on the north by New Grenada and Venezuela; east by the 
empire of Brazil; south by Peru; and west by the Pacific Ocean. It 
extends from 2° N. to 6° 30' S. Lat., and from 65° to 81° W. Lon., hav¬ 
ing an area of 325,000 square miles, with a population of 650,000souls. 

2. Mountains. The western part of the state is traversed from south 
to north by a chain of the Andes, forming a double ridge of colossal 
summits, the valley between which constitutes an elevated table-land, 
from 25 to 50 miles in width, and from 9,000 to 9,500 feet in height. 
The principal summits projecting above this great plateau, are Chim¬ 
borazo 21,730 feet high, and the volcanoes of Antisana 19,400, Cotopaxi 
19,000, and Pichincha 16,000 feet high. 

Above the height of 16,750 feet these mountains are covered with 
perpetual snow. Chimborazo has been ascended to the height of 
19,800 feet, probably the highest point on the surface of the globe ever 
trodden by the foot of man; the air is here so much rarified that blood 
issued from the eyes, lips, and gums of the visiters. 

3. Rivers. The whole of the eastern part of the state is traversed by 
the great river Maranon or Amazon, which forms part of the southern 
boundary of the republic. It receives the Napo, the Putumayo or Ysa, 
and the Tigre from the north, and the Huallaga, the Ucayali, and the 
Javari from the south, within the limits of the republic. The other most 
important river is the Guayaquil, which is navigable for the largest 
vessels to the distance of 40 miles from the sea, and empties itself into 
the fine bay of the same name. 


190 


REPUBLIC OF THE EQUATOR. 


4. Climate and Face of the Country. Although this country lies 
directly under the equator, the great elevation of the central valley, and 
of the western table-land renders the climate of those sections mild and 
temperate. In the low country along the coast the heat is excessive, 
and the climate is dangerous to foreigners. The productions resemble 
those of New Grenada. 

5. Divisions. The territory of the republic is divided into three 
departments, which are subdivided into eight provinces. 


Capitals. 

Quito. 


Departments. 

Equator, 

Guayaquil, 

Assuay, 


Guayaquil. 

Cuenca. 


6. %'owns. Quito, the capital of the Equator, is built on an elevated 
plain, on the eastern slope of the western chain of the Andes, at an 
elevation of 9,600 feet. At this elevation the climate is such that vege¬ 
tation never ceases. Around the city are seen eleven colossal summits, 
covered with perpetual snow, and reaching the height of from 16,000 
to 21,000 feet. Several of these are volcanoes, and the city is so often 
visited by earthquakes, that the buildings are, like those of Bogota, low 
but solid. The episcopal palace, the government house, and the cathe¬ 
dral, with numerous convents and churches, are the most remarkable 
public edifices. The university of Quito has enjoyed great celebrity 
in South America. The streets are irregular and crooked, and so 
uneven as not to be adapted to carriages. Population 70,000. 

Guayaquil is distinguished for the excellence of its harbor, and the 
extent of its commerce. The government has a navy-yard here, and 
ship building is extensively carried on. Population 22,000. 

Riobamba, with 20,000 inhabitants, Ibarra, with 10,000, and Lata- 
cunga, with 17,000, are among the other most important towns. 

Cuenca, situated at an elevation of more than 8,000 feet above the 
level of the sea, contains a college, a Jesuit’s house, and an episcopal 
palace. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture of 
cotton goods, hats, and confectionary. Population 20,000. 

7. History, Inhabitants. This state formerly constituted the Spanish 
Presidency of Quito, which was dependent upon the viceroyalty of 
New Grenada. But a small proportion of the inhabitants are" whites, 
the Indians and mixed breeds composing the bulk of the population. 
The civilised part of the population is confined to the central valley 
and the western coast, the vast tracts to the east of the mountains being 
occupied by independent and hostile tribes of savages. The aborigines 
belonged to the Peruvian family, and numerous remains of their 
architectural industry and skill are still visible. 

In 1809 the inhabitants of Quito deposed the Spanish president, and 
after a long struggle, the Spanish authority was completely overthrown 
by the splendid victory of Pichincha in 1822, soon after which Quito 
was united with Colombia. This union was dissolved in 1830, and 
Quito formed an independent republic. 


191 


LIII. PERU. 

1. Boundaries. Peru is bounded N. by The Equator; E. by Brazil; 
S. by Bolivia and the Pacific ocean, and W. by the Pacific ocean. It 
extends from 3° to 22°^ S. Lat., and from 67° to 82° W. Lon., having 
an area of 500,000 square miles, with a population of 1,800,000. 

2. Mountains. Several chains of the Andes traverse Peru from 
south to north. The principal chain lies nearly parallel to the coast, 
and contains the loftiest summits, among which is the volcano of Are- 
quipa, 17,750 feet high. Two other chains of less elevation separate th<5 
waters of the Tunguragua from those of the Haallaga, and those of the 
latter from the confluents of the Paro. 

3. Rivers. The only considerable rivers of Peru are the Tungura¬ 
gua, the Paro or Ucayali, and some other tributaries of the Amazon, 
which descend the eastern declivities of the Andes. 

4. Lake. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake in South America, is 240 
miles in circuit, and 400 feet deep. Its waters are fresh, and it is re¬ 
markable for the great elevation of its bed, which is about 13,500 feet 
above the sea. 

5. Coast. The nature of the coast on the Pacific ocean is by no 
means favorable to navigation, and affords no harbor except Callao, 
which admits the larger merchant vessels. There is also on every part 
of the shore such a tremendous surf, caused by the uninterrupted swell 
from the sea, that no communication can be had with the land by boats 
of the common construction. The natives, however, have a contriv¬ 
ance called balsa , consisting of two seal skins, lashed together and 
covered with a sort of platform, on which sits the pilot of this strange 
craft. Being blown up by the breath of the navigator, these balsas 
are so buoyant, as to pass the most terrific breakers in safety. 

6. Face of the Country. Peru consists of three distinct regions, 
differing in regard to surface, soil, and climate. Between the moun¬ 
tains and the sea, a narrow strip of sandy plain extends along the 
whole coast, with extensive intervals in which no traces of vegetation 
appear. In this sterile tract, varying in breadth from 30 to 100 miles, 
no rain ever falls, but the dews are heavy and uniform ; thunder and 
lightning are unknown, and there is little variation of temperature, the 
heat being constant, but seldom intense. Here are produced the 
tropical plants, sugar cane, cocoa, plantains, coffee, &c. The next 
division is the mountainous region, which, commencing at the termina¬ 
tion of the sandy district with hills of moderate elevation, rises gradu¬ 
ally to the loftiest summits. Here as in Mexico and New Grenada, the 
traveller ascends through successive layers of climate, from regions of 
perpetual summer to those of eternal snows. The valleys and sides of 
the mountains are covered with impenetrable forests of gigantic trees, 
overrun with luxuriant creeping or parasitical plants. This region 
spreads out into an extensive table-land, which, stretching far to the 
east and south, has an elevation of from 4,000 to 9,000 feet; Much of 
the soil in this region is fertile, and the climate of the table-land is mild 
and temperate. To the east of the mountains, in the northeastern 
part, begins the great plain of the Amazon, in which the heat is exces¬ 
sive and the climate moist and unhealthy. Like the llanos of Venezuela 
this great level is intersected by forests along the banks of the rivers, 
which break up its surface into separate grassy plains,here called pampas. 


192 


PERU. 


7. Minerals. The mountainous region abounds with mineral wealth; 
gold, silver, and quicksilver have been most extensively worked, though 
other metals are abundant. The richest silver mines are those of Pasco 
or Lauricocha, Huantajaya, Chota, and Puno. Quicksilver abounds at 
Huancavelica. Several of these mines are elevated at the height of 
from 12,000 to 14,000 feet. Gold is obtained in several places from 
washings. 

8. Divisions. Peru is divided into seven departments, which are 
subdivided into provinces. 


Departments. 

Capitals. 

Arequipa, 

Arequipa. 

Puno, 

Puno. 

Cuzco, 

Cuzco. 

Ayacucho, 

Huamanga. 

Lima, 

Lima. 

Junin, 

Huanuco. 

Libertad, 

Truxillo. 


9. Towns. The capital and largest town of Peru is Lima, which 
stands upon the small river Rimac, about 6 miles from its mouth. The 
streets are regular, but the buildings are low, on account of the fre¬ 
quency and violence of the earthquakes. The city is surrounded with 
a wall, built of bricks baked in the sun. The churches are distinguish¬ 
ed for the profusion and richness of their gold and silver ornaments, 
vessels, statues, &c, and the religious ceremonies are solemnised with 
great splendor. The government palace, the archbishop’s palace, the 
cathedral, the mint, the university building, the circus for the exhibition 
of bull fights, and the theatre, with numerous churches and convents, 
are the principal public edifices. Lima has an active commerce and 
extensive manufactures. Population 70,000. Its port Callao, the 
strongest fortress and principal seaport of Peru, contains 3,000 inhab¬ 
itants. It is connected with Lima by a magnificent road. 

Arequipa, in the southern part of Peru, is a flourishing city, situated 
in a rich and agreeable country, 8,000 feet above the level of the 
sea. It carries on an extensive trade, and its cotton and woollen 
manufactures employ great numbers of the inhabitants. Population 
30,000. 

Cuzco is the second city of Peru, and was formerly the capital of 
the empire of the Incas, or native Peruvian princes. It was regarded 
by the natives as a sacred city, and the celebrated temple of the sun, 
with its gorgeous decorations of gold and silver, was one of the richest 
in the world. Two immense causeways 1500 miles in length, led from 
the city to Quito, and their remains still exist. The city now contains 
46,125 inhabitants, a university and other literary institutions, with 
several convents and churches. 

Huamanga, a commercial and manufacturing city, with 25,000 
inhabitants, and Huancavelica, with a population of 12,000, near which 
are the rich quicksilver mines, now obstructed by rubbish, are the 
principal places in the department of Ayacucho, which derives its 
name from a little village, where the Spanish forces were defeated by 
the Colombian general Sucre, in 1824. 

Puno, Chiquito, Truxillo, Caxamarca, Huanuco and Tarma are 
considerable towns, with from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants. 

10. Inhabitant. The whites compose but a small part of the popu¬ 
lation ; there are many mestizoes, and some Negroes, but the bulk of 


BOLIVIA. 


193 


the inhabitants are Peruvian Indians, who retain their native language, 
and observe the external forms of the Roman Catholic Religion. They 
are timid, indolent, and poor. In the north and east are extensive 
regions occupied by unreclaimed Indians. The mode of travelling in 
some parts of the country is peculiar; the deep ravines in the moun¬ 
tains are passed by travellers in baskets suspended from ropes, which 
are stretched across these terrific chasms. In some places these 
fissures are crossed by pendulous bridges of ropes, covered with 
reeds. 

11. History. This country was occupied by a highly civilised native 
race, when it was discovered and conquered by the Spaniards under 
Pizarro, in 1532. It afterward became a Spanish province, but in 1821 
declared itself an independent state, and adopted a republican form of 
government resembling that of the other Spanish provinces of South 
America. 


LIV. BOLIVIA 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Bolivia is bounded north by Peru and 
Brazil; E. by Brazil; S. by the United Provinces of the Plata, and by 
Chile, and W. by the Pacific ocean and Peru. It extends from S. Lat. 
11° to 24°, and from 58° to 71° W. Lon., with an area of 410,000 square 
miles, containing 1,300,000 inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The great central chain of the Andes traverses the 
southwestern part of Bolivia, and is continued into Peru. In latitude 
20° S. a lateral chain branches off in a northeasterly direction, and 
with a semicircular sweep passes to the east and northeast of lake 
Titicaca. This chain contains the loftiest summits of the American 
continent, Sorata 25,400 feet, and Illimani 24,250 feet in height, and 
forms the elevated table-land upon which lies lake Titicaca. 

3. Rivers. The head waters of the two great rivers of South Amer¬ 
ica, the Amazon and the Plata, descend from the Bolivian table-land. 
The only considerable river, which has its whole course in Bolivia, is 
the Desaguadero, or outlet of lake Titicaca, which takes a southerly 
course, and loses itself in the salt plains of Potosi. 

4. Climate and Soil. The climate, soil, and productions resemble 
those of Peru, but as the Bolivian table-land is more elevated than the 
Peruvian, the cold is rather greater. The northeastern part of the 
country forms a portion of the great plain of the Amazon, and has 
therefore a much higher temperature. 

5. Minerals. The celebrated silver mines of Potosi are in a moun¬ 
tain near the city of that name. The summit of this rich mountain 
rises to an elevation of 16,300 feet, and the highest mine is upwards of 
15,000 feet above the level of the sea. From the first discovery of 
these mines, in 1545, until 1803, they yielded about 1000 million dollars 
worth of silver, and since the latter period though imperfectly and 
unskilfully worked, have continued to produce about three millions 
annually. 

6. Divisions. Bolivia is divided into 6 departments, which take 
their names from their respective capitals, and are subdivided into 
provinces. The eastern and northeastern part of the country is entirely 
occupied by the Moxos and Chiquitos Indians. 

13 


i 


194 


CHILL 


Departments- 
La Paz, 
Oruro, 
Santa Cruz, 


Departments. 

Cochabamba, 

Chuquisaca, 

Potosi. 


7. Towns. The capital, Chuquisaca, or La Plata, is situated in a 
pleasant and fertile plain, at an elevation of 9,500 feet. It is well built, 
and contains, among other public edifices, the Government House, a 
cathedral, the university buildings, and numerous convents. Popula¬ 
tion about 12,000. 

The principal city of Bolivia is La Paz, which is said to contain 
40,000 inhabitants. Although it lies in a deep valley, it is elevated 
12,400 feet above the sea. Near it rises the colossal summit of Illimani. 
La Paz contains a cathedral, and several convents and churches. 

Potosi was formerly a large and opulent city with 150,000 inhabitants, 
but is now so much reduced, as not to contain more than 10,000. It 
lies in a barren district, at the remarkable elevation of 13,700 feet above 
the sea, and it owed its former splendor to the mineral wealth of its 
neighborhood. It contains a mint, a cathedral, college, &c., and a 
monument has been erected here in honor of Bolivar. 

Cochabamba lies in a rich and well cultivated region, which may be 
considered the granary of Bolivia. Population, 30,000. 

Santa Cruz, an ill built town in a vast plain, has about 10,000 inhab¬ 
itants ; Oruro, in the vicinity of which are rich silver mines, 6,000. Cobija 
or Lamar is a little village in the desert of Atacama on the Bolivian coast, 
and deserves notice as being the only seaport of the republic. 

8. Inhabitants. The population has much the same character with 
that of the other Spanish American states. The number of whites is 
small, the native Indians constituting upwards of one half of the whole 
mass of inhabitants. 

9. History. The Bolivian territories, or as they are commonly 
called the provinces of Upper Peru, were detached from the Spanish 
vice-royalty of Peru, and annexed to that of the Plata in 1778. In 1824 
the Spanish authority was overthrown by the victory of Ayacucho, and 
in the succeeding year the people of Upper Peru determined to remain 
a separate state, under the name of Bolivia. The constitution of gov¬ 
ernment is republican. 


LV. CHILI 


1. Boundaries and Extent. The republic of Chili is bounded N. by 
Bolivia; E. by the States of the Plata, and Patagonia; S. by Patagonia, 
and W. by the Pacific Ocean.—It extends from Lat. 25° to 44° S. and 
from 70° to 75° W. Lon., having an area of 172,000 square miles, and 
containing 1,400,000 inhabitants. The island of Chiloe and the Archi¬ 
pelago of Chonos in the south belong to the republic, which also claims 
the isles of Juan Fernandez, at some distance from the coast, celebrated 
as the residence of Alexander Selkirk, whose adventures furnished the 
hint for the popular novel of Robinson Crusoe. 

2. Mountains. The great chain of the Andes traverses the country 
from north to south, and presents a number of summits, the height of 
which has been estimated at upwards of 20,000 feet. The roads that 
lead across these mountains are impassable except in summer, and the 
oassage is even then difficult and hazardous. Among the Chilian 


CHILI. 


195 


Andes there are said to be 14 volcanoes in a state of constant eruption, 
and a still greater number that discharge smoke at intervals. Earth¬ 
quakes are common. 

3. Face of the Country. Chili presents a plain, gradually rising in 
elevation as it recedes from the coast and approaches the Andes. The 
country intercepted between the foot of the Andes and the Pacific 
Ocean, is divided into two equal parts, the maritime and midland. 
The maritime part is intersected by three ridges of mountains, running 
parallel with the Andes. The midland part is generally level, of great 
fertility, and enjoying a delightful climate. 

4. Rivers. The rivers are numerous, but small, and have generally 
a rapid current, as they descend from elevated regions, and have a short 
course. The Maule and Biobio are navigable for a short distance. 

5. Climate and Soil. Chili lies in the temperate zone, and enjoys a 
fine climate. In the northern provinces it rarely rains, and snow is 
never seen in the maritime districts. The soil is in general highly pro¬ 
ductive, particularly in the valleys of the Andes, and while the northern 
provinces yield various tropical productions, the southern produce the 
cereal grasses. 

6. Minerals. ' The metallic wealth of the country is great; it is rich 
in mines of gold, silver, quicksilver, tin, copper, and iron. Gold is 
abundant, and is obtained from mines, and washings; the richest mines 
are in the part of the country now occupied by the Araucanians. Many 
of the richest silver mines are in the loftiest and coldest parts of the 
Andes, and have been abandoned in consequence of the difficulty and 
expense of working them. 

7. Divisions. Chili is divided into 8 provinces, which are subdivid¬ 
ed into districts: 


Maule, 

Conception 

Valdivia, 

Cliiloe. 


Coquimbo, 

Aconcagua, 

Santiago, 

Colchagua, 


8. Towns. Santiago, the capital, is pleasantly situated in an exten¬ 
sive plain at the foot of the Andes, on the river Mapocho. It is regu¬ 
larly laid out, and contains some splendid buildings; among them are 
the mint, one of the handsomest structures in South America, the 
Government palace, and the Cathedral, one of the most superb churches 
in America. Here are also a university, several colleges, and other 
literary institutions. Santiago has suffered much from earthquakes, 
particularly in 1822 and 1829. Population about 55,000. 

Valparaiso, a flourishing and prettily built town, stands on the Pacific 
ocean, and has a fine harbor. It is the principal commercial place in 
Chili, and it has a population of 20,000 souls. 

Coquimbo, which also stands on the coast, carries on an extensive 
commerce, and is a thriving place, although it has repeatedly been 
injured by earthquakes. Population, 12,000. 

Conception, on the Biobio not far from its mouth, was almost com¬ 
pletely destroyed by the Araucanians in 1823; but it is recovering 
from that disaster, and now has a population of about 10,000 souls. 

Valdivia, distinguished for its excellent harbor, has 5,000 inhabitants. 
Huasco and Curico are small towns, having rich mines, the former of 
silver and the latter of gold, in their vicinity. Near Copiapo and 
Quillota are valuable copper mines. 


196 


UNITED PROVINCES OF THE PLATA. 


9. Inhabitants. The population is composed of similar elements 
with that of the other Spanish American States. The country south 
of the Biobio is mostly in possession of the Araucanians, a warlike 
nation of independent Indians, whom the Spaniards have never been 
able to reduce. 

10. History. Chili was conquered by the Spaniards in the 16th 
century, and continued to be governed as a Spanish province, under 
the title of the vice-royalty of Chili, until 1810, when the people took 
the government into their own hands. In 1818 Chili was declared an 
independent state, and it has since adopted a republican form of gov¬ 
ernment. 


LVI. UNITED PROVINCES OF THE PLATA. 

1. Boundaries. Buenos Ayres, or the Confederacy of the Plata, is 
bounded N. by Bolivia; E. by Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Atlantic 
ocean; S. by Patagonia, and W. by Chili and Bolivia. It extends 
from 20° to 41° S. Lat., and from 57° to 70° W. Lon., having an area 
of 900,000 square miles, with about 800,000 inhabitants, a large propor¬ 
tion of whom are Indians. 

2. Face of the Country. In the western provinces a chain of moun¬ 
tains traverses the country, in a direction nearly parallel to the 
Andes; little is known of its elevation and course. The northwestern 
and northern provinces form portions, the latter of the great central 
table-land of South America, and the former of the Peruvian table-land. 
All the country to the south and east of these limits belongs to the vast 
plain of the Plata, which stretches nearly to the southern extremity of 
the continent, over an area of 1,600,000 square miles. The Pampas, or 
great grassy plains of Buenos Ayres, form a part of this extensive level. 
They resemble the prairies of North America and the llanos of Vene¬ 
zuela, being like them destitute of wood, and stretching out with an 
unbroken surface for hundreds of miles. Several rivers and some lakes 
are found in them, but in general they are scantily watered. Immense 
herds of wild horses and cattle, find good pasture in them, and the 
ostrich, deer, lamas, &c. are numerous. They are inhabited or rather 
traversed by Indian tribes, and Spanish American hunters and shep¬ 
herds. 

3. Rivers. The Plata, the principal river, has the largest volume of 
water of any river in the world except the Amazon. It is formed by the 
union of the Parana and the Uruguay, at the distance of 175 miles from 
the ocean; at that point it is 30 miles, and at its mouth 100 miles broad. 
The Parana or main branch rises in Brazil, and has a course of up¬ 
wards of 2,000 miles; it receives the waters of the Paraguay another 
large river, which also rises in Brazil, and is about 1,200 miles in length. 
The Pilcomayo and Vermeio, tributaries of the Paraguay, are likewise 
considerable rivers, and have their sources in Bolivia. The Colorado 
and Negro are the principal rivers to the south of the Plata. Rising in 
the Chilian Andes, they flow through desert and imperfectly known 
regions, into the Atlantic. 

4. Climate. In the northern part of the country the summers are 
long and hot, but ice sometimes forms in winter. As we advance to 
the south the cold increases, but is nowhere extreme. The climate is 


UNITED PROVINCES OF THE PLATA. 


197 


moist, and in the southern provinces the winds are violent, and thunder 
and lightning very severe. The westerly winds, which sweep across 
the Pampas, and are here called pamperos, blow with great fury. 

5. Soil and Productions. In the upland districts the productions of 
the temperate climate abound, while the lower regions furnish the 
cocoa, olive, orange, and sugar-cane of tropical countries. The plains 
afford natural pastures for great numbers of domestic and wild animals. 
The mate or Paraguay tea plant is a small plant, the leaves of which are 
used to prepare an infusion, like the Chinese tea with us. It is export¬ 
ed in great quantities to the neighboring countries. A large proportion 
of the soil is productive, but there are some salt plains and sterile 
tracts. 

6. Minerals. There are some rich mines of gold and silver in the 
mountainous districts of the western provinces. Salt abounds, and the 
great plains to the east and south of the Parana, are in many places so 
strongly impregnated, that all the rivers and lakes have a brackish taste 
when the water is low. In some places the waters of the lakes are 
saturated with salt, and in warm, dry seasons it is deposited in great 
quantities by the evaporation of the water. Saltpetre is likewise abun¬ 
dant. 

7. Divisions. The territories lying within the limits above described 
formerly composed a part of the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, 
to which Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay also belonged. In 1810 the 
intendancy of Buenos Ayres broke out into an insurrection, and its 
example was followed by the other intendancies of the vice-royalty. 
In 1817 they declared themselves independent, under the name of the 
United States of South America, which was afterwards changed into 
that of the Argentine Republic or United Provinces of the Plata. This 
republic consisted of 14 states or provinces ; 


Buenos Ayres, 
Entre Rios, 
Corrientes, 
Santa Fe, 
Cordova, 


Santiago, 

Tucuman, 

Salta, 

J »j«y, 

Cataniarca, 


Rioja, 

San Juan, 
San Luis, 
Mendoza. 


But the union has since been broken by mutual jealousies, and the 
country has not yet secured internal order and a settled government. 

8. Toivns. Buenos Ayres, capital of the state of the same name, 
is one of the principal cities of South America, and is not less distin¬ 
guished for its literary than for its commercial activity. It is well built, 
with regular and well paved streets, and contains many handsome 
public and private buildings. Although situated near the mouth of 
one of the largest rivers in the world, its harbor is so much obstructed 
by sand banks, that large vessels only come up to Barragan. The 
university, several colleges and academies, an observatory, the cabinet 
of natural science, public library, and other literary institutions, show 
the taste of the inhabitants for learning and the arts. The Cathedral, 
mint, representatives’ hall, and some of the churches, are the most re¬ 
markable edifices. Population 80,000. 

Corrientes, a small town with about 3,000 inhabitants, situated near 
the confluence of the Parana and Paraguay, has great natural advanta¬ 
ges for inland commerce. 

Cordova, formerly rendered important by its famous university, 
which is now sunk into insignificance, enjoys an active internal com- 


198 


URUGUAY. PARAGUAY. 


merce, and carries on considerable manufactures of woollen and cotton. 
Population about 12,000. 

San Juan, in the state of the same name, produces large quantities 
of wine and brandy, and has an extensive traffic. 

Mendoza, on the eastern declivity of the Andes, has also an active 
trade in wine and fruits. These towns have each about 16,000 inhab¬ 
itants. 

Upsallata, a little town in the state of Mendoza, is celebrated for its 
rich silver-mine. 

Salta and Tucuman, with 10,000 inhabitants each, and Santa Fe with 
5,000, are the other principal towns. 

9. Inhabitants. The native whites of this country were favorably dis¬ 
tinguished among those of the other Spanish colonies for character and 
cultivation. The blacks are few. The Creole shepherds of the great 
plains, called Gauchos, lead a life of wild independence, passing most 
of their time on horseback, eating nothing but jerked beef and drinking 
water ; they are rude, but hospitable and generous. Armed with his 
lasso or leather strap, which he throws at a great distance with uner¬ 
ring aim, the Gaucho gallops out into the open plain, hurls it at the 
wild horse, bull, or ostrich, lodging it round the neck of the animal, 
which by a sudden jerk he throws to the ground, and then gallops off 
with his prey. The Indians are numerous and some of the tribes of 
the south are fierce and warlike. They have learned to ride, and they 
wander in search of game and pasturage, through the great expanse of 
the pampas, where they are engaged in constant hostilities with the 
Gauchos. 


LVII. URUGUAY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The republic of the Uruguay is bounded 
on the N. and E. by Brazil; S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the Uruguay, 
which divides it from the states of Corrientes and Entre Rios. It has 
an area of 80,000 square miles, and a population of 70,000 souls. This 
territory formerly belonged to the Spanish vice-royalty of the Plata, and 
was called the Banda Oriental (Eastern Frontier) from its geographical 
position. It was afterwards claimed by Brazil, but in 1828, after a 
bloody war between the Brazilians and Buenos Ayreans, the two par¬ 
ties agreed to its being erected into an independent state. 

2. Towns. Monte Video, the capital of the republic, is situated on 
the Plata, and is regularly built, but the houses are low and the streets 
are not paved. It has a good harbor, and formerly enjoyed an exten¬ 
sive commerce. The prosperity of the city has been much affected by 
the wars between the neighboring states, and its population has much 
diminished. It now contains about 10,000 inhabitants. 

Maldonado and Colonia, are small towns on the Plata, with good 
harbors. 


LVIII. PARAGUAY. 

1. Extent and Population. Paraguay lies between Brazil, Bolivia, 
and the Argentine Provinces, extending from 20° to 28° S. Lat., and 
from 54° to 59° W. Lon., over an area of 90,000 square miles, and 
containing 250,000 inhabitants. 


PATAGONIA. BRAZIL. 


199 


2. Natural Features. The country is traversed by the Parana and 
the Paraguay j it forms a part of the great central table-land of South 
America, having an elevation of about 1,000 feet. The climate is moist, 
but mild and healthy ; the surface level, and the soil in general fertile, 
producing tropical fruits, sugar, tobacco, indigo, mate or Paraguay 
tea, &c. 

3. Towns. Assumption, the capital, contains the palace of the dicta¬ 
tor, a cathedral, &c. It lies on the Paraguay, and is irregularly built 
with crooked streets. The population is about 10,000 or 12,000. 

Villa Rica, the second town, has about 4,000 inhabitants. 

Tevego is a village in the north, founded by the dictator, as a place of 
banishment for criminals. 

4. History. This territory formerly belonged to the Spanish vice- 
royalty of Buenos Ayres ; in 1813, the inhabitants declared Paraguay 
an independent republic under two consuls, one of whom, Dr. Francia, 
soon after caused himself to be declared perpetual dictator of Para¬ 
guay. His government has been very arbitrary, and he suffers no 
foreigners to enter the country ; but he has introduced order, industry, 
and arts, among the subjects of his little state. 


LIX. PATAGONIA. 

This is an extensive region, stretching from Buenos Ayres and Chile 
on the north, to the straits of Magellan on the south, and bordering on 
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Its length, from 36° to 54° S. lat., is 
about 1100 miles. It is inhabited only by savage tribes, and its interior 
is imperfectly known. The Andes traverse the country from north to 
south ; much of the soil near the coasts is barren, and the climate is 
rigorous. The Moluches and Puelches are the principal races; some 
of the Patagonian tribes, are remarkable for their great size. 


LX. BRAZIL. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Brazil is bounded N. by New Grenada, 
Venezuela, and Guiana; E. by the Atlantic Ocean, 8. by the Ocean, 
Uruguay, and Paraguay, and W. by Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, and The 
Equator. It extends from 4° N. to 33° S. Lat., and from 35° to 73° W. 
Lon., having an area of 3,000,000 square miles, and a population of five 
millions. 

2. Mountains. This extensive region is traversed by several distinct 
chains of mountains, chiefly in the easterfi and northern provinces. 
The most easterly chain, called the Serra do Mar, or Maritime Range, 
stretches from 16° to 30° S. Lat. in a direction parallel to the coast. The 
highest summits are Arasoiaba, near San Paulo, 4,160 feet high, and 
Tingua, near Rio Janeiro, 3,600 feet high. Farther west lies the Serra 
do Espinba^o, extending from the San Francisco in 10° to the Uru¬ 
guay in 28° S. Lat., and separating the confluents of the former from 
the rivers which flow easterly into the Atlantic. Its loftiest summits are 
in the province of Minas Geraes, between 18° and 21° S. lat; among 
them are Mount Itacolumi, near Villa Rica, 6,175, and Serra do Frio, 

G 


200 


BRAZIL. 


near Villa do Principe, 6,000 feet high. A third chain, the Serra dos 
Vertentes, separates the confluents of the Amazon, the Tocantin, and 
the Partial]iba, from those of the San Francisco, the Paraguay, and the 
Parana. None of its summits reaches to a great elevation. 

3. Rivers. The Maranon or Amazon is the largest river in the 
world, both in regard to the length of its course, which is upwards of 
4,000 miles, and its volume of water. It rises in the Andes of Bolivia, 
under the name of the Paro or Ucayali, and flowing northerly through 
Peru into Quito, receives the waters of the Tunguragua, which descends 
from the Andes of Peru and Quito; thence it runs in an easterly direc¬ 
tion across the continent, emptying the accumulated waters of its 200 
tributaries into the ocean, under the equator, by a mouth 175 miles wide. 
The tide is perceptible at the distance of 600 miles from the sea, and 
the river is navigable several times that distance for large ships. The 
principal tributaries from the south are the Javary, Jutay, Jurua, and 
Madeira, which rise in the lofty regions of Bolivia, and the Topayos 
and Xingu, which have their whole course in Brazil. From the north 
it receives the Caqueta or Yapura, the I§a or Putumayo, and the Negro, 
the largest of its confluents. The Cassiquiare, a branch of the Negro, 
is an arm of the Orinoco, and presents the singular spectacle of one 
great river sending off a part of its waters into the basin of another. 
The Amazon drains an area of upwards of two millions of square miles. 

The other principal rivers are the Para, formed by the junction of 
two great streams, the Tocantin and the Araguaya; the San Francisco, 
and the Parnahiba, which flow into the Atlantic ocean. 

4. Plain. The whole central part of South America, comprised 
within the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, and New Grenada, the Parima 
Mountains in Venezuela, and the Serra dos Vertentes of Brazil, includ¬ 
ing nearly the whole of the latter country, the northern part of Bolivia, 
the eastern part of Peru, and the southeastern districts of New Grenada, 
forms a vast plain, whose area exceeds three millions of square miles. 
It is covered with a luxuriant and gigantic vegetation, to which the hot 
and humid climate gives an astonishing vigor. The immense and im¬ 
penetrable forests and mighty streams of this great plain, swarm with 
animal life in all its forms;—ferocious beasts of prey, huge serpents, al¬ 
ligators, troops of monkeys, flocks of gaudily colored and loquacious 
birds, and clouds of insects, are here yet undisturbed by the arts of man. 

5. Climate. In the northern parts and in the neighborhood of the 
Amazon, the climate is hot and moist; towards the south it is temperate 
and healthy, and throughout a considerable portion of the country it 
may be described as highly agreeable and genial. 

6. Vegetable Productions. Enjoying a favorable climate and a fertile 
soil, this country produces a great variety and abundance of plants. 
The forests yield valuable woods for dyeing and building; all kinds of 
tropical produce, sugar, coffee, cotton, &c., are found in the warmer 
regions, while other districts abound in the cereal grains, and the fruits 
of temperate climates. 

7. Minerals. Gold is obtained both from mines and from washings 
in various places. Copper and salt abound. Diamonds are found in 
several districts.' The diamond district in the province of Minas Ge- 
raes belongs to the crown, and all strangers are strictly excluded from 
it. The diamonds are obtained by washings, by means of which they 
are separated from the earth in which they are contained. 


brazil. 


201 

8. Divisions. Until 1822, Brazil was a Portuguese colony, but in that 
year it was declared an independent state, under the title of the Empire 
of Brazil. It is divided into 18 provinces,* which are subdivided into 
comarcas or counties. 

9. Towns. Rio Janeiro, often called simply Rio, is the capital and 

principal city of the empire. It has one of the finest harbors in Ameri¬ 
ca, and the city is handsomely built, and conveniently laid out, with 
broad, straight, and well paved streets. The imperial and episcopal 
palaces, the mint, arsenals, cathedral, several of the churches, the thea¬ 
tre, several convents, and a splendid aqueduct are among the principal 
ornaments of the city, which contains some fine squares and fountains. 
The commerce of Rio is flourishing and extensive, and is chiefly car¬ 
ried on by foreigners. There are several literary and scientific institu¬ 
tions and societies here. The environs are remarkable for beauty of 
scenery, fertility of soil, and for their delicious climate. Population of 
the city about 150,000, two thirds of which are colored persons; among 
the whites are French, Germans, English, Dutch, and Anglo-Ameri¬ 
cans. 

Bahia, or San Salvador, situated on the coast, stands on the beautiful 
Bay of All Saints, and has a harbor not inferior to that of Rio, which city 
it surpasses in the number and beauty of its public buildings. It is built 
on uneven ground, and is divided into the Upper and Lower City ; the 
streets of the latter are irregular, narrow, and crooked, but those of the 
former are broad and handsome. The cathedral, governor’s palace, 
archiepiscopal palace, several churches and convents, the exchange, 
&c., are t he principal edifices. In commerce it is the rival of Rio, and 
in population it is little inferior, having about 120,000 inhabitants. The 
vicinity is the most populous and best cultivated part of Brazil. 

Pernambuco or Recife is built partly upon an island, and partly upon 
the continent. Its harbor is convenient, and renders it an important 
commercial place. The literary institutions and the cathedral are at 
Olinda, a few miles distant, while the theatre, custom-house, navy yard, 
&c., are at Recife. Population of the latter, 60,000; of Olinda, 7,000. 

Maranham, situated on an island of the same name, is a pretty town, 
with a good harbor, and a flourishing commerce. There are several 
public buildings and literary institutions here. Population, 28,000. 

Para or Belem is a well built town on the river of the same name, 
and contains a cathedral, arsenal, governor’s palace, and several higher 
institutions of education. It is the centre of an active and evtensive 
commerce, and has a population of 20,000 souls. 

Among the interior towns are Villarica or Preto, formerly a rich and 
populous city, but now much declined on account of die diminution in 
the production of the gold mines, to which it owed its prosperity; 
population, 9,000; Tejuco, the capital of the d^mond district, contain¬ 
ing 6,000 inhabitants, distinguished for their intelligence; Villa do Prin¬ 
cipe, remarkable for its rich gold washings, with 5,000 inhabitants; 


*Para, 

Maranham, 

Piauhy, 

Ceara, 

Rio Grande, 
Paraiba, 


Pernambuco, 

Alagoas, 

Seregipe, 

Bahia, 

Espirito Santo, 
Minas Geraes, 


Rio Janeiro, 

San Paulo, 

San Pedro, 

Santa Calharina, 
Goyaz, 

Matto Grosso. 


502 


GUIANA. 


Goyaz, with 8,000 inhabitants, and Cuyaba, in the province of Matto 
Grosso, with 10,000 inhabitants. 

San Paulo is a pleasantly situated and neatly built town, containing 
many pretty gardens and squares, a cathedral, the governor’s palace, 
an episcopal palace, a gold foundery, a university, &.c. Population, 
18,000. 

Alagoas, Sergipe or San Christovao, Portalegre, and Villa Vi$osa, 
are flourishing places with from 10,000 to 14,0U0 inhabitants. 

10. Commerce. The commercial operations, consisting chiefly in the 
export of gold, diamonds, cotton, sugar, coffee, Brazil wood, bides, &c., 
are mostly conducted by foreigners. The imports are principally 
various manufactured articles, there being no manufactures of much 
extent in the country. Agriculture is in a low state, but large herds 
of cattle are raised in the plains and valleys. 

11. Inhabitants. A large portion of the country has never been ex¬ 
plored, and is occupied by savage tribes of independent Indians. The 
population of the part actually under the government of the whites is 
composed of 1,200,000 whites, principally Portuguese or of Portuguese 
origin, but including a considerable number of Swiss, and German 
emigrants ; 2,600,000 slaves, partly black and partly of mixed races; 
800,000 free colored persons, also consisting of blacks and different 
mixed breeds, and 400,000 Indians. The Brazilians are cheerful, good- 
humored, and intelligent, and much has recently been done to diffuse the 
means of education in the country. The religion is the Roman Catho¬ 
lic ; the government, a constitutional monarchy. The executive power 
is vested in a hereditary magistrate, styled the emperor, and the legisla¬ 
tive in the two houses of congress, one of which, the senate, is appoint¬ 
ed by the emperor, and the other, the house of deputies, is chosen by 
the people. 


LXI. GUIANA. 

1. Divisions and Extent. This name was formerly applied to an ex¬ 
tensive region, extending from the Orinoco to the Amazon, and belong¬ 
ing to several European nations. But Spanish Guiana now forms a 
part of Venezuela, and Portuguese Guiana of Brazil. The remainder, 
lying between Brazil, Venezuela, and the Ocean, and comprising an area 
of 135,850 square miles, has a population of 240,000 souls, including 
independent Indians. 

2. Physical Features. The ulterior is traversed by several chains of 
the Parima Mountains of no great elevation, while towards the sea the 
country consists of an extensive plain of great fertility. Thick forests 
cover the uncultivated parts, and the vegetation is remarkable for its 
vigor and luxuriance. The climate is tropical, but mild. The princi¬ 
pal rivers are the Essequitw, Demerara, Saramacca, Surinam, and Ma- 
rony. Some of these are large, but, being shallow and broken, afford 
few facilities for navigation. 

3. Cayenne. French Guiana or Cayenne extends to a great distance 
inland, but the interior is occupied by independent Indians. The pop¬ 
ulation of the portion actually inhabited by the French does not exceed 
25 000, of which 20,000 are slaves, 2,250 free colored persons, 1,300 
whites, and the remainder Indians. The principal town and capital of 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


203 


the colony is Cayenne, situated on a small island, with a good harbor. 
Population 3,000. Sinnamari is a small village, celebrated as the place 
to which many distinguished men were transported during the French 
revolution. 

4. Surinam . Dutch Guiana or Surinam is the most flourishing of 
the colonies of Guiana. The part occupied by the Dutch lies along 
the coast, and the industry of that persevering people has drained the 
unhealthy marshes, and cut several navigable canals in this quarter. 
The population of the colony is about 60,000, mostly slaves. In the 
interior, beside the independent Indians, there are three independent 
establishments of Maroons or runaway slaves, who were for a long time 
at war with the whites; but in 1809 the latter having concluded a 
treaty of peace with them, recognising their independence, they have 
since been on amicable terms with each other. 

Paramaribo, the capital, stands on the Surinam, about 25 miles from 
its mouth. It is well built, and prettily laid out, with a good harbor, 
and an extensive commerce. The streets are lined with orange, lemon, 
and tamarind trees, and the houses are generally neat and surrounded 
by gardens. Population 20,000. One of its suburbs, Savanna, is 
entirely inhabited by Jews, who have a synagogue here. 

5. Demerara and Berbice. English Guiana consists of the two colo¬ 
nies of Demerara with Essequibo, and Berbice. 

The former has a population of 78,833, including 69,467 slaves, and 
6,360 free blacks. Georgetown, formerly Stabrock, the capital, is a 
flourishing place with 10,000 inhabitants. 

Berbice comprises 23,022 inhabitants, of whom 21,3.19 are slaves, 
and 1,151 free blacks. New Amsterdam, the capital, is a small town. 


LXII. SOUTH AMERICA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent —South America is bounded N. by the 
Caribbean Sea ; E. by the Atlantic Ocean; S. by the Southern Ocean, 
and W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from N. Lat. 12° to S. Lat. 56°, 
and from 35° to 82° W. Lon., having an area of 6,900,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. Three systems of mountains pervade South America. 

Of these the Andes is the longest and loftiest, stretching through the 
whole length of the continent, from cape Froward, the southern ex¬ 
tremity of Patagonia, to the Gulf of Paria and the isthmus of Panama, 
where it is connected with the great mountainous chain of North 
America. The Andes in some parts branch off into several chains, 
which have been particularly described in the accounts of the separate 
countries, and in Bolivia, they reach the enormous height of from 
24,000 to 25,000 feet. Their general course is along the shore of the 
Pacific Ocean, about 150 miles inland. The whole chain of the Andes 
is subject to violent earthquakes, and from Cotopaxi to the Southern 
Ocean there are no less than 40 volcanoes in constant activity, some of 
which are the loftiest in the world. . 

The other mountainous systems are the Parima Mountains, already 
described as constituting several chains in Venezuela and Guiana, and 
the mountains of Brazil, also consisting of several chains of no great 

3. Plains. The great chains of the Andes divide South America, from 


204 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


Lat. 9 6 N. to 52° S., into three immense plains, shut up on the west by a 
huge rampart of mountains, but open towards the Atlantic Ocean on 
the east. The most northern is the plain of the Orinoco, consisting of 
level tracts or llanos, covered with reedy plants, and a few scattered 
palms. Further south is the great woody plain of the Amazon, to 
which succeeds the vast flat of the pampas, presenting a prodigious 
expanse, covered with coarse herbage and thronged with countless 
herds of cattle. 

4. Rivers . The great breadth of the eastern slope of the Andes, 
caused by their distance from the Atlantic shore, has its natural effect 
upon the size of the rivers. Gathering the accumulated waters of the 
extensive regions which they drain in their long courses, the Orinoco, 
the Amazon, and the Plata, seem to bring no tribute tide to the Ocean, 
but in the depth and breadth of their channels, and the volume of their 
waters, resemble inland seas. No part of the world is more completely 
intersected by navigable streams, or more bountifully watered. 

5. Deserts . The deserts of South America are less extensive than 
those of the eastern continent. The desert of Atacama, between the 
Andes and Ocean, extends, with some interruptions, from Tarapaca in 
Peru to the vicinity of Copiapo in Chili, embracing the narrow mari¬ 
time strip of Bolivia. It is about 450 miles in length, and is sandy and 
sterile ; in this region it never rains. There is a similar desert strip in 
the north of Peru, called the desert of Sechura, about 75 miles in 
length. 

The desert of Pernambuco, in the northeastern part of Brazil, is of 
greater extent, and consists of hillocks of moving sand, interspersed 
with some verdant oases. 

6. Islands. Beside those which have already been described, there 
are several single islands or groups, which w r e shall now mention. At 
the mouth of the Amazon lies the Marajo or Joannes, belonging to 
Brazil; it is little more than a vast swamp, 150 miles in length by 110 
in breadth. About 70 leagues N. E. of Cape St. Roque is the barren 
island of Fernando de Noronha, which has become known from its 
being used as a place of confinement for transported convicts. 

Falkland Islands or the Malouines are a cluster of about 90 islands, 
lying east of Patagonia. Although unproductive, and having a cold 
and foggy climate, they are important to the whale ships, on account 
of the good harbors they contain. Their coasts are frequented by 
seals, and clouds of penguins cover the shores. They are claimed by 
Great Britain, but are uninhabited. 

To the south of Patagonia, and separated from it by the Straits of 
Magellan, lies the Magellanic Archipelago, or the islands of Terra del 
Fuego. They received the latter name, signifying Land of Fire, from 
the volcanic fires seen on them. This is the most southern part of the 
inhabited world. The interior of the islands has never been explor¬ 
ed ; their climate is severe, and they appear from the coast rugged and 
sterile. The natives are rude and ignorant, but peaceable, and live 
by fishing. The southern extremity of one of this group is the well 
known Cape Horn, S. Lat. 55° 58'. To the west of the Magellanic 
Archipelago, and separated from it by the Straits of Lemaire, is Staaten 
land, upon which the English have formed a settlement. 

The Antarctic Archipelago, comprises several clusters of islands, 
lying south of 54°, and at some distance from the continent. They 


41 


MOUNTAINS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 



Brazil — 1. Tingua, 3,600 feet. — 2. Arasoiaba,4,160 do.—3. Serra do. 
Frio, 6,000 do.—4. ltacolumi, 6,175 do. — Venezuela — 5. Mt. Duida, 8,000 
feet.—6. Sillaof Caraccas, 8,750 do.—15. Chimborazo, 21,730 do. —Re¬ 
public of the Equator —11. Cotopaxi, (volcanic,) 19,000 feet. — 7. Pi- 
chincha, do. 16,000 do. — 13. Antisana, do. 19,400 do. — Peru — 8. Arequi- 
pa, 17,750 — New Grenada— 10. Quindiu, 18,000 feet. — 12. Sierra of 
Santa Martha, 19,000 do. — Chili — 14. Chilian Range, 20,000 feet. — Boliv¬ 
ia —16. Illimani, 24,250 feet. — 17. Sorata, 25,400 













































ANIMALS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 



1. Ocelot. 

2 Margay. 

3. Lama. 

4. Jaguar. 

5. Sloth. 

6. Striated Monkey. 

7. Peccary. 


8. Tapir. 

9. lied Tailed Monkey. 

10. Brazilian Porcupine. 

11. Paca. 

12. Ant Eater. 

13. Toucan. 

14. Harpy Eagle. 


15. Condor. 

16. King of the Vultures* 

17. Rhea or Ostrich. 

18. Serpent. 

19. Macaw. 

20. Agouti. 

21. Alligator. 










































' 



























SOUTH AMERICA. 


205 


are all uninhabited and rugged, and covered with perpetual snow and 
ice; but have lately acquired importance from the seal and whale 
fishery prosecuted on their coasts and the surrounding waters. Most of 
them have been lately discovered by European and American mari¬ 
ners. South Georgia extending to Lat. 55° was visited during the Jast 
century, as were also the frozen islands lying to the southeast, and 
known under the name of Sandwich Land. Southwest of the latter, 
lie the South Orkneys, a mass of rocks, discovered in 1822. Still fur¬ 
ther south and west, are the South Shetland isles, Lat. 6I°-63°, Lon. 70°- 
81° W., discovered in 1819, and containing some convenient harbors, 
and volcanic peaks. The little islands of Alexander and Peter, discov¬ 
ered in 1821, are the most southern regions (Lat. 69£ S.) known. The 
Antarctic Ocean has not, however, been so carefully examined as the 
Artie seas, and the South Pole has not been so nearly approached, as 
the North. 

In the Pacific Ocean, the Patagonian coast is lined with numerous 
islands, which have been but very recently examined. The principal 
group is the archipelago of Guayneco. Further north lie the Chonos 
islands, and the Archipelago of Chiloe, belonging to Chili. The Gal- 
Iapagos, lying under the equator, 160 leagues west of the coast of New 
Grenada, enjoy a pleasant climate and a fertile soil. A colony from 
Guayapuill has recently been settled upon them. 

7. Climate. The descriptions already given under separate heads 
show that South America, although lying principally within the tropics, 
presents a succession of all temperatures, from the tropical climates of 
the coasts and plains, and the eternal spring of the table lands, to the 
perpetual snows of the more elevated regions. The southern regions, 
extending far into the temperate zone, and exposed to the cold winds 
of the Antarctic Ocean have a severe and rigorous climate. 

8. Vegetable Productions. The vegetation of South America is re¬ 
markable for its variety and its luxuriance. Upwards of 80 species of 
palms, equally distinguished for their beauty and size, and for their 
various uses, furnishing wine, oil, wax, flour, sugar, and salt, are found 
here. In the Brazilian forests there are no less than 259 species of 
wood useful for carpentry or dyeing. Fourteen species of the cinchona 
or Peruvian bark are collected in different districts. The guaiacum or 
lignumvitse exudes a valuable gum, which, as well as its wood, possesses 
important medicinal powers. The caoutchouc or gum elastic, also called 
India rubber, is the milky juice of several plants found in Guiana, Bra¬ 
zil, and Buenos Ayres. It is obtained by making incisions through the 
bark, and is then "spread while in its viscous state over a mould, and 
dried in a thick smoke. It is now so extensively used for making 
shoes and cloth, as to form an important article of commerce. Cacao, 
vanilla, maize, aracatscha, and potatoe are also natives of South America, 
as are also the cassava, from which tapioca is prepared, and the capsi¬ 
cum, whose pods yield the Cayenne pepper. The sugar-cane, indigo- 
plant, cotton, coffee, and the cereal grains, which have been introduced 
by Europeans, thrive. 

The cow-tree is found in Venezuela, and derives its name from the 
singular fact of its juice resembling milk. When an incision is made 
in the trunk, the juice issues out in great abundance, and is drunk by 
the inhabitants. This vegetable milk does not coagulate nor curdle 
like animal milk, but in other respects has an astonishing resemblance 
to it. 


206 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


9. Minerals. The mineral kingdom is not less rich in precious pro¬ 
ductions. In Brazil, diamonds are found of the largest size and greatest 
abundance, but they are inferior in quality to those of the East Indies. 
Gold is found in mines, and in the sands of many rivers; the silver 
mines of Bolivia are among the most productive in the world, and 
platina has been found in various places. Tin, quicksilver, copper, and 
other useful metals are abundant, and salt is found in great plenty. 

. 10. Animals. Among the animals of the cat kind, the largest and 
most fierce are the cougar or puma, which has already been described, 
the jaguar or ounce, the ocelot and the margay. 

The jaguar, called also the American tiger, is inferior in size and 
strength to the cougar. He preys upon the larger quadrupeds, carrying 
off a horse or ox, with little difficulty. When he has singled out his 
victim from the herd, he leaps upon its back, and twisting the head 
with a sudden jerk, kills it instantly by dislocating the spine. The 
jaguar may be tamed ; he is taken by the South Americans with dogs, 
or by means of the lasso. The ocelot is a beautiful but savage animal, 
holding an intermediate station between the leopard and the common 
cat. Like other creatures of the cat kind, he lies concealed during the 
day, and issues forth at night in pursuit of the smaller quadrupeds and 
birds. He is about 18 inches high, and the body is three feet in length. 
The margay is a smaller animal of the same family, common in Brazil 
and Guiana. There are also several other species of cats in South 
America. 

The tapir resembles the hog in its general form, but the legs and 
snout are longer. It is mild and timid, living upon fruits, and the 
young branches of trees. It grows to the height of three feet and a half, 
and it is six feet in length ; the skin is tough, the flesh dry and disagree¬ 
able. There are two species of tapir, one of which inhabits the marshy 
plains of Guiana and Brazil, and the other the declivities of the Andes. 

The peccary bears a strong resemblance to the common domestic 
hog, but is, however, of a distinct species, and differs in several striking 
characters. But the most remarkable distinction between it and all 
other quadrupeds, appears to consist in a large gland placed immediate¬ 
ly beneath the skin on the middle of the loins, which secretes a fluid 
of an unpleasant smell. These animals are extremely numerous in all 
parts of South America. There are two species ; the Collared peccary, 
and the White-lipped peccary. The former is the smallest of the two, 
seldom measuring three feet in length. The latter not unfrequently 
reaches the length of three feet and a half. These animals subsist for 
the most part on vegetable food, chiefly roots. 

The llama or guanaco may be termed the South American camel, 
although it is much more graceful, and has more vivacity and intelli¬ 
gence, than the eastern camel. Like that animal it is used as a beast 
of burden, lying down to receive its load; it carries only from 150 to 
200 pounds, travelling at the rate of from 12 to 15 miles a day. But 
though slow, it is sure footed, docile, and maintained at a trifling ex¬ 
pense. The flesh is wholesome and pleasant, the wool and skin are 
both useful. When provoked, the llama avenges itseif by spitting upon 
the aggressor, and the saliva is slightly corrosive. The vicugna is an 
animal of the same family, but somewhat smaller, and is valuable for 
its wool. 

The paca is a small animal living in forests, near the water, and 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


207 


dwelling in burrows. It is about two feet in length, and one foot in 
height, and it runs rapidly, and swims and dives with great dexterity. 
The flesh is pleasant, and the animal is easily tamed. Its cry is like that 
of a pig. 

Of the sloth there are two different kinds, distinguished from each 
other by their claws ; one called the unai, having only two claws upon 
the fore feet, and being without a tail; the other, which is called the ai, 
having a tail, and three claws upon each foot. The hair of the sloth is 
thick and coarse at the extremity, and gradually tapers to the root, where 
it becomes fine as the finest spider’s web. His fur has so much the hue 
of the moss which grows on the branches of the trees, that it is difficult 
to distinguish him. He lives wholly upon the trees, moving with diffi¬ 
culty on the ground. His food is leaves and fruits. 

The coati, in some respects, resembles the racoon, but is of a smaller 
size: its legs are shorter, and its feet longer; but like the racoon, its tail 
is diversified with rings, alternately black and fulvous. Its snout, which 
is movable in every direction, turns up at the point. 

The agouti is about the size of a hare ; and as it has the hair of the 
hog, so also it has the voracious appetite of that animal. It eats indis¬ 
criminately of all things; and when satiated, it hides the remainder, like 
the dog or the fox, for a future occasion. 

The cavia or chiguire is a small animal about the size of a pig, which 
feeds in herds on the banks of the rivers. It swims well, but on land 
falls a prey to the jaguars, and in the water to the crocodiles. The 
Guinea Pig, a species of cavia, now domesticated in Europe and North 
America, is a native of South America. It is a timid, harmless, restless, 
grunting little creature, very cleanly and docile, but incapable of form¬ 
ing attachments. 

The chinchilla is a sort of field rat, remarkable for its long, rich, and 
silky fur. It is found in the high regions of Peru and Chili, and lives 
in burrows. It is perfectly harmless, and when taken neither tries to 
bite nor to escape. Its fur is long enough for spinning. 

The ant-eater is a singular animal with a long snout, small mouth, 
and no teeth ; its tongue, of around form, is remarkably long; and with 
it, it catches the ants, which are its principal food. On coming to an 
ant-hill, the animal scratches it up with his claws, and then protrudes 
his slender tongue, covered with a viscous saliva. To this the ants ad¬ 
here, and by retracting it, he swallows thousands of them. There are 
three species of this animal. The smallest is not much larger than a 
rat; the next is nearly the size of a fox; and the third a stout and pow¬ 
erful animal, measuring about six feet from the snout to the end of the 
tail. 

The description above given applies chiefly to the last, which is 
also called the ant bear, from its mode of defence resembling that of 
the bear. When attacked by a dog, it seizes him between its powerful 
fore legs, and squeezes him to death, or strikes severe blows with its 
strong, sharp claws. The two last named species have prehensile or 
holding tails, and live on trees. The race is peculiar to South Ameri¬ 
ca, and is extremely useful in diminishing the countless swarms of ants 
which infest the country. 

The armadillo belongs to the same order of animals, and is also pe¬ 
culiar to the warm regions of this continent. It is completely covered 
with a coat of mail, consisting of a hard shell, arranged in plates. When 


208 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


attacked it coils itself into a ball, presenting a solid surface impervious 
to birds of prey and small quadrupeds. It is slow and inoffensive, liv¬ 
ing on insects and fruits, and burrowing with great rapidity. Its flesh 
is esteemed a great luxury. There are several species, the largest of 
which is upwards of three feet in length. 

The couando or Brazilian porcupine is a small species, with a pre¬ 
hensile tail. 

The monkeys of America are of a different species from those of the 
eastern continent, which, however, they resemble in their general char¬ 
acteristics. Most of them are sapajoos, that is, monkeys with long pre¬ 
hensile tails, but there are some with short tails. 

Manatees or sea-cows are a cetaceous animal, found in the large 
rivers of South America. They are herbivorous, and attain the 
length of from ten to twelve feet. Their flesh resembles pork; oil is 
obtained from their fat; and cordage and whips are made from then* 
hides. 

Serpents abound in the marshy forests of the hot regions of South 
America, and the rivers are thronged with alligators or caymans. The 
boa, the largest of the serpent tribe, although not provided with veno¬ 
mous fangs, is formidable from its great size and muscular strength. 
Suspended by its prehensile tail from the branch of a tree, the boa waits 
sluggishly the approach of its pre\r; then darting upon its victim, it 
winds coil upon coil around its writhing limbs, and tightening its hold 
with enormous force, suffocates and crushes the largest animals, such 
as oxen, deer, &c., which it swallows whole. The largest species, or 
boa constrictor, grows to the length of 30 or 40 feet. When gorged 
with prey, it becomes inert, and is easily destroyed. 

The gymnotus or electrical eel, which is found in the rivers and 
lakes of the plain of the Orinoco, is remarkable for its singular power 
of communicating an electric shock to its prey or its assailants. It is 
about five and a half feet in length, and so powerful is its electrical 
battery, that it completely stuns large animals, like the horse, which it 
encounters. 

The rhea or American ostrich very nearly resembles the African 
species, but is rather smaller. Its plutnage is also inferior in richness 
and beauty. It does not fly, but it runs with great speed, assisting the 
action of its long legs with its wings. It is taken by running it down 
with horses, or by means of the lasso. 

The condor, the largest of the vulture tribe, is found through the 
whole extent of the Andes. Inhabiting the loftiest peaks of these ele¬ 
vated regions, and soaring far above even their highest summits, he de¬ 
scends to the lower country only in pursuit of prey. The condor some¬ 
times measures 12 or 14 feet from the tip of one extended wing to that 
of the other, three feet and a half in length, from the tip of the beak to 
the end of the tail, and nearly three feet in height. He feeds on car¬ 
rion, and also attacks deer, vicugnas, &c., and even larger quadrupeds. 

The king of vultures is about the size of a small turkey, but though 
inferior in size to some other species of the vulturine tribe, he is distin¬ 
guished for the beauty of his plumage. This species is found through¬ 
out the greater part of tropical America. 

The great eagle of Guiana, or the harpy eagle, is larger than the 
common eagle, and is said to be so powerful as to have destroyed men 
with a blow of its beak. It is furnished with terrible claws, and the 


SOUTH AMERICA. 209 

beak is remarkable for its curvature. Its usual food is the sloth, but it 
sometimes carries off fawns. 

The ornithology of this country is extremely rich and varied. Birds 
of the most singular forms, and of the most superb plumage, flutter 
singly, or in companies, through the fragrant bushes. The green, blue, 
or red parrots, assemble on the tops of the trees, and fill the air with 
their screams. The toucan, sitting on the extreme branches, rattles 
with his large hollow bill, and in loud, plaintive notes calls for rain. 
This bird is prized for its feathers, which are of a lemon and bright red 
color, with transversal black stripes reaching the extremity of its wings; 
it is about the size and shape of a jackdaw, with a large head to sup¬ 
port its monstrous bill, which, from the angles of the mouth to the 
point, is six inches and a half; its breadth in the thickest part is a little 
more than two. Among the other birds of this country are the orioles, 
the macaws, and the delicate humming-birds. 

11. Inhabitants. The population of South America is composed of 
whites, native Indians, blacks, and mixed races. The whites, with the 
exception of the English, French, and Dutch of Guiana, are principally 
of Spanish or Portuguese origin. They are found upon the table lands, 
and sides of the Andes, and in the maritime regions, the greater part of 
the interior being inhabited by Indians. The negroes are not numer¬ 
ous except in the European colonies of Guiana, and in the empire of 
Brazil, in both of which slaves abound. The Indians are in part 
entirely independent of the governments, within whose limits their 
territories are nominally included, and are in part converted to Chris¬ 
tianity, and subjected to the established authorities. Like the natives 
of North America, whom they resemble in their general physical char¬ 
acteristics, the Indians of South America are composed of a great num¬ 
ber of tribes, speaking different languages, and different dialects of the 
same language. We shall mention some of the most remarkable tribes 
and families. 

The Pecherais inhabit the Terra del Fuego, or Magellanic Archi¬ 
pelago ; they subsist chiefly on shell fish, and seem to be sunk to the 
lowest degree of barbarism. 

The Tehuelhets, commonly called Patagonians, lead a wandering 
life in the vast regions of Patagonia, and are remarkable for their gigan¬ 
tic size. They have herds of guanacos, and have learned to manage 
the horse. 

The Moluches, or Araucanians, are a warlike and powerful nation, 
distinguished for their progress in civilization. They have a regularly 
constituted government, practice agriculture, and have some acquain¬ 
tance with astronomy, medicine, and other arts and sciences. They 
have become acquainted with the use of fire-arms, and are in all re¬ 
spects the most civilized of the native tribes, who have preserved their 
independence. Their territory lies between the Biobio and the Val¬ 
divia, comprising the southern part of Chili and the northern part of 
Patagonia. 

The Puelches rove through the vast plains or pampas on the south¬ 
ern border of Buenos Ayres, and are often at war with the neighboring 
whites. They are fierce and warlike, and are mounted on horses. 

The Abiponians live further north, and subsist chiefly by bunting 
and fishing. They are remarkable for their great size, and warlike dis- 
14 


210 


ATLANTIC OCEAN. 


position, but their number has been much diminished by their continu¬ 
al wars with the Spaniards and the neighboring tribes. 

The Quichuas or Peruvians form the mass of the population in Bo¬ 
livia, Peru, and part of the republic of The Equator. Their ancestors 
were the. most civilized nation of South America, at the time of the 
arrival of the Spaniards. According to their traditions, art, law, and 
religion had been introduced among them by Manco Capac, the child 
of the sun, whose descendants still reigned over the country, under the 
title of Incas. There are still many remarkable monuments remaining 
of this interesting people, such as roads, canals, temples, palaces, fort¬ 
resses, &c. They were acquainted with the arts of mining, of work¬ 
ing in gold and silver, of polishing precious stones, manufacturing cloth, 
&c. Although ignorant of alphabetic writing, they preserved the me¬ 
mory of events, laws, treaties, &c., by means of symbolical paintings, 
and of quipos, or knotted cords of various colors, which expressed dif¬ 
ferent ideas. 

The Caribs inhabit the plains of the Orinoco, and were once found 
on the Antilles. The islanders, now extinct, are represented to have 
been cannibals, and the tribes of the continent have been distinguished 
for their fierceness and warlike propensities. They were formerly ac¬ 
tively engaged in trade, and made use of the quipos above described. 

The Ottomacs, another tribe living upon the Orinoco, present the 
singular spectacle of mud-eaters, the mud of that river forming, during 
the inundations, their principal food. 


LXIII. ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

1. Situation. The Atlantic Ocean separates America from Europe 
and Africa, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to an imaginary line 
drawn from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope. The southern part 
of this great mass of waters is called by some writers the Ethiopic Ocean. 

2. Extent. In its narrowest part, between Europe and Greenland, it 
is upwards of 1,000 miles wide, and opening thence towards the south, 
it becomes in the latitude of the tropic of Cancer, about 4,000 miles in 
width. Stretching north and south from 72° N. to 55° S. Lat., it 
covers with its bays and gulfs about one seventh of the earth’s surface. 

3. Depth. Its mean depth has been estimated at about 3,000 feet; 
the greatest depth ever sounded is 7,200 feet, but it is probable that 
there are deep cavities or valleys in the bed of the ocean, corresponding 
in depression to the elevation of the mountains on the surface of the earth. 

4. Currents. There are several remarkable currents in the Atlantic 
Ocean, setting with more or less rapidity and strength in particular di¬ 
rections, like great rivers in the midst of the sea : 

i. The South Atlantic current, coming round the Cape of Good 
Hope, flows northerly along the western coast of Africa, to the equi¬ 
noctial line in the Gulf of Guinea, where meeting another current from 
the north, and turned by the Guinea coast, it takes a westerly direction, 
and becomes the head of a still more powerful stream, called" the Equa¬ 
torial current: 

ii. The Equatorial current flows from east to west, from the Bight 
of Biafra to the Antilles, in a course of about 4,600 miles. Its rapidity 
varies from 20 to 50 miles in 24 hours. Off Cape St. Roque, it divides 


ENGLAND. 211 

into two streams, one of which sets along the coast of South America 
towards Cape Horn: 

hi. The other stream setting towards the Mosquito and Honduras 
coasts, passes into the Gulf of Mexico by the Cuba channel, and after 
making the circuit of that bay, pours itself with" great velocity through 
the Florida channel, into the Atlantic ocean. Proceeding northerly 
along the coast of the United States, its velocity gradually diminishes, 
and its breadth enlarges; opposite Cape Henlopen, it is about 150 miles 
wide, with a current of from three to five miles an hour. To the east 
of Boston, in the meridian of Halifax, it is about 275 miles broad ; turn¬ 
ing to the east, its western margin touches the Great Bank of New¬ 
foundland, whence it flows towards the Azores, in the meridian of 
which it is about 550 miles broad. This great stream is called the 
Gulf Stream, and is remarkable for the superior warmth of its waters 
to those of the ocean. 

5. Vegetation. In some parts of the ocean the surface is covered 
with extensive patches of floating sea-weed, which are so dense and 
large as to impede the passage of ships. Two great fields of this kind 
are known in the Atlantic ocean; one of which is between 25° and 36° 
N. Lat., and 30° and 32° W. Lon.; and the other between latitudes 22° 
and 26° N., and longitudes 70° and 72° W. Other species of fucus or 
sea weed, the stems of which attain to the enormous length of 700 or 800 
feet, are attached to submarine rocks. These plants are useful as ma¬ 
nure, and the ashes of the species called rock weed, are known in com¬ 
merce under the name of kelp. One species of sea-weed is also eaten, 
boiled or dressed as a salad. 

6. Islands. The principal islands on the western coasts of the 
Atlantic, as Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and the West India 
islands, and also the islands of Great Britain and Ireland on the eastern 
coast, are separately described. Besides these, the most important are 
the Azores, the Canaries, the Madeiras, the Cape Verde Islands, St. 
Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha, which are described under 
the heads of Europe and Africa. 


LXIV. ENGLAND. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. This kingdom comprises the southern 
and greater part of the island of Great Britain, which lies on the west¬ 
ern coast of Europe, and extends from 50° to 58° 30' N. Lat., and from 
2° E. to 6° W. Lon. The island is 580 miles long from north to south, 
and 270 wide at the broadest part, which is along the southern coast. 
It is very narrow in some of the northern parts. Its whole area is 
estimated at 88,800 square miles. It is usual to regard it as consisting 
of two political divisions: the southern, comprising England and Wales, 
and the northern, Scotland. In our description we shall consider 
Wales as included in England. 

England is bounded north by Scotland; east by the German Ocean; 
south by the British Channel separating it from France, and west by 
St. George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, by which it is separated from 
Ireland. It extends from 50° to 55° 4& N. Lat. and from 1° 40' E. to 
5° 4(y w. Lon., and contains 57,960 square miles. Wales occupies 
7,425 miles of this territory, and forms a part of the western coast. 


212 


ENGLAND. 


2. Mountains. The general direction of the mountain ranges is from 
north to south. The Cheviot Hills, in the north of England, which is 
the narrowest part of the country, approach within 18 miles of the sea. 
The Cumberland Hills are a continuation of the same range. Helvel- 
lyn and Skiddaw in this ridge are somewhat more than 3,000 feet in 
height. 

The Welsh mountains lie farther south; the Snowdon range occu¬ 
pies their centre, and its chief summit is the highest mountain in Eng¬ 
land, being 3,557 feet in height. The general elevation of these heights 
is from one to three thousand feet. There are several detached groups 
in the southern and central parts of the kingdom. All these eminences, 
with few exceptions, are covered with vegetation, and inclose many 
sequestered glens, some of them gloomy and solitary, and others inter¬ 
spersed with fertile and romantic valleys, affording the most picturesque 
scenery. Wales is remarkable for the beauty of its mountain land¬ 
scapes and the number of streams and lakes by which it is watered. 
Most of the mountains of England abound in valuable minerals. 

3. Valleys. There are no valleys of any great extent. The basin 
of the river Severn is skirted by the Welsh mountains on the west, 
and by some lofty eminences on the east. The valleys of the smaller 
streams are too inconsiderable for notice. 

4. Rivers. The largest river of England is the Severn, which rises 
near Plinlimmon, a high mountain in Wales, and flows at first easterly, 
and then south and southwesterly to the sea. Its mouth opens into a 
wide bay, called the Bristol Channel. It is 200 miles long, and is navi¬ 
gable in the lower part of its course. The tide rolls up this stream in 
waves three or four feet high. 

The Thames rises near the Severn in the lower part of its course, 
and flows east into the German Ocean. It is 160 miles long, and is 
navigable for ships to London, 60 miles. This is the most important 
river of Great Britain for navigation. The Mersey is a small stream 
flowing into the Irish Sea at Liverpool; it is navigable 35 miles. The 
Dee rises in Wales, and flows into the Irish Sea near the mouth of the 
Mersey. The Trent and Ouse by their junction form the Humber, 
which is a navigable stream, and falls into the German Ocean. 

5. Lakes. _ These are small, but celebrated for their natural beauty, 
heightened by cultivation and the charming country seats around 
them. The largest, and the greatest number, are in the counties of 
Cumberland and Westmoreland, near the northern extremity of Eng¬ 
land. Winandermere is about 10 miles long, and from one to two 
broad; it contains several islands. Ulswater is somewhat smaller. 
The handsomest is Derwentwater, near Keswick, 4 miles in length; 
the approach to it, in one direction, is embellished by a beautiful 
cascade. There are many other small lakes in this neighborhood. 

6. Islands. The Isle of Wight lies upon the southern coast. Its 
shape is an irregular square, and its surface contains about 270 square 
miles. A little stream divides it north and south, and a chain of hills 
crosses it from east to west. The soil is fertile, but the shores are 
rocky. The isle of Anglesey or Anglesea, on the west coast of Wales, 
is 24 miles long and 17 broad, with 45,300 inhabitants. The Isle of 
Man lies between England, Scotland, and Ireland; the nearest is Scot¬ 
land, which is 20 miles distant. It is 30 miles long, and less than half 
as broad. A mountain, called Snaefel, occupies the centre ; the soil is 


ENGLAND. 213 

tolerably fertile, but the summer is without heat. Its population is 
about 40,000. 

Near the southwest extremity of England lie the Scilly Isles. 
They are 145 in number, but only 6 are inhabited ; the rest are mere 
rocks. Numbers of Druidical monuments are found upon them. The 
Anglo-Norman Islands lie near the French coast, and constitute the 
remnant of the British dominion over the ancient Duchy of Norman¬ 
dy. These are Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark. The largest is 
12 miles in length, and they are all inhabited. 

7. Bays and Harbors. The largest bay is the Bristol Channel, 20 
miles wide and 60 in extent. The Thames at its mouth enlarges to a 
considerable bay. The Wash is a wide bay on the eastern coast. 
Small harbors are numerous in every part. 

8. Shores and Capes. The shores are generally rocky, and in many 
parts are composed of high chalky cliffs, whose white appearance gave 
this island in ancient times the name of Albion. In some quarters are 
level, sandy beaches. There are few islands on the eastern coast, and 
here the shore is bolder than on the west. A long cape, which com¬ 
prises the county of Cornwall, forms the southwestern extremity of 
England. Its termination is called the Land’s End. 

9. Climate. England has an atmosphere of fogs, rain, and perpetual 
change; yet the climate is mild. The rigors of winter and the heats 
of summer are less felt than on the continent under the same parallel. 
The winds from the sea temper the extremes of heat and cold ; the 
changes, however, are sudden. Westerly and southwesterly winds are 
most prevalent, and also the most violent. The perpetual moisture of 
the air is sometimes unfavorable to the crops, but its general effect is to 
cover the whole island with the deepest verdure. The meadows and 
fields are usually green throughout the winter: and the transient snows 
that occasionally fall upon them are insufficient to deprive them of 
their brilliancy. Many kinds of kitchen vegetables often remain unin¬ 
jured in the gardens through the winter. 

10. Soil. Of this there is every variety, but the most common con¬ 
stituents of the soil are clay, loam, sand, chalk, gravel, and peat. Mos¬ 
sy soils are common and extensive in the northern parts, and here are 
the widest tracts of barren territory. On the eastern coast are extensive 
fens and marshes. The most fertile districts are in the centre and 
south. There are also large heaths and plains, which are hardly 
susceptible of cultivation, and only serve for the pasturing of sheep. 
On the whole, England may be regarded as not naturally a fertile 
country. 

11. Minerals. Salt and coal are the most common minerals. Coal 
is most abundant in the north, but is also plentiful in the central and 
western parts. Mines of iron and lead are numerous, both in the 
north and south. The tin mines of Cornwall are very productive, and 
with those of copper, yield a product of 3,000,000 dollars yearly. The 
coal mines of Durham and Northumberland afford annually above 
3,500,000 tons of coal, and employ in the digging and transportation 
70,000 men. The copper mine in Anglesey, consists of the greatest 
solid mass of that metal hitherto discovered. It is 60 feet thick, and is 
worked in the open air like a quarry. In Cumberland is a mine of 
the best plumbago or black lead in the world. Cheshire produces 
rock salt in great plenty. This is the Liverpool salt of commerce. 


214 


ENGLAND. 


12. Animals. The English horse has been greatly improved by 
crossing with the finest foreign breeds, till, in spirit, strength, and speed, 
he is fully equal or superior to that of any country. The different 
breeds of sheep, too, have been greatly improved by the care and skill 
of the breeder. Dogs of every variety have been naturalized here; but 
the bull-dog is said to be peculiarly English, and it possesses strength 
and courage in an extraordinary degree. Of savage animals, the 
largest and strongest are the fox and wild cat. The badger is frequent¬ 
ly met with, as also the stoat, the martin, of which there are two spe¬ 
cies, the otter, the squirrel, and the dormouse. Rats are numerous and 
mice of various kinds are common. The hedgehog is not rare, and 
the mole is still a nuisance in every rich and well-cultivated field. The 
stag is yet found in its native state upon the borders of Cornwall, and 
two species of fallow-deer are still preserved. Hares are abundant. 
The sea-calf and great seal are frequently seen upon the coasts, partic¬ 
ularly the coast of Wales. 

The larger birds of prey have now almost every where disappeared, 
as they generally do from a country well-cultivated and well-inhabited. 
The golden eagle is still found on Snowdon in Wales, and the black 
eagle is sometimes seen in Derbyshire ; but the osprey or sea-eagle 
seems to be extinct. The peregrine, or foreign falcon, is confined to 
Wales ; but the various kinds of hawks are numerous all over the coun¬ 
try. The largest wild bird is the bustard: it is found only in the east¬ 
ern counties, and weighs from 25 to 27 lbs.; the smallest is the golden- 
crested wren, which sports in the branches of the loftiest pines. The 
nightingale, celebrated for its plaintive tones and extraordinary compass 
of voice, is confined chiefly to the eastern and middle counties. The 
domestic birds of England seem to be wholly of foreign origin; the 
poultry from Asia, the Guinea fowl from Africa, the peacock from 
India, the pheasant from Colchis in Asia, and the turkey from Amer¬ 
ica. The English reptiles,are the frog, the toad, a species of tortoise, 
lizards of several kinds, and serpents, some of which have been found 
4 feet in length. The viper alone is venomous. On the coast are 
found turbot, dace, soal, cod, plaice, smelt, mullet, pilchards, and her¬ 
ring; the basking-shark sometimes occurs on the Welsh coasts. The 
river-fish are the salmon, the trout, the char, the grayling, the samlet, the 
tench, the perch, and many other kinds. Various parts of the coast 
afford shell-fish of different species. 

13. Mineral Springs. The most famous are those of Bath, which 
have been known from the time of the Romans; the Hot Wells of 
Bristol; and the springs of Tunbridge, Buxton, Scarborough, Harrow- 
gate, Epsom, Leamington, and Cheltenham. These are much fre¬ 
quented by invalids, and that numerous class of wealthy and fashion¬ 
able idlers, who swarm in every place of amusement and recreation in 
England. 

14. JYatural Productions. A few only of the vegetable productions 
of England are indigenous. The most useful plants have been im¬ 
ported from the continent. The oak is a native tree, and produces 
timber of the first excellence. 

15. Face of the Country. The general aspect of England is varied 
and delightful. In some parts, verdant plains, watered by copious 
streams, extend as far as the eye can reach. In other parts, are pleas¬ 
ing diversities of gently rising hills and bending vales, fertile in grain, 


ENGLAND. 


215 


waving with wood, and interspersed with meadows. Some tracts 
abound w r ith prospects of the more romantic kind, embracing lofty 
mountains, craggy rocks, deep narrow dells, and tumbling torrents. 
There are also, here and there, black moors and wide uncultivated 
heaths. The general aspect of Wales is bold, romantic, and moun¬ 
tainous. It consists of ranges of lofty eminences and impending crags, 
intersected by numerous and deep ravines, with extensive valleys, 
and affording endless views of wild mountain scenery. 

]6. Divisions. England is divided into 40 shires or counties; and 
Wales into 12. # These are subdivided into Hundreds, which vary in 
size, and are subdivided into parishes. Some large parishes are divided 
into townships. 

The subdivisions of the northern counties are called wards and wa¬ 
pentakes. A city in England is an incorporated town, which is, or has 
been, tlie^ee of a bishop ; a borough is a town which has the right of 
sending burgesses, or representatives to the house of commons. Eng¬ 
land contains 25 cities, 157 boroughs, and about 10,000 parishes. 

17. Canals. Almost every part of England is intersected by canals. 
Their total number is between two and three hundred, but many of 
these are small. Their total length amounts to more than 2,600 miles. 
The longest extends from Liverpool on the Mersey to Leeds on the 
Humber, 130 miles, affording a navigation for vessels of 30 tons, com¬ 
pletely across the island. It has 2 tunnels and many locks. The Grand 
Junction canal extends from the neighborhood of London, to the Oxford 
canal; it is 93 miles long, and has 2 tunnels; one above a mile, and 
the other nearly 2 miles in length; it has 101 locks. The Grand 
Trunk is a part of the same communication, uniting the Trent and the 
Mersey ; it is 93 miles in length, and has 4 tunnels, amounting to 2 miles. 
The Ashby de la Zouch canal is 40 miles long, extending from the 
Coventry Canal to an iron railway. It has 2 tunnels, 2 aqueduct bridg¬ 
es, and an iron railway branching from it. The Bridgewater canal is 
40 miles in length, and extending from the Mersey, divides into 2 
branches, one terminating at Manchester, and the other at Pennington. 
This, with the Trent and Mersey canal, forms a communication of 70 
miles; 16 miles of this canal are under ground among the mountains. 

18. Railroads. There is an immense number of* railroads in England, 
but most of them are short, not exceeding six or eight miles in length, 
and serving merely for the transportation of coal, &c., from the mines, 
or quarries. The first employment of this species of road, on a public 
thoroughfare, for the transportation of passengers and merchandise, was 

♦Northern Counties. Northumberland; Cumberland; Durham; York¬ 
shire, with 3 divisions called Ridings; Westmoreland; Lancashire. 

Western Counties. Cheshire; Shropshire; Herefordshire; Monmouth¬ 
shire. 

Midland Counties. Nottinghamshire; Derbyshire; Staffordshire; Leices¬ 
tershire; Rutlandshire; Northamptonshire; Warwickshire; Worcestershire; 
Gloucestershire; Oxfordshire; Buckinghamshire; Bedfordshire. 

Eastern Counties. Lincolnshire; Huntingdonshire; Cambridgeshire; Nor¬ 
folk; Suffolk; Essex; Hertfordshire; Middlesex; Kent. 

Southern Counties. Surrey; Sussex; Berkshire; Wiltshire; Hampshire; 
Dorsetshire; Somersetshire; Devonshire; Cornwall. 

Wales. North. Flintshire; Denbighshire; Caernarvonshire; Anglesey; Mer¬ 
ionethshire; Montgomeryshire. South. Radnorshire; Cardiganshire; Pembroke¬ 
shire; Caermarthenshire; Brecknockshire; Glamorganshire. 


216 


ENGLAND. 


in the Stockton and Darlington railroad in the county of Durham, 
finished in 1825; and locomotive steam engines were not successfully 
used instead of horse power until several years later. The Newcastle 
and Carlisle railroad crosses the island from sea to sea; it is sixty one 
miles in length, exclusive of several branches. The Liverpool and 
Manchester railroad is thirty miles in length, exclusive of the great 
tunnels at the Liverpool end; these are excavations in great part 
through solid rock, through which the road passes. The Manchester 
and Sheffield railroad is a continuation of the above, and connects it 
with the Cromford and Peak forest railway, which passes over the 
Peak of Derbyshire. The Manchester and Leeds railroad is a north¬ 
ern continuation of the Manchester and Liverpool railway, and is itself 
connected with the eastern coast by the road from Leeds to Selby. A 
railroad is now in progress from Liverpool and Birmingham to Lon¬ 
don, a distance of upwards of 200 miles. 

19. Cities and Towns. The vast colonial .possessions of England, 
with her unparalleled commerce and manufactures, and the intelligence, 
industry, and enterprise of her inhabitants, have covered her surface 
with wealthy, busy, and thriving towns. Among the great number of 
places, which have derived importance from their population and in¬ 
dustry, or interest from historical recollections, we can only describe 
some of the principal. 

London, the metropolis of the British empire, is the first city in the 
world in point of population, wealth, and commerce. It is situated on 
both banks of the Thames, 60 miles from the sea, and covers an area 
of 30 square miles, being about seven miles in length from E. to W, 
and five in breadth. It contains a population of 1,475,000 souls, occu¬ 
pying 175,000 houses, in about 80 squares, and 9000 streets. This 
huge city is composed of several distinct parts; the City proper, the 
oldest and most easterly portion, containing the shops, docks, and 
warehouses ; the city of Westminster or the West End, containing the 
residences of the noble and the rich, the royal palaces, the houses of 
lords and commons, &c ; and Southwark or the Borough, which lies 
on the southern bank of the river, and abounds with manufactories, and 
is the residence of the workmen employed in them. 

The streets are well paved, and in the modern parts are broad and 
well laid out; the handsomest are Regent, Oxford, Piccadilly, Pall 
Mall, Portland Place, High Holborn, St. James, Haymarket, &c. 
The principal squares are Grosvenor square, esteemed the handsomest, 
having an area of six acres, and Lincoln’s Inn Fields, the most exten¬ 
sive, of about fourteen acres. The principal walks are St. James’ Park, 
Hyde Park, of nearly 400 acres, Green Park, and Regent’s Park, all 
at the West End ; the last mentioned is surrounded by splendid edifices, 
porticoes colonnades, minarets, kiosks, &c., and beautifully laid out 
with walks and shrubberies. It contains the gardens of the Zoological 
society, in which is a collection of rare animals from all parts of 
the world. Adjoining it are Kensington gardens, also a favorite 
resort; Vauxhall gardens are on the south side of the Thames. 

The houses are in general of brick, and present nothing remarkable. 
Among the public buildings are two royal palaces, St. James’ Palace, 
and the King’s palace, both on St. James’ Park; the former, an irreg¬ 
ular brick edifice without beauty, has been for a long time the resi¬ 
dence of the English monarchs; the latter, recently erected, is de- 


ENGLAND. 


217 


signed for their future residence. The Banqueting Hall in Whitehall 
is the remains of a royal palace, which was consumed by fire. At 
Lambeth, on the southern side of the Thames, is the palace of the Arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury, which has been recently rebuilt at a great ex¬ 
pense and with much splendor. Westminster Hall, in the city of West¬ 
minster, is an ancient structure, celebrated as the scene of many 
interesting historical events; the courts of justice and the houses of par¬ 
liament sit in this building. The hall itself is the largest room in Europe, 
unbroken by columns, being 270 feet long, by 74 broad. The Tower 
in the eastern part of the city is an antique fortress, which for a long 
time was a royal residence, and is still used as a prison for state crimi¬ 
nals. Within its extensive walls are comprised several armories, 
containing the greatest collection of arms in the world; the jewel of¬ 
fice, in which are kept the crown jewels; a church; the royal menage¬ 
rie, &c. In the horse armory are the effigies of all the English sove¬ 
reigns, in armor and on horseback. The Royal Exchange, the Mint, the 
East India House, the Mansion house, or residence of the lord mayor 
of London, Somerset house, the Bank of England, &c., deserve notice. 

The churches of London are numerous, and many of them are 
distinguished for their beauty, size, or richness. There are one cathe¬ 
dral (St. Paul’s), one collegiate church (Westminster Abbey), 215 Epis¬ 
copal churches and chapels, 239 houses of protestant dissenters and 
Roman Catholics, and six synagogues. St. Paul’s cathedral is one of 
the most magnificent churches in the world ; it is built of Portland 
stone, on the model of St. Peter’s in Rome, and was finished in 1710, 
having been thirty years in building. It is admired for its majestic 
portico, and for the boldness and fine proportions of its noble dome. 
The interior js less splendid than the exterior, but contains numerous 
monuments of distinguished Englishmen. This sumptuous pile is 500 
feet in length, 180 in breadth, and 340 in height. Next to St. Paul’s 
and richer in historical associations, is Westminster Abbey. It is one 
of the finest monuments of Gothic architecture in Europe, and is built 
in the form of a cross, the greatest length being 490 feet and the 
height 92 feet. The interior is much more beautiful than that of St. 
Paul’s, and it contains the tombs and ashes of many of the English 
sovereigns, nobles, heroes, scholars, and poets. 

The Monument, a hollow Doric column 200 feet high, was erected 
in commemoration of the great fire, which destroyed a great part of 
the city in 1666. A stair way in ,the inside leads to the top. There 
are six bridges over the Thames; Waterloo bridge and the New London 
bridge are of granite, and are much admired ; but the Tunnel, intended 
to form a passage under the bed of the river, is one of the most singu¬ 
lar works of art. It was designed to consist of two archways 1300 feet 
in length, but only 600 feet have been completed, and the work has 
been stopped in consequence of the expense. The wet docks, or ba¬ 
sins of water surrounded with warehouses for merchandise, are on a 
scale commensurate with the wealth and grandeur of the metropolis 
of the world. The West India docks alone, with their basins, cover 
an extent of 68 acres, excavated by human labor, and including the 
warehouses and quays attached, cover an area of 140 acres. The East 
India, London, and St. Catherine’s docks are also extensive, but infe¬ 
rior in size to the first mentioned. 

The principal institutions for education are the London University, 

K 


218 


ENGLAND. 


King’s College, Westminster school, Christ’s hospital or the Blue Coat 
school, &c. No city in the world has so great a number of learned 
societies, and literary and scientific establishments, and none can com¬ 
pare with London in its charities for the poor, the sick, the ignorant, 
and the suffering. Asylums, hospitals, relief societies, charity schools, 
and philanthropic associations of every form, combine the efforts of the 
benevolent to alleviate human misery. The British Museum is one of 
the richest collections in the world, comprising works of art, cabinets 
of natural science, and the largest and most valuable library in Great 
Britain. Of the thirteen theatres, Drury Lane, Covent Garden, the 
Haymarket, and King’s Theatre or the Italian Opera, are the principal. 

The water works, for supplying the inhabitants with water, are cal¬ 
culated to excite wonder at their magnitude. The streets are perforat¬ 
ed by upwards of 350 miles of main pipes, through which a daily 
supply of 30,000,000 gallons of water from the Thames and the New 
River is furnished. The city is lighted with gas, which is conveyed 
through nearly 400 miles of pipes, communicating with 80,000 lamps. 
Manufactures of all sorts are carried on within the precincts of the 
metropolis, including every article of elegance or utility. 

The number of ships belonging to this port, in 1830, was 2,663, of 
572,800 tons; and the amount of customs collected 75 million dollars. 
A statement of the annual consumption of several articles of food will 
help us to form a conception of the extent of the city ; 8,000,000 gallons 
of milk, two million lobsters, three million mackerel and as many her¬ 
rings, one million quarters of wheat, 20,000 hogs, 160,000 oxen, and 
1,500,000 sheep, form but a part of the food consumed here. 

London presents a striking contrast of wealth, intelligence, luxury, 
and morality, with ignorance, poverty, misery, and vice. The most 
disgusting and appalling scenes of filth and crime, and the most dis¬ 
tressing pictures of squalid wretchedness, throw a dark shade over this 
picture of human life. Thousands live by theft, swindling, begging, 
and every sort of knavery, and thousands of houseless wretches here 
drag out a miserable life, half-fed and half-clad, and sunk to the lowest 
degree of debasement. 

The environs of London present a succession of beautiful and popu¬ 
lous villages and towns, the roads leading to which are thronged by 
wagons, stage-coaches, and other vehicles, horsemen, and glittering 
equipages, and lined with handsome houses, so that it is difficult for 
the traveller to determine where the metropolis may really be said to 
end. Immediately above and adjoining Westminster is Chelsea, with 
32,371 inhabitants, containing the great national asylum for invalid 
soldiers, connected with which is the royal military asylum for the 
education and support of the children of soldiers. Directly north lies 
Kensington with 20,900 inhabitants, the beautiful gardens of which 
belonging to the palace, adjoin Regent’s Park. 

A few miles further up the Thames are Kew, containing a royal 
palace and gardens; Richmond, celebrated for its beautiful park and 
fine views ; Twickenham, a pretty village, once the residence of Pope; 
and Hampton, containing the royal palace of Hampton Court, which 
is famed for its fine gallery of paintings. A little to the north is 
Harrow-on-the-Hill, where there is a well known school or college. 

Twenty two miles above the metropolis is Windsor, containing the 
magnificent royal residence of Windsor Castle, attached to which are 


ENGLAND. 


219 


the mausoleum of the royal family, a vast park and gardens, and a 
forest fifty miles in circuit. Opposite to Windsor is Eton, with the 
celebrated college, in which so many distinguished men have been 
educated. Near the latter place is the little village of Slough, once the 
residence of the famous Herschel, who here erected his great telescope, 
40 feet in length. 

Below London are Deptford, Greenwich, and Woolwich, now form¬ 
ing one borough, with a population of 64,336. Deptford is noted for 
its royal dock-yard and immense warehouses; there are also a number 
of private ship-yards, in which are built many merchantmen. Green¬ 
wich contains the great naval hospital for infirm seamen, with which a 
naval asylum for the education of the orphan children of seamen is 
connected. It was formerly a royal residence, and Queen Elizabeth 
was born here. Here also is the royal observatory, celebrated in the 
history of astronomy for the valuable observations made from it, and 
for being in the prime meridian of English geographers. Woolwich 
is remarkable for its spacious dock-yard, its vast arsenal for ordnance, 
including an extent of 60 acres, its royal military academy, its extensive 
barracks, and laboratory, &c. 

Liverpool, the second commercial town in England, situated near 
the mouth of the Mersey, is well built, with spacious and regular streets, 
pretty squares, and handsome houses. The public buildings are ele¬ 
gant ; among them are the town hall, the custom house, exchange, 
market, &c.; the churches, chapels, and meeting houses are numerous 
and handsome, and the charitable institutions are numerous and well 
conducted. But the most remarkable feature of Liverpool is its vast 
docks, of which there are eight, with an area of 92 acres. These with 
the wharfs and warehouses extend in an immense range along the 
river, while the opposite quarter of the town is prolonged into numer¬ 
ous suburbs, composed of the villas and country houses of the wealthy. 
The trade of Liverpool is very extensive, being exceeded by no place 
in the world but London. The most important branch is the trade 
with Ireland ; next, that with the United States, more than three fourths 
of the trade of this country with England centering in Liverpool. 
Cotton is the staple article of the Liverpool trade, and of 793,700 bales 
imported into England in 1830, no less than 700,000 were brought into 
this port. 

An extended system of canals opens a water communication with the 
North Sea, and with the inland counties. The shipping belonging to 
this port in 1830 amounted to 161,780 tons. The manufactures, which 
are extensive, are chiefly those connected with shipping and the con¬ 
sumption of the inhabitants. They comprise iron and brass founde- 
ries, breweries, soap works, sugar refineries, ship building, watch and 
instrument making, &c. Population in 1831, 165,171, or, including 
the suburbs, upwards of 200,000. In the beginning of the last century 
Liverpool was an insignificant village ; her merchants then engaged in 
the American and West India trade, and the growth of the manufac¬ 
tures of Manchester promoted its increase. The chief portion of the 
African trade also centered here, and more recently its trade with East 
India has been rapidly increasing. 

Thirty three miles east of Liverpool, with which it is connected by 
a railroad, stands Manchester, a great manufacturing town, whose pop¬ 
ulation is inferior only to that of London. The number of inhabitants 


220 


ENGLAND. 


is 187,000, or, including Salford and the immediate neighborhood 
233,380. It presents nothing remarkable in an architectural point of 
view; the streets are filthy and narrow, the houses and buildings in 
general mean, and the great mass of the people poor. It is, however, 
the centre of the great cotton manufacture of England, and various 
other manufactures are carried on here, which consume great quanti¬ 
ties of the coal abundant in the neighborhood. There were upwards of 
300 steam engines, and 30,000 looms here in 1828. 

To the north of Manchester lies Bolton, also a great manufacturing 
town, with 43,400 inhabitants, and Rochdale, noted for its great flannel 
manufactures, with 41,300 inhabitants. To the south, is Oldham, with 
its slate quarries, its coal mines, and its extensive cotton and woollen 
manufactures, and containing a population of 50,500. Ashton, 33,600 
inhabitants, and Stockport, 40,700, also have extensive manufactures. 

Birmingham is the second of the great workshops of the British em¬ 
pire. Here is made every sort of articles of hardware, whether curi¬ 
ous, useful, or ornamental, from the more ponderous productions of 
the rolling mill and casting furnace, down to polished watch-chains and 
delicate instruments. Buttons, buckles, trinkets, and jewelry, plated, 
enamelled, japanned, and brass works of every description, steam en¬ 
gines, pins, swords, and firearms, &c., are here produced. The manu¬ 
factures are upon the largest scale, and constructed with the greatest 
ingenuity. Steam is the chief moving power. The town, although in 
the centre of the country, is connected with the different coasts by means 
of canals, through which its various productions are sent to all parts of 
the world. The lower part is composed of crowded streets and mean 
buildings, but the upper part has a better appearance. Population 
147,000. 

Wolverhampton, about fifteen miles from Birmingham, is also dis¬ 
tinguished for its extensive manufactures of hardware. The whole 
country between the two places, is little more than a succession of 
collieries, iron mines, forges, and cabins, black with smoke. The 
borough of Wolverhampton includes several townships, comprising 
67,500 inhabitants. 

Leeds, a large trading and manufacturing town of Yorkshire, is sit¬ 
uated on a navigable branch of the Humber, and is connected with 
Liverpool by a canal. The old part of the town is dirty and crowded, 
but the modern streets are spacious and handsome. Leeds is not only 
the principal seat of the woollen manufactures and trade of the king¬ 
dom, but it also contains founderies, glass works, and linen manufac¬ 
tures. Here are 30 churches and meeting houses, two great wool 
markets, called the white cloth hall with 1200 shops, and the mixed 
cloth hall with 1800, a bazar, theatre, &c. Population 123,400. In 
the neighborhood are Wakefield with 24,530 inhabitants; Huddersfield, 
20,000; Halifax, 34,500, and Bradford, 43,500, all great woollen marts, 
and having large Piece or Cloth halls for the sale of woollen goods. 
Bradford also contains large founderies. 

Bristol is a very old city, situated near the confluence of the Avon 
and the Severn, and is accessible for vessels of 1,000 tons. The old 
town is irregularly built, with narrow streets and mean houses, but 
the modern part of the city is laid out with spacious streets and squares, 
and contains many handsome buildings. Its foreign trade is consid¬ 
erable, and its distilleries, sugar refineries, glass works, and brass works 


ENGLAND. 


221 


are extensive. The cathedral, several churches, the council house, 
commercial rooms, &c., are among the principal public buildings. 
There are extensive wet docks here. Population 117,000. 

Sheffield is a well built and flourishing manufacturing town, but 
the smoke of its numerous manufactories gives it rather a sombre ap¬ 
pearance. It is noted for the excellence of its cutlery, which is also 
made in all the surrounding villages. The manufacture of plated 
goods is also extensive, and there are numerous large iron founderies 
in the town and vicinity. Population 91,700. 

Newcastle, a large trading and manufacturing town, is a place of 
great antiquity, and of considerable note in history. It is situated 
upon the Tyne, ten miles from the sea, and is accessible to large ves¬ 
sels. The collieries in the vicinity employ 40,000 men, and have for 
centuries supplied the eastern and southern parts of the island, and in 
part the opposite coast of the continent with fuel. Upwards of 800,000 
chaldrons are exported annually. Lead is also exported in large quan¬ 
tities. The glass works and iron works here are very extensive, and 
ship building, the potteries, and various manufactures of hardware 
employ many laborers. In point of tonnage, Newcastle is the second 
port in England, its shipping amounting to above 200,000 tons. The 
town is well built, and contains many handsome streets and edifices. 
Population 53,600. At the mouth of the river lies Tynemouth, with 
23,200 inhabitants. 

Sunderland is a thriving town near the mouth of the Wear in 
Durham county. It is the fourth port in England in point of ship¬ 
ping, which amounts to 108,000 tons. It is the depot for the coal 
trade of the valley of the Wear, which employs 30,000 men, and fur¬ 
nishes annually 560,000 chaldrons. The glass works are extensive, 
and ship building is also an important branch of the industry of the 
inhabitants. Population 40,700. 

Kingston-upon-Hull, generally called Hull, stands upon the Hum¬ 
ber, and has the greatest inland trade of any English port. Its foreign 
trade is also extensive, and it is the chief place in England for the 
whale fishery. The harbor is artificial and Hull is remarkable for its 
fine quays and its extensive docks, which cover an area of 23 acres. 
The shipping amounts to 72,250 tons; population 54,100. A few 
miles above Hull, is the port of Goole, which has recently become an 
important trading place, by the construction of extensive docks, ware¬ 
houses, and basins. 

Norwich, an ancient and populous city, has been for several centu¬ 
ries noted for its woollen manufactures, to which in later times have 
been added those of cotton, linen, and silk. The castle and the ca¬ 
thedral are the most remarkable buildings. Population 61,100. 

Yarmouth, formerly the port of Norwich, has been one of the sta¬ 
tions of the British navy, and presents one of the finest quays in the 
world, upwards of a mile in length. But in consequence of the 
obstructions in the navigation of the river Yare between Yarmouth and 
Norwich, a canal, navigable by sea-borne vessels, has been made 
from the latter place to Lowestoft, where an artificial harbor has been 
constructed, capable of admitting large ships. Population of Yar¬ 
mouth 21,100. 

Dover, on the coast of Kent, is an old town, which gives its name 
to the straits, separating England from the continent. It acquires 


222 


ENGLAND. 


importance from the historical recollections connected with it, and 
from its extensive military works, among which is the castle built 
upon a lofty cliff, rising 320 feet above the sea. Population 12,000. 
To the north, between the coast of Kent and the sandbank called 
Goodwin sands, is the celebrated road, called the Downs, which af¬ 
fords safe anchorage for ships, and is a rendezvous for the British 
fleet in time of war. 

On the channel stands Brighthelmstone or Brighton, a famous bath¬ 
ing place, remarkable for the elegance, richness, and variety of its 
architecture. Population 42,000. 

Portsmouth is the chief naval station in Great Britain, and one of 
the strongest fortified places in Europe. The harbor is the first in 
the kingdom for depth, capaciousness, and security, being deep enough 
for the largest ships, and of extent sufficient to contain the whole navy 
of England. The famous roadstead of Spithead, between Portsmouth 
and the Isle of Wight, can accommodate 1,000 sail of vessels in the 
greatest security. The dock-yard, which is the grand naval arsenal 
of England, and the general rendezvous of the English fleet, is the 
largest in the world, including an area of 100 acres. Population 
50,400. Cowes is a safe harbor on the northern coast of the Isle of 
Wight, a little west of Portsmouth, into which vessels often put to water, 
to repair damages, or to wait for favorable weather for sailing. 

Plymouth, one of the finest harbors in the world for security and capa¬ 
city, is also an important naval station. The fortifications and barracks 
are extensive, and the royal dock-yard is on a very large scale. The 
breakwater, a vast mole one mile in length, stretching across the entrance 
of Plymouth road, and Eddystone lighthouse, built upon rocks lying 
off in the Channel, are the most remarkable works of the kind in the 
world. The lighthouse is 80 feet in height, yet such is the swell of 
the ocean, caused by meeting the rocks, that it dashes up over the 
summit of the tower. Population of Plymouth, including the ad¬ 
joining town of Devon port, 75,500. 

The city of Exeter is the capital of Devonshire, and was once the 
residence of the Saxon kings. Its cathedral is a magnificent Gothic 
structure. Population 28,200. 

Salisbury, the capital of Wiltshire, is also an episcopal city \ the spire 
of its celebrated cathedral is the highest in England, exceeding 400 
feet. Salisbury Plain is an extensive tract of level, unwooded country, 
chiefly used as a sheep-walk, and containing the famous ruin, called 
Stonehenge. Salisbury has 10,000 inhabitants. 

Winchester, the chief town of Hampshire or Southampton, and an 
episcopal city, is a place of historic interest. It was once the metropolis 
of England, but since the suppression of the monasteries by Henry 
VIII, it has much declined. Its fine cathedral and its ancient college 
are still celebrated. Population 9,200. 

The ancient city of Canterbury, in Kent, with 15,300 inhabitants, is 
the see of an archbishop, who is primate of all England, and first peer 
of the realm. Here was formerly the magnificent shrine of Thomas a 
Becket, a Roman Catholic saint, to which pilgrimages were made from 
all parts of the kingdom. The Canterbury Tales of the famous Chau¬ 
cer, the father of English poetry, describe the manners and characters 
of the pilgrims of his age. 

Bath, near Bristol, is an episcopal city, but is chiefly known as a 


ENGLAND. 


223 


watering place; its mineral waters have been celebrated for many 
centuries, and, combined with its delightful situation, have rendered 
it a favorite place of resort. The elegance of its streets and the mag¬ 
nificence of its public buildings,—its cathedral, its churches, and hos¬ 
pitals, its baths, &c., entitle it to be considered the handsomest city 
in England. Population 50,800. 

Gloucester, an episcopal see, and chief place of a county, is noted 
for its extensive manufacture of pins, which, minute as is the article, 
employs 1,500 persons. It contains a fine cathedral, and has a popula¬ 
tion of 12,000. In the vicinity is the borough of Stroud, with 42,000 
inhabitants, engaged principally in the woollen manufacture. The 
dyers here are celebrated for the excellence of their scarlet and dark 
blue colors, which is attributed to the superior qualities of the waters 
of the Frome, here called Stroud water. 

Cheltenham, delightfully situated to the northeast of Gloucester, a 
few years ago an inconsiderable village, is now a flourishing town with 
23,000 inhabitants. Its sudden growth is owing to its medicinal wa¬ 
ters. Tewksbury, a small town in the neighborhood, once contained 
a celebrated monastery, and was the scene of a bloody battle during the 
war of the roses. 

Oxford, an episcopal see and capital of a county, though a small 
city, is equalled by few in architectural beauty. It is delightfully situ¬ 
ated in a luxuriant country on the banks of the Isis and Cherwell, and 
contains a celebrated University, which surpasses all similar establish¬ 
ments in the wealth of its endowments, the extent of its institutions, and 
the splendor of its buildings. The edifices belonging to the university 
are 19 colleges and four halls, the theatre, in which the public exhibi¬ 
tions are held, an observatory, the Bodleian library, one of the richest 
in Great Britain, a botanic garden, &c. The city is of great antiquity, 
and has often been the residence of the English kings, and the seat of 
the parliaments. Population 20,500. 

Cambridge, also an episcopal see, and the seat of a university, con¬ 
tains 21,000 inhabitants. The university buildings are 13 colleges, 
four halls, and the senate-house, some of which are remarkable for 
the magnificence of their architecture. There are also an observatory, 
a valuable library, &c. here. Newmarket, in the vicinity, is celebrated 
for its races. 

Nottingham is a large and flourishing manufacturing town, situated 
upon the Grand Trunk canal, and having a water communication with 
Liverpool, Hull, and London. Its picturesque situation, its neat and 
spacious streets, and handsome square, rank it among the prettiest 
towns in England. Its staple manufacture is that of stockings ; lace 
and glass are also made extensively. Population 50,700. Leicester, 
with 39,500 inhabitants, is also noted for its extensive manufacture of 
stockings, and Derby, with 23,600 inhabitants, is distinguished for its 
manufactures, particularly of silk, porcelain, spar, &c. 

Coventry, a city of considerable antiquity, in which the English 
kings have occasionally resided and held their parliaments, contains 
some interesting edifices. It carries on manufactures of ribbons and 
watches, and a great fair of eight days is held here. Population 
27,100. 

Warwick, a small town in the neighborhood, is a place of great an¬ 
tiquity, and contains a fine castle, Kenilworth, an inconsiderable place 


224 


ENGLAND. 


in this vicinity, is celebrated for its magnificent castle and park, the for¬ 
mer of which is now in ruins. It formerly belonged to the crown, but 
Elizabeth gave it to her favorite Dudley, Earl of Leicester. The area 
enclosed within the walls of the castle was seven acres, and the circuit 
of the park and chase was no less than 20 miles. Leamington, in 
this neighborhood, which ten years ago was an insignificant village, 
is now a favorite watering place, and has become a considerable 
town. 

Worcester is a city of much historical interest. Its trade is consid¬ 
erable, and the porcelain and glove manufactures are extensive. The 
cathedral is its principal edifice. Population 18,600. Kidderminster, 
in the neighborhood, has been long noted for its woollen manufactures, 
the most important branch of which is that of carpets. Population 
20,900. 

Shrewsbury, the chief town of Shropshire or Salop, is a place of 
great antiquity and of historical importance. The ruins of the ancient 
castle and of the celebrated abbey, which once contained the shrine 
of St. Winifrid, and was much visited by pilgrims, are still visible. 
Shrewsbury has considerable trade and some woollen manufactures. 
Population 21,200. 

Litchfield, a city of Staffordshire, contains a magnificent cathedral, 
and a grammar school at which were educated Addison, Johnson, and 
Garrick. Population 6,500. In the northern part of the county is the 
borough of Stoke-upon-Trent comprising several townships, in which 
are the celebrated Staffordshire potteries. The porcelain and other 
ware made here are well known for the taste displayed in the forms, 
as well as for the excellence of the workmanship. Population of the 
borough 52,100. 

Lincoln, a city formerly distinguished for its splendid ecclesiastical 
establishments, and interesting as the scene of some important historical 
events, is now much declined. Its cathedral is one of the largest in 
the kingdom. Population 12,700. 

York, one of the oldest cities of England, is the see of an archbish¬ 
op, and ranks as the second city of the j-ealm. It formerly contained a 
great numoer or cnurcnes anu a wealthy abbey, and its cathedral, 
styled York minster, is a magnificent edifice. Population 25,350. 

Carlisle, the county town of Cumberland, is an ancient city, de¬ 
fended by walls and a castle. Population 20,000. Whitehaven is an 
important place in the same county, the coal mines in the vicinity of 
which give it an active trade. Population 15,700. 

In Lancashire are Lancaster, the county town, with 12,600 inhab¬ 
itants, and Preston, a thriving town, with extensive cotton manufac¬ 
tures, and 33,870 inhabitants. 

Chester, the county town of Cheshire, with 21,400 inhabitants, 
is a city of some note in history, containing a cathedral and a fine 
castle. 

Durham, is also an episcopal see. Population 10,125. Berwick- 
upon-Tweed, situated on the frontiers of England and Scotland, be¬ 
came famous in the frequent wars between the two countries. It is 
regularly fortified, and was at one time declared a free town. It is 
now included within the limits of England. 

The Welsh towns are mostly inconsiderable. Swansea is a thriving 
trading town on Bristol channel, with 13,250 inhabitants, Merthyr 


ENGLAND. 


225 


Tydvil has lately become important on account of its extensive iron 
works. The Whole neighborhood is filled with iron and coal mines 
and forges, furnishing aunually 50,000 tons of iron. Population 
23,000. 

Milford Haven, on the western coast, is distinguished for its fine 
harbor, and a royal dock-yard has lately been established here. 

^ 20. Agriculture. Notwithstanding the general inferiority of the soil, 
England is under such excellent cultivation, that the country may be 
considered as one great garden. Farming is, in many parts, conducted 
on a great scale, by men of intelligence, enterprise, and capital; and 
the science as well as practice of agriculture is carried to a high degree 
of perfection. In the northern counties, the farms are large, and are 
leased generally for 21 years. In the southern counties, the farms are 
smaller, and the tenants are often proprietors. 

21. Commerce. The commerce of England is unrivalled by that of 
any other nation in the world. Every quarter of the globe seems trib¬ 
utary to the enterprise and perseverance of this great commercial peo¬ 
ple. It has been usual to consider the commerce of England as con¬ 
nected with that of Scotland and Ireland; we therefore refer to the 
view of the commerce of Great Britain for further particulars. 

22. Manufactures. The manufactures of England far surpass in 
amount and variety, those of any other nation that has ever existed; 
and form the most astonishing display of the fruits of human industry 
and skill. The vast numbers of people employed in them give no 
adequate idea of their immense extent, as the great perfection to which 
labor-saving machinery is carried in England, enables one man to do 
the work of 150. The power employed in the manufacture of cotton 
alone in Great Britain exceeds the manufacturing powers of all the rest 
of Europe collectively. The most important branches are cotton, 
woollen, silk, linen, and hardware. 

In the northern counties of England are great manufactures of 
broadcloth and every other kind of woollen goods, principally in the 
West Riding of Yorkshire, at Leeds, Wakefield, Bradford, Halifax, and 
Huddersfield. Sheffield has manufactures of cutlery and plated goods. 
Manchester, and its neighborhood, are the great seat of the cotton man¬ 
ufactures. 

In the midland counties are the Cheshire manufactures of silk, cot¬ 
ton, linen, iron, and china ware ; the stocking manufactures of Notting¬ 
ham ; the woollen of Leicestershire; the pottery of Staffordshire ; the 
hardware of Birmingham ; the ribands of Coventry; the carpeting of 
Kidderminster; the broadcloth of Stroud. Flannels are the chief arti¬ 
cle of Welsh manufacture. In the southern counties are the cotton, 
paper, and blankets of Berkshire ; the flannels of Salisbury; the cor¬ 
dage of Dorsetshire ; the woollens of every sort in Devonshire ; and 
every kind of goods, particularly the finer articles of upholstery, 
jewelry, and every material of luxury are manufactured in and about 
London. 

23. Inhabitants. The population of England is 13,089,338; of 
Wales, 805,236. Among the inhabitants of England are very few for¬ 
eigners, and these are mostly in the seaports. The stock of the present 
English was various ; the original islanders have been mixed at differ¬ 
ent times by means of conquest with the Romans, the Saxons, the 
Danes, and the Normans. There are but few of the people called 

15 k # 


226 


ENGLAND. 


Gipsies, but there are many Jews, chiefly resident in London. In 
person, the English are robust, and they have clear and florid complex¬ 
ions. The higher classes, from the prevalence of athletic exercises, 
are among the best specimens of the human form. Generally, in other 
countries, the higher orders are less hardy and athletic than the lower, 
but it is the reverse in England. 

24. Building . The manner of building among the rich m England 
is not so much national, as it is a collection of all that is national in 
other countries, or of what remains of former ages. Costly and mag¬ 
nificent piles of architecture are spread over the whole country, and 
there is scarcely a neighborhood which has not some edifice that attracts 
the visits of travellers. The convenience of an Englishman’s house is 
unrivalled; every thing is perfect in its kind; convenience is more 
studied than economy, and there is not a door or a window, that is 
not jointed with the nicest art. The very farm houses have an air of 
neatness and comfort, that make no part of the picture of the farmer’s 
dwelling in the United States. The walls are covered with creeping 
and flowering plants. The roofs are frequently thatched with straw, 
and in some of the older towns, whole streets of thatched houses may 
be seen. 

England is the country of unequal wealth, and the cottage of the 
poor is strongly contrasted with the mansions of the rich, yet if there is 
luxury in one, there is often comfort in the other. The cottages are 
both of brick and stone, and though small, they are neat. On the 
houses of the rich no expense is spared. The country seats are gen¬ 
erally at some little distance from the road, and they are often approach¬ 
ed through plantations of trees. The grounds are not fancifully laid 
out, but art only appears the better to display nature, and not to do vio¬ 
lence to it. It is in the country mansion that the wealthy part of the 
English are seen to the best advantage. 

Many of the parks of the nobility display a princely splendor. The 
garden and grounds of the duke of Buckingham’s seat at Stow may 
serve as an example. The house is 916 feet in length, containing, 
among other apartments, a saloon 60 feet by 43, and a state-drawing 
room 50 feet by 32, with a fine collection of paintings, a library of 
10,000 printed volumes and many valuable, manuscripts, &c. The 
gardens comprise 400 acres of highly decorated grounds, over which 
are scattered in profusion temples, obelisks, columns, statues, grottoes 
&c. Some of these paries are from fifteen to twenty miles in cir¬ 
cuit. 

25. Travelling. In England, the roads are excellent, the coaches 
easy, the speed great, and the inns of more excellence, than is found 
in any other country. The houses for these are commodious, the fur¬ 
niture good, the servants quick and attentive, and the host civil and 
obliging. All this is crowned with the neatness and propriety of ar¬ 
rangements that distinguish the private dwellings of the English. 

The most common vehicles for travelling are the mail coaches, 
some of which carry four passengers within, and ten or more upon 
the top. Others however carry more within and without, and the 
roads are so good, that four horses easily carry eighteen passengers. 
The mail coaches go, including stops, 8 or 10 miles an hour. The 
top seats are often preferred, as they are- much cheaper, and as they 
enable the passenger to enjoy the beauty of the country. 


ENGLAND. 


227 


There is no kind of travelling more agreeable than that, of posting. 
The traveller may hire a post coach or postchaise with two horses, 
at any of the inns. In fashion it very much resembles a common 
coach, excepting that it contains but two seats, and the body is shap¬ 
ed like half the body of a common coach. The usual rate of travel¬ 
ling is about ten miles an hour. The post is about ten miles, at the 
end of which the traveller gets another establishment, which is fur¬ 
nished with great celerity, and proceeds as before. This is a very 
common method of travelling among the rich, who seldom are found 
in the stage coaches. 

The English are inclined to travel much, and the life of the higher 
classes is almost migratory.—It is passed between London, the coun¬ 
try, tne watering places, and the continent. There are even among 
the yeomanry, few of any substance who have not been at London. 

26. Manners , Character , fyc. England has long held a distinguish¬ 
ed rank among the nations of the world, a rank for which she seems 
much less indebted to her natural advantages, than to the wisdom of 
her free institutions, upon which has arisen a most admirable system 
of domestic life and of public prosperity. Superior to other nations 
in the arts and comforts of life, enjoying a degree of liberty, which 
until recently was found nowhere else, industrious in his habits, in¬ 
genious, enterprising, and dexterous, brave in war, the citizen of a 
state, on whose dominions the sun never sets, the Englishman is too 
apt to look with contempt upon whatever is foreign from his own 
notions and habits. The wealth of the world, which has flowed into 
England, has produced a dreadful degree of corruption in a certain 
portion of English society, but the great mass of the nation is favor¬ 
ably distinguished by sound morals. Benevolence may be considered 
a conspicuous feature in the English character, and in no country are 
there such munificent foundations for charitable, literary, and religious 
purposes; some of the most barbarous practices of civilized nations 
have been abolished by the efforts of British philanthropists. 

The intellectual character of the nation is high; no country has 
produced a more valuable literature, rich in the treasures of poetry, 
eloquence, philosophy, morals, and science. In the fine arts, the 
English have been less successful, and can bear no comparison with 
the ancient Greeks or the modern Italians. In the popular amuse¬ 
ments, we find much that is gross and barbarous;—horse-racing, cock- 
fighting, bull-baiting, and boxing are favorites; hunting and other out 
door sports are generally pursued. 

The English are a domestic people, and there is a vast amount of 
quiet happiness in England. The business of the day is concluded 
before the social hour of dinner, and the cares of the world are dis¬ 
missed for the night. Dinner is the principal meal, and is not swal¬ 
lowed in the haste that is so common in America. 

English women possess a high degree of beauty, and are distinguish¬ 
ed as wives, for constancy, chastity, conjugal affection, and the domestic 
virtues, and as mothers, for tenderness, watchfulness, and prudent 
care of their children. In society, they are found to be well educated, 
accomplished, refined, intelligent, and unaffectedly agreeable. 

The Welsh are a distinct people from the English, being the descend¬ 
ants of the Britons, or ancient inhabitants, who were driven from the part 
of the island now called England, by the Anglo-Saxons, or ancestors of 


228 


ENGLAND. 


the English, The Welsh language is Celtic, and the common people still 
retain many peculiar superstitions and customs, and in many districts 
are unacquainted with the English language. The gentry are, how¬ 
ever, at present educated in England, and their influence and exam¬ 
ple are gradually exterminating the national peculiarities. 

27. Ranks. The English nation is divided into two classes, the 
nobility and the commonalty. The nobles are styled lords, and are 
hereditary peers of the realm. They do not, as in some countries, 
constitute a distinct caste ; as their younger sons are merely common¬ 
ers, the eldest only inheriting the rank and titles of the ancestor. 
There are five ranks of nobility, distinguished by their respective titles; 

1. dukes ; 2. marquesses; 3. earls; 4. viscounts, and 5. barons. The 
privileges of the nobility are a hereditary seat in the house of lords, or 
upper legislative house, and some trifling exemptions. The common¬ 
alty may be considered, as composed of two classes, the gentry and 
the commonalty in a narrower sense. The former comprise the 
baronets, knights, untitled landed proprietors, and in short all who are 
distinguished for wealth, education, talents, or office. The lower 
commonalty comprises yeomen, tradesmen, artificers and laborers. 
There are no privileges annexed to the baronetcy, but the title (Sir) 
is considered honorable, and is frequently bestowed upon distinguished 
civil and military officers, and upon eminent scientific and literary 
men. 

28. Religion. The established religion of England is Episcopacy; 
the king is the supreme head of the church, which is governed by two 
archbishops and 25 bishops. The archbishop of Canterbury is styled 
primate of all England, and his province comprises 21 bishoprics or 
episcopal dioceses. The archbishop of York is second in dignity 
and is styled primate of England ; his province comprises four dioceses. 
To every cathedral or episcopal church belong a dean and several 
prebendaries, who form the dean and chapter, i. e., the council of the 
bishop. Archbishops and bishops are nominated by the king. The 
next order of the clergy is that of archdeacons, and the lower and 
most laborious orders are the deacons, curates, vicars, and rectors. 

The revenues of the church dignitaries are very great, but the lower 
clergy are poorly paid. Many of the clergy hold several benefices, 
of which they receive the emoluments, leaving the duties to be per¬ 
formed by their half-paid deputies. The revenues of the church are 
derived chiefly from tithes, but there is also an immense landed prop¬ 
erty, belonging to the sees, cathedrals, and collegiate churches. The 
doctrines of the church, as contained in the thirty-nine articles, are 
Calvinistic, and the form of worship is directed by the liturgy or book 
of common prayer. The dissenters or members of other churches 
are Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, Roman Catholics, &c., and comprise 
about one half of the population. 

29. Education. No general provision has been made for the educa¬ 
tion of the poorer classes in England, but public attention has recently 
been directed to this subject, and much has been effected by the ef¬ 
forts of philanthropic societies towards instructing the poor. The 
higher seminaries of learning are numerous and richly endowed and 
furnish great facilities for the acquisition of a learned education. The 
universities are those of Oxford, and Cambridge, and London Uuniver- 
sity and King’s College in London. The most celebrated of the higher 


ENGLAND. 


229 


public schools are those of Westminster, Eaton, Harrow, Rugby, &c. 

30. Antiquities . There are many ruins and remains of past ages, 
scattered over this part of Great Britain. The cromlechs, which 
some suppose to have been the altars of the Druids, or ancient British 
priests, are composed of a large stone slab, supported by several upright 
stones; these are numerous in Anglesea. The celebrated ruins, called 
Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plains, are of uncertain antiquity. They 
consist of numerous stones of great size, some of which are standing, 
others reclining, and others lying upon the ground ; there is no quarry 
within 12 or 15 miles, and it is difficult to explain the process by 
which such enormous masses could have been transported and 
raised. It has been conjectured, but with little foundation, that they 
are the remains of a Druidical temple. In the vicinity, there is a great 
number of barrows or mounds, which are supposed to have been 
tombs. At Abury in Wiltshire, are similar ruins. 

The remains of Roman works in England are chiefly roads, and 
fortifications. The remains of a Roman wall, which extends from Sol¬ 
way Frith to the Tyne, and was erected as a barrier against the incursions 
of the barbarous Piets, are still visible in Northumberland and Cum¬ 
berland. It is generally called Adrian’s wall, from the Roman emperor 
by whom it was built, or Piets’ wall, from its use. 

Some of the abbeys or monasteries are of considerable antiquity, 
and, since the suppression of the monastic houses by Henry VIII, 
many of them have been suffered to go to decay. There were up¬ 
wards of 640 of these establishments in England, some of which were 
splendid specimens of architecture. The ruins of Tintern Abbey, on the 
Wye, near Chepstow in Wales, are of great extent and are finely situat¬ 
ed. Those of Fountain’s Abbey in Yorkshire are esteemed the larg¬ 
est and most beautiful in England ; the buildings when entire covered 
fifteen acres, and the ruins now cover four. The nave of the church 
is 350 feet long, the oriel window 50 feet high, and the tower, though 
partly fallen down, 166 feet; the cloister is 300 feet long by 42 wide, 
and the confectory 108 feet long, by 45 wide. 

The cathedrals, which are also of great age and distinguished for 
their size and beauty, have been kept in a state of preservation. They 
are chiefly of Norman origin, and some of them have already been de¬ 
scribed. 

Another relic of the Normans is the castles, the ruins of which con¬ 
tribute to give a picturesque effect to English scenery. Some of these 
monuments of the turbulent times of the feudal system still serve as the 
residences of the nobility, and are therefore kept in repair, but many of 
them were destroyed by Cromwell. 

31. Hisloi'y. England was known to the ancients under the names 
of Britannia and Albion, and was, when first discovered, inhabited by 
Celtic tribes. It was conquered by the Romans, after a series of 
struggles with the natives, in the first century of the Christian era, 
and Roman cultivation was introduced among the British barbarians. 
About the middle of the fifth century, the Romans were obliged to 
withdraw from the island, to protect their more central territories from 
the inroads of the German tribes, and the British employed the warlike 
Saxons and Angles of the continent to defend them against the attacks 
of their northern neighbors. These mercenary auxiliaries became the 
next conquerors of this part of the island, and gradually drove out, or 


230 


SCOTLAND. 


exterminated, or reduced to slavery, their British allies. Many of the 
British fled to Wales, Cornwall, and the coast of the continent, where 
a part of France is still called Brittany. The Saxons remained masters 
of the country till the eleventh century, when they were in turn subju¬ 
gated by the Normans, under their duke, William the Conqueror. The 
Saxons and Normans afterwards became gradually amalgamated into 
one people, the modern English. The names of the great physical 
features of England, the rivers, hills, &c., are principally British; those 
of the political divisions, the cities, shires, &c., are chiefly Saxon, 
while many of the titles of dignity and office are French, the language 
of the Normans. Wales was conquered in the 13th century by the 
English king Edward I, and, in 1603, Scotland and England were 
united under one king, by the accession of James VI, king of Scotland 
to the English throne. In 1707 a legislative union between the two 
kingdoms, under the name of the kingdom of Great Britain, took place, 
and the Scotch parliament was merged in the English. Ireland was 
partially conquered by the English in the 12th century, and in 1800, 
the legislative union of the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland was 
accomplished, by the union of the Irish and British parliaments. 


LXV-. SCOTLAND. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Scotland is everywhere surrounded by 
the ocean except on the southeast, where it is joined to England. It 
is 280 miles in length from north to south, and 130 miles in its greatest 
width; but the coast is extremely irregular and indented by large arms 
of the sea. It contains 30,840 square miles. It lies between 54° 37' 
and 58° 36' N. Lat., and between 1° 40 7 and 6° 10' W. Lon. 

2. Mountains. Scotland is in part mountainous, and in part hilly. 
The mountains are scattered over the surface, without running in uni¬ 
form chains. They are from 3000 to 4000 feet in height, few peaks 
exceeding 4000. The Grampians are the most southern group. In 
the north are the Highlands of Caithness and Inverness, and here is 
Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Great Britain, 4,380 feet above the 
level of the sea. On one side it exhibits a precipice 1,500 feet perpen¬ 
dicular, and the prospect from its summit is indescribably grand and 
magnificent. The Pentland Hills, in the south, are very picturesque, 
but not lofty. Most of the mountainous parts abound with craggy 
rocks, deep, narrow dells, and tumbling torrents; and their ruggedness 
and sterility must ever defy the efforts of human industry to render 
them productive. 

3. Rivers. The rivers are. numerous, but small, and descending 
from a high region, their .currents are broken and rapid, and they are 
of little use in navigation. The Forth runs easterly into the German 
Ocean, and at its mouth expands into a wide bay or firth. It is a very 
crooked stream, and through all its windings has a length of200 miles; 
part of it is navigable for small vessels. The Tay has a larger body of 
water, with a shorter course. It flows in the same direction, and has 
a navigation near the sea for ships: it abounds in salmon. The Clyde 
flows to the sea on the opposite side. It is much broken by falls, 
but its mouth admits vessels of 400 tons. The Tweed is a beau¬ 
tiful stream, running into the German Ocean, near the English bor- 


SCOTLAND. 231 

dor. It flows 60 miles in a straight line, and abounds in trout and 
salmon. 

4. Lakes. These are called Lochs in Scotland. The most remark¬ 
able is Loch Lomond, near the sea in the southwest. It is 30 miles 
long, of an irregular breadth, but generally narrow. It is sprinkled 
with islands, some of them large and finely wooded; the shores are 
everywhere highly beautiful and picturesque. The mountain of Den 
Lomond which overlooks the northeastern part, presents a prospect of 
unequalled grandeur. Loch Katrine in the same neighborhood, is 
another beautiful sheet of water. Loch Leven in Fife is about 12 
miles in circuit, and contains several small islands, upon one of which 
Mary, Queen of Scots, was confined by her nobles. In Ayrshire is 
Loch Doon, 7 miles in length, the waters of which flow into the sea by 
a river of the same name. The banks of both river and lake are much 
admired for their beautiful scenery, and have obtained celebrity from 
the muse of Burns. There are many other charming lakes in different 
parts of the country. 

5. Islands. The Hebrides or Western Islands lie on the western 
coast of Scotland. They are about 300 in number. The largest is 
Lewis, 87 miles long. The next in size are Skye, Mull, Islay, Arran, 
South Uist, and Jura. Most of them are small. They are rocky and 
barren, with hardly a tree, or even a bush upon them. On the shores 
are some swampy tracts, and peat bogs. The vegetation consists prin¬ 
cipally of heath and moss. But the most remarkable feature of these 
islands is the great number of lakes which they contain ; these, how¬ 
ever, rather impart gloom than beauty to the landscape; their sullen 
brown waters present the idea of unfathomable depth, and their bor¬ 
ders exhibit no cheerful verdure to relieve the eye. The most wester¬ 
ly of the Hebrides is St. Kilda. It is small and rocky, yet inhabited. 
Its shores are composed of enormous precipices, worn by the sea into 
caverns. These shores are the resort of vast varieties of sea fowl, which 
the islanders pursue at immense hazards, by swinging with ropes from 
the perpendicular cliffs. There are 87 of these islands inhabited, and 
several are under good cultivation, producing tolerable crops of grain, 
pulse, and potatoes. The inhabitants are about 70,000. Their only 
articles of trade are horned cattle, sheep, fish, and kelp. 

One of the smallest of these islands, called Staffa, is remarkable for 
a singular basaltic cavern called Fingal’s Cave, 227 feet in length, 166 
high, and 42 wide. The entrance resembles a Gothic arch, and the 
floor of the cave is covered with water. The walls of the interior are 
formed of ranges of basaltic columns, irregularly grouped. 

At the northern extremity of Scotland lie the Orkneys, or Orcades, 
about 70 in number, but less than half of them are inhabited. They 
are rocky, and have a melancholy appearance, with little vegetation 
besides juniper, wild myrtle, and heath. The soil is boggy or gravelly; 
some of the islands contain iron and lead. The sea in this neighbor¬ 
hood is very tempestuous. In June and July, the twilight, which con¬ 
tinues through the night, is sufficiently strong to enable the inhabitants 
to read at midnight. The population is 29,750. The inhabitants have 
some manufactures of linen and woollen, and carry on a trade in cattle, 
fish, oil, and feathers. Vast numbers of sea fowl frequent the rocky 
cliffs of these islands, and one of the chief employments of the inhab¬ 
itants is bird-catching. 


232 


SCOTLAND. 


The Shetland Islands lie about 50 miles northeast of the Orkneys. 
They have a wild and desolate appearance, and are about 80 in num¬ 
ber, of which forty are inhabited; the rest are rocky islets called holms, 
used only for pasturage. Their vegetation is more scanty than that of 
the Orkneys, and their soil, for the most part, is marshy. The shores 
are broken and precipitous, and excavated by the sea into natural 
arches and deep caverns. From October to April, perpetual rains fall, 
storms beat against the shores, and the inhabitants are cut off from all 
communication with the rest of the world ; but the aurora borealis 
exhibits at this season, a brightness equal to that of the full moon. The 
population is 28,500; the people live by fishing and the manufacture of 
coarse woollens. 

6. Bays , Straits, and Harbors. The coast is everywhere rocky, and 
indented by inlets and arms of the sea. The Firth of Forth extends a 
considerable distance inland, and affords good anchorage and shelter 
in every part. The Firth of Tay is much narrower. Towards the 
north, are the Firths of Murray and Dornock, the former of which is 
80 miles in length. All these northern shores are bold and dangerous, 
with formidable and rocky headlands. A narrow and tempestuous sea 
at the northern extremity, called the Pentland Firth, divides the Ork¬ 
neys from the main land. Proceeding south along the western coast, 
deep inlets and rocky islands occur at every step. In the southwest 
is the Firth of Solway, a wide bay, forming part of the boundary be¬ 
tween Scotland and England, in which the tide rises with astonishing 
rapidity. 

7. Climate,. The distinguishing feature in the climate is the excess 
of moisture. Fogs and drizzling rains prevail in most parts for the 
greater portion of the year. Considerable snow's fall in winter, but 
are soon melted ; sleighs or sledges are never used, but the waters are 
sometimes frozen so hard, as to permit skating. 

8. Soil. In many of the valleys or straths there are tracts which 
are productive, but the soil is much inferior to that of England. A 
great part of the country may be considered as absolutely barren. 
The mountains are in general naked, and trees of native growth are 
scarce in every part. 

9. Minerals. Lead, iron, and coal are the most abundant min¬ 
erals. The lead mines are in the southern parts. Coal is very plen¬ 
tiful, and it is supposed the largest untouched bed of coal in Europe, 
is in the south of Scotland. Antimony and copper in small quan¬ 
tities also occur. Cobalt is now afforded by a mine which formerly 
yielded silver. 

10. Face of the Country. Two thirds of the country are moun¬ 
tainous. It is generally considered as divided into two parts; the 
mountainous region, called the Highlands, in the northern and cen¬ 
tral part; and the comparatively level country in the south, called the 
Lowlands. In the north the mountains present nothing to view 
but heath and rock, with innumerable lakes and pools darkened 
by the shade thrown from enormous precipices; the whole form¬ 
ing a landscape wild and desolate beyond conception. In the 
central parts, the aspect of the mountains is less forbidding. In 
the south is every kind of rural variety, hills, vales, and cultivated 
plains. 


SCOTLAND. 


233 


11. Divisions. Scotland is divided into 33 counties* or shires, 
which are subdivided into parishes. 

12. Canals. The Caledonian canal extends from Inverness to Fort 
William, uniting the Moray Firth with the Atlantic. Its length is 59 
miles, including several lakes through which it passes; the artificial 
navigation is 22 miles. This canal is 100 feet wide at the surface, 50 
feet at the bottom, and 20 feet deep, being passable by 32 gun frigates. 
At one place, is an ascent of 94 feet by 13 locks, and a descent of 90 
feet by 12, called Neptune’s staircase. The Forth and Clyde canal 
unites the river Carron, running into the Forth, with the Clyde at 
Glasgow. It is 35 miles long and has 39 locks. Its width, at the 
surface, is 56 feet, and its depth 8 feet. It has 15 aqueducts over 
roads, streams, &c. The Union canal is a branch of this work extend¬ 
ing to Edinburgh 30 miles. The Monkland canal extends from the 
Forth aud Clyde canal to Monkland, and is used for the transportation 
of coal and limestone to Glasgow. The Crinan canal crosses the pen¬ 
insula of Kintyre. 

13. Cities and Towns. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, stands 
upon the southern shore of the Firth of Forth, a mile and a half from 
the sea. Its situation is remarkably picturesque, occupying three high 
ridges of land, and surrounded on all sides, except the north, by nak¬ 
ed, craggy rocks. The middle ridge is the highest, and on either side 
is a deep ravine. High Street, in the ancient part of the city, runs 
along the middle eminence, in nearly a straight direction, for about a 
mile, and exhibits a grand prospect. Most of the streets of what is 
called the Old Town are only narrow, dirty lanes, with houses of ten 
and even fourteen stories high. The New Town presents quite a 
different aspect. It is built on the northern ridge, and its streets and 
squares are not surpassed for regularity and elegance in any part 
of the world. It communicates with the old town by a bridge, and 
an immense mound of earth crossing the deep loch or ravine between 
them. 

The castle of Edinburgh is an ancient fortress on a rugged rock, 
mounting abruptly to the height of 200 feet. It stands at the western 
extremity of High street, and the view from its summit excites the 
admiration of a traveller. Holyrood House, for many centuries the 
residence of the kings of Scotland, is a quadrangular edifice in the 
eastern part of the city. In the centre of the city, is a vast pile, com¬ 
prising several edifices around Parliament Square, and containing a 
number of large libraries, one of which, called the Advocates’ Library, 
has 150,000 volumes. 

From the plain on the east of the central ridge rise the Calton Hill 
and Arthur’s seat; the latter reaches the height of 800 feet, presenting 
the rocky outlines of Salisbury Crags; on the summit of the former 
is a monument to Nelson, a circular column 108 feet high, and upon 
both heights public walks have been laid out. The royal exchange, 
the register office, the university building, and some of the churches, 

* Northern. — Orkney and Shetland Islands, Caithness, Sutherland, Ross, 
Cromarty, Inverness. 

Midland. — Argyle, Bute, Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen, Kincardine, For¬ 
far, Perth, Fife, Kinross, Clackmannan, Stirling, Dumbarton. 

Southern. —Linlithgow, Edinburgh, Haddington, Berwick, Renfrew, Ayr, 
Wigton, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright. 

K 


234 


SCOTLAND. 


are among the principal public edifices. There are 48 churches and 
meeting-houses, numerous hospitals, &c. in Edinburgh. The man¬ 
ufactures of the town are chiefly those intended to supply the con¬ 
sumption of the inhabitants; the trades of bookselling and printing 
are carried on to a great extent; the Edinburgh Review and Blackwood’s 
Magazine are the most celebrated journals. The town is chiefly sup¬ 
ported by its courts of justice, whose jurisdiction extends over all Scot¬ 
land, and is noted for its literary character, a distinction which has ac¬ 
quired for it the surname of the Modern Athens. Leith, the port of Ed¬ 
inburgh, is about two miles distant from it, but the two places are now 
connected by continuous ranges of buildings. Leith carries on an active 
trade with the Baltic and other parts of Europe, and has an extensive 
coasting trade. The Greenland whale fishery is also prosecuted from 
Leith. Its docks, pier, and breakwater deserve mention. Population 
of the two places 162,150. 

Glasgow, the principal city of Scotland in point of population, 
extent, manufactures, and commerce, is situated upon the Clyde. It 
is well built, with straight, spacious, and neat streets, and contains several 
pretty squares and handsome public buildings. Its cathedral is the 
finest Gothic church in Scotland, and its university is much celebrat¬ 
ed. There are several handsome bridges over the Clyde, and the 
quay extends a quarter of a mile down the river, which is navigable 
for vessels drawing eight feet of water, to Glasgow. The trade of the 
place is important and flourishing, and its cotton manufactures are 
very extensive. Population, 202,426. Large vessels stop 20 miles 
below Glasgow, at Port Glasgow, a pretty little town with 5,200 in¬ 
habitants. The shipping of the two places amounts to 48,000 tons. 

The name of Aberdeen is applied to two distinct places, which, how¬ 
ever, are situated near each other, and now form one borough. The 
city of Old Aberdeen stands on the Don, and the town of New Aber¬ 
deen on the Dee. Aberdeen is the principal commercial port of Scot¬ 
land, and is inferior only to Glasgow in the extent of its cotton manu¬ 
factures. The citizens are also largely engaged in the Greenland whale 
fishery. Shipping of the port 46,200 tons ; population 58,000. Tho 
harbor of Aberdeen is spacious and safe, and a large pier has been 
erected. There are two universities here, King’s College in Old Ab¬ 
erdeen, and Marischal College in New Aberdeen. To the north of 
Aberdeen is Peterhead, a small town, with a good harbor, engaged in 
the whale fishery. Its mineral springs are much resorted to. 

Dundee is an important trading town on the Firth of Tay, with a 
good harbor, improved by piers and docks. The shipping of the port 
amounts to 32,000 tons, and the population is 45,350. The manufac¬ 
tures, commerce, and population are increasing. Opposite the mouth 
of the Tay, at the distance of several leagues from the shore, is the 
Bell Rock lighthouse, erected upon a rock, which is covered by the 
sea at high tide. 

Perth, higher up the Tay, an old city, has been the scene of many inter¬ 
esting transactions recorded in Scottish history, and was once the re¬ 
sidence of the kings of Scotland. It is situated under the Grampian 
Hills; the scenery around is highly picturesque, and the approach to 
the city is remarkably beautiful. Its cotton and linen manufactures 
are extensive, and there are several literary establishments here. Pop¬ 
ulation 20,000. 


SCOTLAND. 


235 

Paisley is a large and opulent manufacturing town, near Glasgow, 
with 57,500 inhabitants. Muslins, silks, and coarse cotton goods are 
extensively manufactured, and there are also distilleries and foun- 
deries here. A few miles north of Paisley is Greenock, a flourishing 
trading and manufacturing town, with one of the best harbors in Scot¬ 
land. The shipping of this port amounts to 36,250 tons; population 
27,600. F 

Inverness, the most important town in the northern part of Scotland, 
and considered the metropolis of the Highlands, is situated at the east¬ 
ern termination of the Caledonian canal. It contains a royal academy 
and other public institutions. Population 14,300. A few miles from 
Inverness, is Culloden Muir, celebrated as the scene of the defeat of 
the adherents of the Stuarts, in 1746. 

Stirling, on the Forth, is a place of great antiquity, and of much note in 
Scottish history. It is situated on an eminence, terminating in a rock, 
upon which stands Stirling castle. Population 8,350. In the sur¬ 
rounding districts are Bannockburn, where Bruce defeated the English 
forces; Falkirk, celebrated as the scene of two fatuous battles, with 
12,800 inhabitants, and Carron, noted for its extensive iron foundrey; 
the species of ordnance, called carronades, derives its name, from 
being first cast here. 

Among the other towns of Scotland, Dunfermline, noted for its linen 
manufactures, contains the remains of a celebrated abbey, and has a 
population of 17,100; Montrose, on the eastern coast, is an active 
trading town, with 12,050 inhabitants; Dumfries, in the southwest on 
the Nith, has considerable trade and manufactures, with 11,600 in¬ 
habitants; St. Andrews, once a large town, but now reduced to an 
inconsiderable place, contains a celebrated university; Kilmarnock, a 
flourishing and increasing manufacturing town in Ayrshire, has 19,000 
inhabitants; Lanerk contains extensive cotton mills; Dumbarton is 
celebrated for its castle; Gretna Green, a little village on the southern 
frontier, the first stage from England into Scotland, is the well known 
resort of fugitive lovers, desirous of escaping the delays of an English 
marriage ceremony. Lerwick, the capital of the Shetland isles, and 
Kirkwall, capital of the Orkneys, have each about 3,000 inhabitants. 

14. Agriculture. The articles cultivated are generally the same as 
in England. Oats are the principal crop, except in the most fertile 
districts. Potatoes are cultivated somewhat extensively, and in some 
places, hemp. 

15. Commerce. Both the commerce and manufactures of Scotland 
have grown into importance since the union with England. Com¬ 
merce has flourished chiefly since the middle of the last century. 
Greenock and Aberdeen are the most important commercial places. 
The shipping of Scotland, amounts to 308,300 tons; annual value of 
imports 24 million, of exports, 28 million dollars. 

16. Manufactures. These consist of cotton, woollen, linen, iron, hats, 
paper, sailcloth, pottery, and small quantities of most of the articles 
made in England. The localities of many of these establishments 
have already been designated. The total yearly value of the manufac¬ 
tures of Scotland is estimated at 70 million dollars, employing 300,000 
persons. 

17. Fisheries , fyc. The whale and herring fisheries are considerable 
sources of wealth. The whale ships are principally employed in the 


236 


SCOTLAND. 


Northern Seas. The gathering of kelp on the shores of the Western 
Islands once employed a great number of persons, but the business has 
now declined in consequence of the substitution of a cheaper alkali in 
manufactures. The number of herring taken on the coast is immense. 

18. Inhabitants. The population of Scotland is 2,365,800 souls. The 
inhabitants are composed of two distinct classes, the Lowlanders, or 
people of the South, and the Highlanders, or people of the north, 
differing in language, manners, and character. The Highlanders are 
of Celtic origin, and speak a Celtic dialect, called the Gaelic, although 
the English is now very generally spoken among them. The national 
dress of these mountaineers, now pretty much fallen into disuse, consists 
of a short coat, a vest, and a short kind of petticoat, reaching scarcely to 
the knee, called the kilt, with short hose leaving the knees uncovered, 
all made of tartan, a checkered woollen stuff. The plaid, which was 
sometimes substituted for the kilt, was a large piece of tartan, partly 
fastened round the body, and partly tucked up to one of the shoulders. 
The national arms are the broadsword, with a dirk and pistols. The 
music of the Highlanders is also peculiar; their favorite instrument is 
the bagpipe. 

The language of the Lowlanders is Scotch, which is not a corrupt 
English dialect, as some have supposed, but was once the language of 
an independent people and literature, and of a polished court. The 
educated classes now commonly speak English, and although some pe¬ 
culiarities of pronunciation and dialect, readily betray the Scotch origin 
of the speaker, it is well known that some of the most popular writers 
and eloquent orators of recent English literature, have been Scotchmen. 
Robertson, Hume, Smith, Reid, Stewart, Thomson, Scott, Mackintosh, 
&c., are among the most illustrious modern names in works of history, 
philosophy, poetry, and prose fiction. 

The Lowland Scotch are distinguished for their intelligence, morality, 
and religious feeling; they are industrious, temperate, and frugal, adven¬ 
turous yet cautious, and though shrewd, honest. The manners and 
habits of the higher classes differ little from those of the English, but 
there is less wealth, luxury, and elegance in their mode of living. The 
cottages of the peasantry are much inferior to those of the English in 
comfort and neatness, and their food is of a less substantial nature. 

19. Education. Provision has been made for popular education by 
law, which requires the establishment of a school in every parish, and 
no people are better educated than the Scotch. This institution has 
been attended with the happiest effects in diffusing a spirit of order and 
improvement among all classes. Private schools are also numerous, 
and in all the principal towns there are acadaniies and other high semi¬ 
naries of learning. The universities at Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. An¬ 
drew’s and Aberdeen, have much celebrity. 

20. Religion. The established church, styled the kirk of Scotland, 
is calvinistic in its doctrines, and presbyterian in its form of govern¬ 
ment. The presbyterian church is founded upon the idea of the equality 
of the pastors or presbyters. The discipline of the church is conduct¬ 
ed by the presbyteries, composed of the ministers and elders of a num¬ 
ber of parishes ; the synods, consisting of several presbyteries ; and the 
General Assembly, consisting of representatives from the presbyteries. 
About one fourth of the inhabitants are dissenters. 

21. Government. The government is the same as that of England; 


IRELAND. 


237 


the laws of Scotland are, however, different from the English in many 
points, and there is a distinct judiciary for the northern kingdom. 

22. Antiquities. At Abernethy, near Perth, and Brechin near Mon¬ 
trose, are circular towers of unknown origin. The vitrified forts, found 
in several places, are large enclosures with vitrified walls, whether the 
result of art or chance is unknown. There are some remains of Ro¬ 
man roads and camps in the south of Scotland, and vestiges are yet 
visible of the rampart, called Antonine’s wall, which extended from the 
Forth to the Clyde. The ruins of some of the abbeys in part destroyed 
at the time of the reformation, remain to attest their ancient splendor; 
Melrose Abbey, to the south of Edinburgh, one of the most magnifi¬ 
cent Gothic structures in Great Britain, and once the seat of learning and 
religion, is much visited by travellers. 

23. History. The northern part of this country was called by the 
ancients Caledonia, end was inhabited by two distinct races, the Scots 
and Piets. These nations were afterwards united under one king. In 
the 13th century, the male line of the Scotch kings having become ex¬ 
tinct, Edward I of England attempted to extend his sway over this part 
of the island. The celebrated Wallace perished on the scaffold in the 
attempt to deliver his country from the English yoke, but Bruce achiev¬ 
ed its independence by the victory of Bannockburn in 1314. In 1603 
James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne, and under the 
title of James I of England, united the crowns of the two kingdoms. 


LXVI. IRELAND. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Ireland is an island, separated on the east 
from England by St. George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, and on the 
northeast from Scotland by the North Channel. It extends from 51° 
20' to 55° 20' N. Lat., and from 5° 20' to 10° 30' W. Lon. Its greatest 
length from northeast to southwest is about 300 miles, and its greatest 
breadth 160. There is not a spot upon it 50 miles from the sea. It 
contains about 30,400 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The highest ridges of this island are usually in short 
lines, or detached groups. They are not sufficiently numerous or con¬ 
nected to give it the character of a mountainous country. They are not 
bold or precipitous, but their sides are gentle acclivities, admitting of 
culture a considerable way toward the summits. The highest moun¬ 
tain is Gurrane Tual in the county of Kerry, 3,400 feet above the 
sea. 

3. Rivers. The largest is the Shannon, which flows southwest into 
the Atlantic. It is about 170 miles in length, runs through several lakes 
or Loughs, and widens at its mouth below Limerick to a spacious bay : 
it is deep and navigable. The Barrow flows south about 100 miles to 
the sea, at Waterford. The Foyle and Bann are small streams which 
fall into the sea at the northern extremity ; the latter discharges the 
waters of Lough Neagh. The Boyne is a small river of historic interest. 

4. Lakes. The Irish name for lake is Lough. There are large num¬ 
bers of them in the island. Lough Neagh in the northeast is the largest; 
it is 15 miles long, and 7 broad. Its waters deposit a calcareous sedi- 


238 


IRELAND. 


ment: the shores are tame and uninteresting. Lough Earn, to the west 
of the former, consists of two lakes joined by a canal; the first is 20 
miles long, and the second 15; they are comparatively narrow. They 
contain many islands, and their shores are pleasant, but not bold. 
Lough Corrib, on the western coast, is a narrow sheet of water, 20 
miles in length. The most noted are the lakes of Killarney, at the 
southwestern extremity of the island. They are small, but very beau¬ 
tiful, and will bear a comparison with the finest lakes of Scotland and 
England. Their banks are high and covered with wood ; numbers of 
verdant islands are scattered over their surface, and the mountains 
resound with the roar of waterfalls. 

5. Bays. The western coast is the most deeply indented. The 
largest bays are Galway and Donegal. On the eastern coast, are the 
bays of Belfast, Dublin, and Dundalk. 

6. Climate . The climate is damper than that of England, but other¬ 
wise similar. Westerly winds are frequent and violent. Snow is rare 
in winter and passes rapidly away. The fields have a green appear¬ 
ance throughout the year. 

7. Soil. A great part of this island is covered with immense bogs, 
or sterile tracts, producing nothing but heath, bog-myrtle, and sedge 
grass. They form a broad belt across the centre of the island, widen¬ 
ing toward the west. The remainder of the soil is stony, but the mois¬ 
ture of the climate preserves the herbage, and renders the land excel¬ 
lent for pasturing. 

8. Minerals. Coal is the most abundant mineral. It is found in 
Kilkenny, in the south. Marble and slate occur in the same quarter. 
Iron was formerly produced in many parts, but at present few or no 
mines are worked. Copper, silver, and gold have also been found in 
small quantities. 

9. Face of the Country. The surface of Ireland is almost entirely 
level. The general appearance of the country is varied and pleasant, 
although bare of trees. In some parts, are rich and fertile plains, and 
in others, gentle slopes and waving hills. 

Ireland was once covered with forests which are now replaced by 
immense bogs. These form a remarkable feature, characterestic of the 
country. They afford abundant supplies of peat, used by the inhab¬ 
itants for fuel. From their depths are also taken quantities of wood 
in complete preservation, which indicate that these bogs are the 
remains of the ancient forests. The skins of animals and men 
that have been swallowed up in them, have been found converted 
into a sort of leather by the tanning matter which the moisture con¬ 
tains. 

10. JVatural Curiosities. The greatest curiosity in Ireland is the 
Giant’s Causeway, an immense mass of basaltic columns upon the 
northeastern coast. It consists of three piers, composed of pillars of 
different height, having from three to seven sides; the columns are 
composed of different pieces or blocks a foot or more in length, fitting 
into each other, like a ball and socket, joint. At Fairhead on the same 
coast there are ranges of basaltic columns, not articulated like those of 
Giant’s Causeway, but reaching the enormous size of 100 and 150 feet 
in single blocks. In the neighborhood of the Causeway there are some 
remarkable caverns. 


IRELAND. 


239 


11. Divisions. Ireland is divided into 32 counties ; # there are also 
four ecclesiastical divisions, called provinces, indicating the jurisdiction 
of the four archbishops. 

12. Canals. The Dublin and Shannon Canal extends from the 
LifFey at Dublin, across the island to Moy, on the Shannon, 65 miles, 
24 of which are across a marsh. The Royal Canal extends nearly 
parallel to this, and is about 10 miles distant from it. The Newry 
Canal passes along the southern part of the county of Down, and is 
used for the transportation of coal. The Ulster Canal unite Loughs 
Earn and Neagh. A railroad extends across the island from Waterford 
to Limerick. 

13. Toions. Dublin, the capital of Ireland, is delightfully situated 
at the bottom of a bay on the eastern coast, about a mile from the 
shore. It is divided by the little river LifFey into two equal parts. 
The city is nearly square, being about 2£ miles in extent. The houses 
are generally of brick, and the streets irregular; but those that run 
parallel with the river, are for the most part, uniform and spacious. 
In the more modern part, they are from 60 to 90 feet wide. There 
are several fine squares, one of which, called Stephen’s Green, occu¬ 
pies 27 acres, and has a magnificent appearance. Sackville Street is 
one of the finest in Europe. No city, in proportion to its size, has a 
greater number of elegant buildings. A vast number of country seats 
and villages are scattered over the country in the neighborhood, and 
are displayed in a charming manner by the slope of the ground 
down to the bay. The high lands of Wicklow bound the prospect 
in the interior, and render the view in every quarter delightful. 

Dublin has a considerable trade by sea and the canals which extend 
from this point to different parts of the island. The banks of the river 
are lined with elegant quays, and shipping of 200 tons may come up 
to the lower part of the city. Here are large manufactures of linen, 
cotton, woollen, and silk. The monument to Nelson, 130 feet high, 
and the obelisk, erected in honor of the duke of Wellington, 210 feet in 
height; the old parliament house, now the national bank ; the castle or 
residence of the viceroy; the vast pile of Trinity college ; the docks, 
capable of containing several hundred vessels; the enormous piers, 
which defend the harbor from the encroachments of the sea; the cus¬ 
tom-house, &c., are among the most remarkable structures. The hos¬ 
pitals and other charitable institutions are numerous and well endowed, 
and there are many learned societies. Dublin contains 24 churches 
and chapels of the establishment, 26 Roman Catholic chapels, and 
fifteen dissenting meeting-houses. In contrast with all this splendor, 
the miserable hovels of the poor present the most painful scenes of 
filth, poverty, and distress, and the beggars are very numerous. Pop¬ 
ulation 263,316. 

Cork, the second city of Ireland, lies upon the Lee, about 14 miles 
from the sea; its harbor, called the Cove, is safe and capacious, and is 

* Counties of Ireland. Province of Ulster. — Antrim, Armagh, Ca¬ 
van, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan, Tyrone. 

Province of Connaught. —Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo. 

Province of Leinster. — Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King’s County, 
Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen’s County, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow. 

Province of Munster. —Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, Water¬ 
ford. 


240 


IRELAND. 


strongly fortified. The city is irregularly built, the houses are old and 
mean, the streets narrow and dirty Its commerce is extensive, and it 
exports great quantities of salted provisions. Population 107,000. 
Cork harbor is the principal naval station for Ireland. 

Limerick, a city on the Shannon, about 60 miles from its mouth, has 
a good harbor, and is connected by canals with Dublin. The sur¬ 
rounding country is remarkable for its fertility. Limerick carries on an 
extensive commerce. Population 66,000. To the southeast of Lim¬ 
erick is Cashel, the see of the archbishop of Munster, containing a fine 
cathedral. 

Belfast, in the northeast of Ireland, on a bay of the same name, with 
a safe and commodious harbor, is a flourishing place. Its manufac¬ 
tures of linen and cotton, and its situation in a remarkably populous 
and highly cultivated district, give it an active trade. The shipping of 
the port amounts to 25,000 tons; population 53,387. To the southwest 
of Belfast stands Armagh, once a populous city, the seat of learning 
and the metropolis of Ireland, now much reduced. It is at present, 
however, the see of the archbishop of Ulster, who is primate of 
all Ireland, and contains a fine cathedral and the archiepiscopal 
palace. 

Waterford stands on the Suir, just above its junction with the Bar- 
row. Its harbor is excellent, and it has one of the handsomest and 
finest quays in Europe. The city is well built, and its commerce 
is extensive and flourishing. Waterford now communicates with 
Dublin, Limerick, and Cork by railroads and canals. Population 
28,820. In the vicinity is Wexford, a trading town with 11,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

Galway, on the western coast, is a place of some trade, with 33,120 
inhabitants. In the vicinity are Tuam, the see of the archbishop of 
Connaught, and Ballinasloe, noted for its great cattle fairs, at which 
120,000 sheep and 40,000 cattle are sometimes collected. 

Other principal places are Kilkenny, now reduced from its former 
importance, with considerable woollen manufactures, and 23,740 in¬ 
habitants ; Drogheda, a trading town upon the Boyne, in the neighbor¬ 
hood of which James II was defeated by William III, 17,365 inhab¬ 
itants ; Dundalk, with linen and muslin manufactures, 11,000 inhabitants; 
Newry, Londonderry and Sligo, places of considerable trade, with 
about 10,000 inhabitants each, and Valentia, a village on the south¬ 
west coast, with a good harbor, remarkable as the most western in 
Europe. 

14. Apiculture. The agriculture of Ireland is in a backward state, 
and the implements of husbandry are of a rude construction. Potatoes 
are the principal crop, and are celebrated for their quality and quanti¬ 
ty ; the wheat is of inferior quality. The dairy is the most extensive 
and best managed part of Irish husbandry, and butter is the Irish sta¬ 
ple. Flax is extensively cultivated. 

15. Manufactures. The linen manufactures have long been the 
most important branch of manufacturing industry in Ireland, but for 
some years have been on the decline. The cotton manufacture has 
been more recently introduced, and is rapidly increasing. The distille¬ 
ries of Ireland are extensive, and a considerable quantity of whiskey is 
exported. The industry and resources of the country have been great¬ 
ly developed during the last twenty years. 


IRELAND. 


241 


16. Commerce. The coasting trade between Great Britain and Ire* 
land is active; the latter receiving from the former almost every sort of 
manufactured articles, coal, &c., and exporting in return potatoes, salted 
and other provisions, butter, corn, linen, spirits, and fish. The foreign 
trade of Ireland is not very extensive, but is on the increase. The 
shipping amounts to 100,000 tons. 

17. Government. Ireland has been represented in the imperial par¬ 
liament since the year 1800, when the Irish parliament was suppressed 
by the legislative union with Great Britain. The domestic government 
is administered by a viceroy appointed by the king of Great Britain, 
and styled the lord lieutenant of Ireland. 

18. Education. There is one university in Ireland, styled Trinity 
College or Dublin University. At Maynooth, near Dublin, and at Car- 
low, near Kilkenny, there are Roman Catholic Colleges. The educa¬ 
tion of the people has been entirely neglected until recently ; great 
efforts have been lately made by private benevolence, to extend the 
means of instruction to the poor, though with but partial success. 

19. Religion. The Protestant Episcopal church is the established 
church of the kingdom, although less than one tenth of the population 
belongs to it. The remainder are chiefly Roman Catholics, with some 
Presbyterians; yet the tithes are appropriated to the established clergy. 
The Catholic and dissenting clergy are supported by the voluntary 
contributions of their hearers. 

20. Inhabitants. The population of Ireland is 7,784,536, and is com¬ 
posed of two distinct races, the old or native Irish and the Anglo-Irish. 
The latter are the descendants of English and Scotch, who have been 
induced to settle in Ireland by grants of land from the English govern¬ 
ment ; these are most numerous in the north and east. The former 
are of Celtic origin, and their language approaches very nearly to that 
of the Scotch Highlanders, but is quite different from the Welsh, though 
of the same original stock. In the districts of the south and west 
many of the natives are wholly ignorant of the English language, 
although it is very generally known and spoken in a great part of the 
island. The native Irish are chiefly Catholics ; the Anglo-Irish, Prot¬ 
estants. 

The Irish proprietors reside chiefly in England, spending their in¬ 
comes entirely abroad ; as a natural consequence, little is done towards 
improving their estates, and the tenants not only lose the advantage 
which would result from the expenditure of these incomes in the coun¬ 
try, but are exposed to every kind of harsh treatment from the middle¬ 
men, or the agents of the absentee landlord. Other causes of a 
political nature have concurred in reducing the Irish peasantry to a 
miserable condition. Their cabins are mere mud hovels, often with¬ 
out door, chimney, or window, with a floor of clay, and covered with 
sods or thatched with heath. The inmate, destitute of a bedstead, 
sleeps upon a bundle of straw, spread on the clay floor, half covered 
with scanty and tattered blankets. The children are frequently stark 
naked, and the adults clothed with rags. The food of this filthy and 
miserable group is potatoes and buttermilk, and on the failure of the 
potato crop, thousands starve with hunger. Beggars are numerous 
and importunate. 

The class of Irish peasantry above described, though improvident, 
ignorant, and superstitious, are naturally intelligent and quick of appre- 
16 l 


242 


THE UNITED KINGDOM OF 


hension; they are faithful, generous, hospitable, contented, and good 
natured, and under different circumstances display much force of 
character. 

21. History. The earliest accounts we have of the state of Ireland, 
represent it as occupied by the Celtic race, forming numerous inde¬ 
pendent tribes, governed by their own chiefs. In the 12th century the 
eastern coast was partially reduced by the English, and the portion of 
the country subject to their rule, was known under the name of the 
pale. It was not till several centuries later, and after a series of bloody 
wars, and numerous rebellions, that the English authority was extend¬ 
ed over the whole island. 


LXVII. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT 
BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

1. Boundaries. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 
is composed of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, with the islands 
lying upon their shores already described. The British Islands are 
bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north; the German Ocean washes 
the eastern shores. On the south, they are divided from France by 
the English Channel, which extends 350 miles from northeast to south¬ 
west. Between Dover and Calais it is narrowed to a strait 25 miles in 
width, but this widens toward the Atlantic. St. George’s Channel and 
the Irish Sea constitute a navigable gulf of irregular dimensions, be¬ 
tween Great Britain and Ireland, open both to the north and south. 
The western shores of the British Islands are washed by the Atlantic. 
Square miles 119,200. Population, 24,050,000. 

2. Foreign Possessions. Great Britain possesses colonies in all 
quarters of the world, and her vast dominions circle the globe. In 
Europe she holds the small island of Heligoland lying opposite the 
mouths of the Elbe and the Weser; the Norman Isles, on the coast of 
France ; the fortress of Gibraltar, on the Mediterranean coast of Spain ; 
and the isle of Malta with its dependancies, in the middle of the Medi¬ 
terranean Sea. Beside this the Ionian islands are under her protec¬ 
tion, and the present king is also sovereign ruler of Hanover. In Afri¬ 
ca she has colonies upon the coast of Guinea, and Senegambia, the 
large and valuable colony of the Cape of Good Hope, the islands of 
Fernando Po, Ascension, Tristan d’ Acunha, and St. Helena in the 
Atlantic, and Mauritius with its dependancies in the Indian Ocean. In 
America the vast regions of New Britain, the Canadas, Newfoundland, 
Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, the Bermu¬ 
das, Bahamas, Jamaica, and other West India islands, with the Guiana 
colonies in South America, are appendages of this powerful empire. 
In Asia her possessions include the greater part of Hindoostan, with 
Ceylon, large tracts in Further India, Prince of Wales Island, and 
Sincapore; and in Oceania, New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land. 
The total area of the British empire has been estimated at upwards of 
six million square miles, with a population of about 156 millions of 
inhabitants. 

3. Revenue and Expenditure. The revenue of the British Empire 
is immense, amounting to about 225 million dollars annually. Nearly 


GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


243 


one third of this amount is raised by the customs, or duties upon im¬ 
ports and exports, and about an equal sum by the excise, or duties upon 
articles consumed at home. The stamps, taxes, and post office yield 
the bulk of the remainder. The principal items of expenditure are 
the civil list,-or annual allowance for the support of the royal house¬ 
hold, amounting to about two and a half million dollars ; the army thirty 
two millions; the navy twenty three millions; pensions, two millions; 
courts of justice $ 1,'400,000, &c. 

4. Debt. The national debt of Great Britain is 3,500 million dollars. 
This enormous amount has been accumulated by borrowing money, 
and anticipating each year’s revenue to pay the interest. The debt is 
of two kinds, funded and unfunded. The unfunded debt consists of 
deficiencies in the payments of government, for which no regular security 
has been given, and which bear no interest; and of bills or promissory 
notes issued by the exchequer to defray occasional expenses. When 
debts of this kind have accumulated, and payment is demanded, it 
becomes necessary to satisfy the demand, either by paying the debt, 
or affording the creditors a security for the principal, and for the regu¬ 
lar payment of the interest. Recourse has been always had to the 
latter method, and a particular branch of the actual revenue is mort¬ 
gaged for the interest of the debt. Money borrowed in this maimer 
is said to be borrowed by funding. The public funds, or stocks are 
nothing more than the public debts; and to have a share in these 
stocks, is to be a creditor of the nation. Three fifths of the current 
yearly expenditure are taken up in the payment of the interest of the 
national debt. 

5. Army and Navy. The land forces of Great Britain under the 
peace establishment, amount to 102,800 men, chiefly stationed in Ire¬ 
land and the colonies. The only means employed for raising regular 
troops, is that of voluntary enlistment. But in the defence of the 
country, the militia, comprising all able-bodied men between 18 and 
45, are drafted by ballot. 

The naval force of Great Britain, comprises 600 vessels, about 200 
of which are generally in commission. Sailors are enlisted like sol¬ 
diers : but during war, when seamen are in high demand, impressment 
is resorted to; that is, sailors are taken by force in the streets, and 
from on board merchant ships, and compelled to serve on board the 
men-of-war. 

6. Government. The British government is a limited monarchy ; legis¬ 
lation and the administration of public affairs are vested in the king 
and the two houses of parliament. The king makes war and peace, 
forms alliances and concludes treaties with foreign nations, summons, 
adjourns, prorogues, and dissolves parliament, is the head of the church 
and the fountain of honor, and as such confers all titles of dignity, ap¬ 
points the judicial, military, naval and civil officers of the realm, &c. 
He can raise no taxes without consent of parliament, and has no control 
over the public revenue. His constitutional advisers are his ministers, 
who are held responsible for their acts to the parliament. 

The Parliament is composed of two houses; the house of peers, 
and the house of commons. The former consists of the English peers, 
who sit by hereditary right, or are called up into that house by the 
king; the representatives of the Scotch and Irish peers, chosen for life 
by the peers of the two kingdoms respectively ; and the prelates, or 


244 FRANCE. 

bishops of the established church. The Irish bishops sit by rotation. 
The peers are called the lords temporal, and the bishops the lords spiri¬ 
tual. The lord high chancellor is the presiding officer. 

The house of commons consists of representatives chosen by the 
counties, cities, towns, and boroughs of the United Kingdom, for the 
term of seven years. The number of the house at present is 658. 

All laws are made by the concurrent consent of the two houses, and 
the royal assent. In cases of impeachment the house of lords consti¬ 
tute the tribunal, before which the house of commons prosecutes the 
offender. 


LXVIII. FRANCE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. France is bounded N. by the English 
Channel and Belgium; E. by Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Switzerland, 
and Sardinia; S. by the Mediterranean Sea and Spain, and W. by the 
Bay of Biscay. It extends from 42° 20' to 51° N. Lat., and from 8° 15' 
E. to 4° 50' W. Lon. having an area of 205,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The Cevennes form the central chain. They rise in 
the south, on the west of the Rhone, and extend northerly between that 
river and the Loire, diverging into various branches easterly and wes¬ 
terly. About the head streams of the Loire, west of the main chain, is 
a branch called the Puy de Dome, which contains some extinct volca¬ 
noes. The southern branch is called the Cantal, and between these are 
the Monts d’Or, the highest mountains in France. These branches 
are called the mountains of Auvergne. The highest point is the Puy 
de Sansi, 6,230 feet above the level of the sea. On the eastern borders 
of France are the Vosges, a chain of low and rounded elevations run¬ 
ning north and south. They are covered with rich pastures, and on the 
southern and eastern slope with vines. They abound in minerals. The 
highest summit of these mountains is 4,680 feet. On the borders of 
Switzerland is a range called the Jura; and farther south are the Alps, 
which separate France from Switzerland and Italy. In the south are 
the Pyrenees, separating France from Spain. They run nearly east 
and west, and the western extremity of the range extends into Spain. 
They will be described in the account of that country. 

3. Rivers. France is a well watered country. In the north is the 
Seine, flowing northwesterly into the English Channel at Havre. It is 
450 miles in length, and its borders for the most part are exceedingly 
fertile and beautiful. It flows by Paris, but is not navigable for large 
vessels up to this city. The Loire is the longest river of France, and has 
a course of 600 miles. It rises among the Cevennes, and flows north 
and west into the Bay of Biscay, being navigable by boats to within 90 
miles of its source. Between Angers and Nantes it is one of the finest 
rivers in the world, with a wide current, woody islands, and bold and 
cultivated shores. The alluvial deposits form shoals at its mouth, which 
are continually increasing. 

The Garonne rises in the Pyrenees within the limits of Catalonia, 
and runs northwesterly into the Bay of Biscay, with a course of 400 
miles. Near the sea it is joined by the Dordogne from the east, and 
the united stream is called the Gironde. Its mouth is full of shoals. 
Bordeaux stands upon the Garonne, just above the junction with the 


FRANCE. 


245 


Dordogne; and Toulouse is on the upper part of its course. Between 
these cities it is navigated by the largest boats, and from Bordeaux to 
the sea by ships. The tide flows nearly 90 miles up the stream ; and 
is sometimes preceded by a huge billow that sweeps destructively along 
the shore. The scenery between Toulouse and Bordeaux is beautiful, 
the river passing through extensive plains of luxuriant fertility. The 
land about its mouth is rocky and barren. 

The Rhone is distinguished among the rivers of France, for swift¬ 
ness and depth. It rises from a glacier on the western side of Mount 
St. Gothard, in Switzerland, and flows 100 miles in that country to the 
lake of Geneva, through which it passes westerly into France. At 
Lyons it is joined by the Saone from the north, and the united streams 
under the name of Rhone, flow south into the Mediterranean, joining 
the sea by two principal mouths. Only small vessels enter by the 
western channel; the eastern is deeper, but on account of the swiftness 
of the current, the navigation up the river is difficult. The entire course 
of the Rhone is 540 miles. From Lyons to Avignon, a distance of 140 
miles by the course of the river, the banks of the Rhone are extremely 
picturesque, winding among rocks and mountains, and offering to the 
eye a romantic and perpetually varying scenery. Between Lyons and 
Vienne are seen forests, vineyards, chateaux on commanding eminences, 
and cottages embosomed in trees; these, with the busy traffic on the 
majestic river, and the prosperous villages along its banks, afford an 
enchanting spectacle to the eye of the traveller. The Saone, which 
flows into the Rhone below Lyons, is so tranquil, that it is difficult to 
perceive which way the current sets. The Rhine, the Moselle, and the 
Meuse have but a part of their course in France. The other principal 
rivers are the Somme, flowing into the English Channel; the Charente 
and the Adour, into the Bay of Biscay; the Var, into the Mediteranean ; 
the Marne and Oise, tributaries of the Seine; the Allier, Sarthe, and 
Mayenne, of the Loire; the Lot and Tarn, of the Garonne, and the 
Isere and Durance, of the Rhone. 

4. Bays and Gulfs. On the north is an arm of the sea, called by the 
British the English Channel, but by the French La Manche. Its eas¬ 
tern extremity is connected with the German Ocean by the straits, called 
by the English the Straits of Dover, and by the French Pas de Calais, 
or Straits of Calais. At its western extremity it is about 40 leagues in 
width, and being shallow and confined, it is subject to high and im¬ 
petuous tides. The Bay of Biscay or Gulf of Gascony is an open bay, on 
the west of France and north of Spain. The Lion’s Gulf (incorrectly 
written Gulf of Lyons) is a part of the Mediterranean, so called from 
the violent agitations of its waters. 

5. Islands. In the Bay of Biscay are the small islands of Oleron, Re, 
Noirmoutier, and Belle Isle; a little farther north is the isle of Ouessant 
or Ushant. On the southern coast are the Hyeres. Corsica, which 
belongs politically to France, lies in the Mediterranean, about 50 miles 
from the Italian, and 100 from the French coast. It is HO miles in 
length by 50 in width, and is traversed by a mountainous range, the 
highest summit of which rises to the height of 9,000 feet; population 
195,400. Bastia, the principal town, has 9,500 inhabitants; Ajaccio, 
the capital, celebrated as the birth-place of Napoleon Bonaparte, has 
9,530 inhabitants. Corsica produces wine and olives, and contains 
valuable mines and forests. 


246 


FRANCE. 


6. Coasts. The northern and western coasts of France consist prin¬ 
cipally of immense downs or sand banks, and even where they are 
formed by cliffs, the shore is seldom bold enough to be approached with 
safety; the harbors, therefore are few. On the Mediterranean shore, 
the coast of Languedoc is dangerous, but that of Provence abounds in 
good harbors. 

7. Soil. France may be described in general terms as a fertile coun¬ 
try ; but the soil varies in the different departments. The northeastern 
are the richest; along the Seine, the Moselle, and the Rhine, there are 
fine corn districts ; the hills of Champagne and Burgundy yield excel¬ 
lent vines. The Limagne, a valley of Auvergne, along the Allier, has 
one of the richest soils in the world. The valley of Languedoc is also 
prolific. In the western departments, there are extensive heaths, and 
in the southwest, the Landes are large tracts of sandy levels, producing 
nothing but broom, heath, and juniper. 

8. Climate. The air of the northern part is moist, and there are con¬ 
siderable snows and sharp frost in winter. At Paris, the Seine is fre¬ 
quently frozen so as to admit of skating. In the central parts, no snow 
falls sometimes for many years; frosts seldom occur, and the air is pure, 
light, and elastic. The harvests begin from the latter part of June, to the 
middle of July. The high country of Auvergne is bleak and cold, and 
all the districts of the Vosges are affected by the snow, which sometimes 
continues to fall upon these mountains, as late as the end of June. 

In the southern provinces, the summer is exceedingly hot. The vin¬ 
tage is in September. At the end of autumn violent rains fall, but Oc¬ 
tober and November are the pleasantest months in the year. In De¬ 
cember, January, and February the weather is fine; but after February, 
a strong northeasterly wind, called the Mistral, blows, sometimes with 
snow, but generally with a clear sky. The south of France may be 
characterised as possessing a mild and salubrious climate. 

9. Natural Productions. The common forest trees are oak, birch, 
elm, ash, and beech. Forests of pine and fir extend along the Atlantic 
coast, and upon the Vosges and Jura Mountains. The only fruit trees 
indigenous to the country, are the fig, apple, pear, and plum. The cherry 
tree and wine were brought from the East by the Romans. The Greek 
colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, transported thither the 
olive, a native of Asia. The orange, lemon, and white mulberry 
were brought from India or China, the black mulberry from Asia Mi¬ 
nor, the apricot from Armenia, the peach from Persia, the almond, wal¬ 
nut, and melon from different parts of Asia, and the pomegranate from 
Africa. 

10. Minerals. Coal is abundant, but the beds lie at a distance from 
the sea, and are little worked. There were formerly many copper 
mines, but they are now chiefly abandoned. Lead is found in Britanny, 
and manganese abounds in sufficient quantities to supply the whole of 
Europe. Silver, iron, cobalt, nickel, cinnabar, and arsenic are some¬ 
times found. Among earths, are porcelain earth, chalk, marble, and 
gypsum. ^ 

11. Mineral Springs. There are no less than 240 mineral springs in 
France. Those of Aix in the south, were known to the Romans; they 
contain sulphur, lime, and salt. At Bagneres, are several warm springs. 
The greater part of the mineral springs are under the superintendence of 
physicians appointed by government. Accommodations for the sick 


FRANCE. 


247 


are provided at 151 of them. There are salt springs in the department 
of Jura, from which salt is manufactured. 

12. Animals. Bears are numerous in the Pyrenees and in the Al¬ 
pine districts, and commit frequent ravages among the corn-fields. 
Wolves and wild boars are found in the forests in various parts. The 
ibex and chamois inhabit the Alps and Pyrenees. The fox, otter, wild¬ 
cat, martin, squirrel, and beaver are known in different districts ; scor¬ 
pions are common in the southern provinces. 

13. Divisions. France is divided into 86 departments,* which are 
subdivided into arrondissements, cantons, and communes. 


* France was formerly divided into 33 provinces or governments, the names of 
which are connected with many historical events, and are still in popular use. 
The following are the names of the ancient provinces, and the Departments. 


Ancient Provinces. 

Flanders, 

Artois, 

Picardy. 


Normandy, 


Isle of France, 


Champagne, 


Lorraine, 


Alsace, 


Britanny, 


Maine, 

Anjou, 

Touraine, 

Orleanais, 

Berry, 

Nivernais, 

Burgundy, 
Franclie Comte, 


Departments• 
North. 

Pas de Calais. 
Somme. 

"Lower Seine. 
Calvados. 

La Manche. 

Orne. 

Eure. 

[Seine. 

I Seine and Oise. 
Oise. 

Seine and Marne 
Aisne. 

[ Marne. 

Ardennes. 

Aube. 

Upper Marne. 
TMeuse. 

1 Moselle. 

| Meurthe. 
l^Vosges. 

C Upper Rhine. 

( Lower Rhine, 
faille and Vilaine. 
Cotes du Nord. 
Finistere. 
Morbihan. 
^Lower Loire. 

' Mayenne. 
i Sarthe. 

Maine and Loire 
Indre and Loire. 
' Loiret. 

' Eure and Loir. 

| Loir and Cher. 

|Indre. 

’ Cher. 

N ievre. 
fYonne. 
i Cote d’Or. 

1 Saone and Loire 
^Ain. 

’ Upper Saone. 

' Doubs. 

[ Jura. 


Ancient Provinces. 

Poitou, 

La Marche, 
Limousin, 
Bourbonnais, 

Saintonge and } 
Angoumois, > 

Aunis, ' 


Auvergne’ 

Lyonnais, 

Dauphiny, 


Guyenne, with Gas-- 
cony, 


Navarre with Bearn, 
County of Foix, 
Roussillon, 


Languedoc, 


Provence, 

Counties of Ve- 
naissin and 
Avignon, 
Corsica, 


Departments. 

C Vendee. 

< Two Sevres. 

C Vienne. 

Creuse. 

< Upper Vienne. 

( Correze. 

Allier. 

Charente. 

Lower Charente. 

Puy de Dome. 
Cantal. 

Rhone. 

Loire. 

Isere. 

Upper Alps. 

Drome. 

Dordogne. 

Gironde. 

Lot and Garonne. 
Lot. 

Tarn and Garonne. 
Aveyron. 

Gers. 

Landes. 

Upper Pyrenees. 
Lower Pyrenees. 
Arriege. 

Eastern Pyrenees. 
Upper Garonne. 
Aude. 

Tarn. 

Herault. 

Gard. 

Lozere. 

Upper Loire. 
Ardeche. 

Lower Alps. 

Moutlis of the Rhone. 
Var. 

Vaucluse. 

Corsica. 








248 


FRANCE. 


14. Face of the County. France generally exhibits a level, but 
diversified surface. The most level tracts are in the north. The pic¬ 
turesque beauty of the hilly parts is heightened by the rich and luxu¬ 
riant verdure of the chestnut trees. In the south, the deep hue of the 
olive gives rather a sombre look to the landscape. From the mouth 
of the Garonne, to the border of Spain, a flat, sandy tract, called the 
Landes, extends 30 miles into the country. The remainder of the 
country is in general agreeably diversified with gentle undulations. 

15. Canals. There are 86 canals in France, having a total length of 
2,350 miles; only the principal can be mentioned here. The canal 
of Languedoc extends from the Garonne near Toulouse to Cette on 
the Mediterranean, which it thus connects with the Atlantic. It is 
142 miles in length, 60 feet wide, and six deep, and passes through the 
hill of Malpas by a tunnel 720 feet long. The canal of the Centre or 
the Charollais canal connects the Loire with the Saone at Chalons, and 
is 72 miles in length. The canal of Monsieur connects the Saone with 
the Rhine at Strasburg, passing by Dole, Besangon, Montbeliard, and 
Muhlhausen, with a blanch to Bale; total length 215 miles. The 
canal of Burgundy, 150 miles in length, connects the Yonne, a tributa¬ 
ry of the Seine, with the Saone, passing by Dijon, and thus forms a 
communication between the English Channel and the Mediterranean. 
The Briare canal connects the Loire at Briare, with the Seine, passing 
by Montargis; length 67 miles; the Orleans canal, which terminates 
near that town, and connects the Loire with the Briare canal, may be 
considered a branch of the latter; it is 45 miles long. The canal of 
Britanny extends from Nantes to Brest, a distance of 230 miles. The 
St. Quentin canal connects the Oise at Chauny with the Scheldt at 
Cambray, passing by St. Quentin; length 58 miles. The Somme 
canal connects the last mentioned with the Channel, passing by Ham, 
Peronne, and Amiens, in the valley of the Somme, and terminating at 
St. Valery, at the mouth of that river. 

16. Towns. Paris, the capital of France, and the second city of Eu¬ 
rope in point of population, stands upon both sides of the Seine, having a 
circuit of about fifteen miles, and containing 775,000 inhabitants. It is 
upwards of 200 miles from the mouth of the Seine by the course of 
the river, though but 112 from Havre, at its mouth, by the post roads. 
The environs do not present the same variety of gardens, parks, and 
villas, as those of London, nor is the stream of life in the great streets, 
the crowd of carriages, horsemen, wagons, and foot passengers, so 
great as in the neighborhood of the British capital. 

Paris is irregularly built, the houses are high, rising seven or eight 
stories, and the 1150 streets, with some exceptions, narrow. The 
boulevards, or broad streets planted with trees, are eighteen in number, 
and form pleasant promenades. There are seventy-four public places 
or squares, some of which are adorned with handsome monuments and 
fountains. The Seine is crossed by nineteen bridges, and its banks 
are lined with fifty fine stone quays, the whole length of which amounts 
to fifteen miles. 

Paris is supplied with water, partly from the Seine, and partly by 
aqueducts, the principal of which, the Ourcq canal, is also a navigable 
canal, 60 miles in length ; eighty-six fountains adorn the squares' 5 and 
boulevards. The Passages are covered streets, with shops fitted up 
in an elegant style; fifty six barriers, at the entrances of the prin- 


PRANCE. 


249 


cipal avenues into the city, are occupied by officers, who collect 
the duties upon the different articles imported into or exported from 
its limits. 

No city in Europe surpasses the French capital, in the magnificence 
of its palaces. The most remarkable of these are the Tuileries, the 
royal residence, a vast edifice, with a beautiful public garden ; the 
Louvre, a magnificent structure, communicating with the Tuileries by a 
long gallery, celebrated for its rich collection of paintings; the Palais 
Royal, the residence of the dukes of Orleans, and containing numerous 
elegant shops, saloons, gambling rooms, &c; the Bourbon Palace, in 
which the chamber of deputies holds its sessions** and the Luxem¬ 
bourg, or House of Peers. The Hotel des Invalids or hospital for 
invalid soldiers, a vast building, with a beautiful church ; the City Hall 
(Hotel de Ville) standing on the public place called the Greve, in 
which capital executions take place; the exchange (bourse), the hand¬ 
somest edifice of the kind in Europe; the military school, on the 
Champs de Mars; the mint; and the court house (palais de justice), are 
among the other most remarkable buildings. 

Of the churches, the principal are Notre Dame, the metropolitan 
church of France, and the Pantheon, a splendid temple, in which are 
deposited the remains of eminent men. The hospitals and charitable 
institutions are very numerous and well conducted, and the scientific 
and literary establishments are not inferior to any in the world. There 
are in Paris 450 elementary schools; seven lyceums or colleges; one 
university, with 7,500 students; the royal college of France; the bota¬ 
nic garden (jardin des plantes), at which are delivered lectures on the 
natural sciences; a normal school, for the education of teachers; the 
polytechnic school, for the scientific education of military and civil 
engineers, &c. The public libraries are large, numerous, and freely 
open to all ; they comprise altogether 1,200,000 volumes; the principal 
is the King’s Library with 450,000 printed volumes and 80,000 manu¬ 
scripts, 100,000 medals, and 1,160,000 plans, maps, and engravings. 
The most celebrated of the learned societies is the Royal Institute, 
which consists of four academies, devoted to literature, science, and the 
fine arts. Nowhere are the theatres more numerous, or dramatic 
exhibitions more various, or better managed ; there are upwards of 20 
theatres, including those of the suburbs. 

The principal promenades, are'the gardens of the Tuileries and the 
Elysian Fields. Some of the finest monuments not already mentioned 
are the column in the place Vendorne, commemorating the victories 
of Napoleon, whose statue is placed upon its summit; it is 134 feet 
high, and is made of the brass of the cannons taken from the Austrians 
and Prussians ; the triumphal arch in the Place du Carrousel; that of 
the Star (Arc de 1’ Etoile) at the Neuilly barrier; the triumphal arch at 
the gate of St. Denis, and the fountain of the place of the Bastile. 
Some of the markets and magazines are also distinguished for their 
extent and richness; among them are the wine magazine, and the corn- 
hall (halle aux bles), a circular edifice, wdth a remarkable cupola. The 
abatoirs are spacious slaughter-houses. The most famous of the 
cemeteries is that called Pere Lachaise (Father Lachaise), from the 
name of a priest, to whom the ground formerly belonged. It is prettily 
laid out with shaded walks, adorned with flowers, and contains many 
handsome monuments. 


250 


FRANCE 


The manufactures of Paris are various and extensive. The book 
trade and printing business exceed those of any other city in the world. 
The shawls, clocks, and watches, jewelry, gloves, furniture, and innu¬ 
merable articles of luxury, fashion, ornament, and use, which are made 
here, occupy great numbers of the inhabitants. 

The catacombs of Paris are a remarkable series of subterranean gal¬ 
leries and caverns, extending several miles under the city. They were 
originally quarries, from which the materials for the edifices of the 
city were obtained ; but about fifty years ago, the bone3 of ten genera¬ 
tions were collected from the different churches and burying grounds 
of the capital, into these caverns, and the remains of from four to six 
millions of human beings are here arranged along the walls. In this 
subterranean city of the dead, you find mausoleums, altars, candelabras, 
&c. constructed of bones, with festoons of skulls and thigh-bones, 
interspersed with numerous inscriptions. 

There are several places of historical interest in the neighborhood of 
Paris, which deserve notice. St. Denis, 9,680 inhabitants, contains a 
celebrated abbey, in the church of which have been deposited the re¬ 
mains of the long line of French kings. Vincennes, 3,000, a village of 
great antiquity, was long the residence of the kings of France, and con¬ 
tains a castle surrounded by a fine park. Neuilly, 5,600 inhabitants, is 
remarkable for its magnificent bridge over the Seine, its superb gar¬ 
dens, and delightful views. At Boulogne, 5,400, near the wood 
or park of the same name, is a favorite promenade, called Long- 
champs. 

Saint Cloud, in a picturesque situation on the Seine, is celebrated for 
its beautiful prospects, and the splendid gardens and park attached to 
the royal palace here. It was the favorite residence of Napoleon, 
whence the imperial court was called the court of St. Cloud. Sevres 
is famous for its beautiful porcelain. Versailles, about ten miles west 
of Paris, was, for upwards of a hundred years, the residence of the 
French court, and its sumptuous palace, park, and gardens display all 
the splendors of art. Statues, temples, pavilions, sheets of water, cas¬ 
cades, and fountains, enchant the eye in every direction, and the splen¬ 
did saloons are decorated with paintings, gilded and marble columns, 
&c. There are also several other remarkable edifices at Versailles, 
which now contains 28,500 inhabitants. 

St. Germain-en-Laye, about the same distance to the northwest of 
Paris, with 10,600 inhabitants, is pleasantly situated on the borders of 
the forest of Laye, the largest in France. Here is an ancient palace or 
hunting castle of the French kings. Rambouillet, 25 miles southwest 
of Paris, has a royal chateau, with a fine park, and a large forest at¬ 
tached to it. Here also is the royal farm, the dairy of which is entirely 
of white marble. Population 3,150. At Fontainebleau, 30 miles 
South of Paris, stands a royal chateau, in a picturesque situation in the 
centre of the forest of Fontainebleau. It has been the scene of many 
important events. Population 8,000. 

Lyons, the second city of France, is delightfully situated in the 
midst of a thickly peopled district, at the confluence of the Saone and 
the Rhone. Twenty quays, some of which are adorned with hand¬ 
some buildings and planted with trees, line the banks of the rivers, and 
10 bridges pass them in different directions. Among the 56 public 
places or squares, that of Bellecour is one of the most magnificent in 


FRANCE. 


251 


Europe, and the hotel de ville or city hall has no superior except that 
of Amsterdam. The commerce and manufactures of Lyons are exten¬ 
sive, and numerous and extensive docks and warehouses facilitate the 
commercial operations of the city. The most important article of 
manufacture is silk, which is raised in the vicinity, and imported in 
great quantities from Italy and other parts of France. The silks of 
Lyons are celebrated for their beauty and firmness. The manufacture 
of silk and cotton, and silk and woollen stuffs, paper hangings, artifi¬ 
cial flowers, jewelry, &c., also employs many laborers. Population of 
the city 133,700. There are here numerous hospitals and churches, 
several learned societies, and institutions for education, among which 
is a royal college, a fine public library of 90,000 volumes, &c. 

St. Etienne, an active and flourishing manufacturing town, is con¬ 
nected with Lyons by a railroad, which extends from Lyons, to 
Andrezieux on the Loire, 35 miles. The manufactures of St. Etienne 
and its vicinity are arms, jewelry, silk and cotton stuffs, &c; popula¬ 
tion of the town and adjacent country 50,000. To the southeast of 
Lyons, is Grenoble upon the Isere, with 25,000 inhabitants, a strongly 
fortified place, with extensive manufactures of gloves and liqueurs. 
It has several important literary establishments, and is interesting in 
history as the former capital of Dauphiny; in its neighborhood is a 
celebrated Carthusian monastery, called the Great Chartreuse. 

Marseilles, the principal commercial city of France, is delightfully 
situated upon the Lion’s gulf, with a spacious harbor. The new city 
is handsomely built with wide straight streets, and many fine prome¬ 
nades and public squares. The old part of the city consists of narrow 
streets and mean houses. The lazaretto or quarantine hospital is es¬ 
teemed the finest in Europe, and the ancient cathedral, the hotel de 
ville, the numerous hospitals, the 21 churches, &c., are among the 
ornaments of the city. The extensive quays are crowded with mer¬ 
chants and mariners from all parts of the world. The manufactures 
are also extensive. Marseilles is one of the most ancient cities of 
France, having been founded by a Grecian colony 2,400 years ago. 
Population 121,300. 

The other principal cities in this quarter are Toulon, with 28,500 
inhabitants, remarkable for its commerce, its excellent port, arsenals, 
docks, &c.; it is strongly fortified, and is the chief station of the French 
navy in the south of France: Aix, with 22,600 inhabitants, lying to the 
north of Marseilles, once the residence of the counts of Provence, 
whose court was the most refined and splendid in Europe, and still 
distinguished for its literary institutions: Arles, 20,000 inhabitants, 
interesting for its antiquities, and once the capital of an independent 
kingdom: and Avignon, with 30,000 inhabitants, for some time the 
residence of the popes, and now a flourishing manufacturing town ; 
near Avignon, is the little village of Vaucluse, celebrated by the muse 
of Petrarch. 

To the west of Marseilles is Montpellier with 36,000 inhabitants, a 
flourishing commercial and manufacturing town, celebrated for the 
beauty of its situation, the elegance of some of its public edifices, its 
delightful public walk, esteemed the finest in Europe, the salubrity 
of its air, and its famous university. Nimes, to the north of Mont¬ 
pellier, is a place of great antiquity, and still contains many relics of its 


252 


FRANCE. 


ancient magnificence; it has 41,300 inhabitants, who are engaged id 
extensive manufacturing and commercial operations. 

Bordeaux or Bourdeaux is situated upon the Garonne, GO miles from 
its mouth. The river is navigable to this place by the largest ships, 
and forms at Bordeaux a spacious harbor, which is connected by the 
canal of Languedoc with the Mediterranean. Bordeaux is one of the 
handsomest and most flourishing and commercial cities of France, 
and contains 100,000 inhabitants. In the new part of the city, the 
streets are spacious and elegant, and there are many delightful prom¬ 
enades, beautiful squares, and splendid edifices. The manufactures 
are extensive, comprising sugar refineries, distilleries, vinegar works, 
&c. Ship building and the whalefishery are also carried on largely, 
and Bordeaux is the great wine and brandy mart of the south and 
west of France. Its literary institutions are also numerous and im¬ 
portant, and its public library contains 110,000 volumes. 

Bayonne, on the Adour, a pretty town, with 15,000 inhabitants, a 
good harbor, and an active commerce, and Rochelle a commercial and 
strongly fortified town, with about the same number of inhabitants, 
are both places of historical interest. 

Nantes, on the Loire, 25 miles from its mouth, is one of the largest, 
richest, and most flourishing commercial cities of France, with a pop¬ 
ulation of 87,200 souls. Its manufactures are extensive and increasing, 
and the fisheries are actively prosecuted by the inhabitants. Nantes 
is very pleasantly situated, and handsomely built, and contains many 
elegant squares and public edifices. It is famous in history, from its 
giving name to the edict issued here in 1598, by Henry IV, granting 
to the Huguenots or French Protestants the free exercise of their reli¬ 
gion; this edict was revoked by Louis XIV nearly a century later. 
Above Nantes on the Loire, are Angers, with 32,750 inhabitants; 
Tours 23,250 inhabitants ; and Orleans, with 40,000, cities of some note 
in history, and which at present, contain some literary institutions, and 
have considerable manufactures. 

Rouen, upon the Seine, 70 miles from its mouth, is the centre of a 
populous manufacturing district, aud has itself extensive manufactures 
and a brisk trade. It was formerly the capital of Normandy, aud is 
meanly built, although it' contains some remarkable edifices. The 
neighborhood is filled with flourishing manufacturing towns and vil¬ 
lages. Principal articles of manufacture cotton, linen, and woollen 
goods. Population of Rouen 89,000. 

At the mouth of the Seine stands Havre, with 24,000 inhabitants, 
which may be considered the port of Paris and Rouen. It has constant 
communication with all parts of the world by means of regular packet 
ships, and the Seine is navigated by numerous steam vessels, some of 
which run up to Paris. 

Lisle or Lille, situated in a rich and highly cultivated plain upon 
the river Deule, is one of the best built cities in France. Its neat and 
spacious streets, its formidable fortifications, its fine citadel, the master 
piece of the celebrated French engineer, Vauban, its canals, and its 
numerous public edifices give it an imposing appearance. Its exten¬ 
sive trade and manufactures rank it among the most flourishing French 
cities. Population 70,000; the immediate neighborhood, to the dis¬ 
tance of 30 miles, is the most populous district in France. 











V, 



VIEWS IN ENGLAND 



MANCHES T E K. 



DOVER 





































































VIEWS IN FRANCE 



PALACE OF FONTA1NBLEAU. 



PERU LA CHAISE. 





























































FRANCE. 


253 


Upon the Channel to the north, are Dunkirk, a place of historical 
interest, with a good harbor and a flourishing commerce, 25,000 in¬ 
habitants; Calais, 10,500 inhabitants, remarkable as the nearest point 
of approach between England and France, being but 2£ hours sail 
from Dover; and Boulogne, with 21,000 inhabitants,a strongly fortified 
town and celebrated bathing place. 

Arras, with 23,400 inhabitants, a pretty and flourishing town, noted 
for its citadel; Cambray, 17,700 inhabitants, upon the Scheldt, the 
see of a bishopric once occupied by the illustrious Fenelon ; and 
Amiens 45,000, once the capital of Picardy, are among the most re¬ 
markable places in this quarter of the kingdom. 

Caen, upon the Orne, with 40,000 inhabitants, distinguished for 
the number of its learned institutions, and its extensive commerce ; 
Cherbourg, 18,50U, one of the principal stations of the French navy, and 
remarkable for its vast docks, and its magnificent breakwater, extend¬ 
ing upwards of two miles into the sea; Rennes, upon the Vilaine, 
formerly the capital of Britanny, with flourishing manufactures, and 
a population of 30,000 souls, communicating with the Channel at St. 
Malo, by a canal, and with the bay of Biscay by the navigable river 
upon which it stands ; and Brest, upon the western coast of France, the 
principal French naval station, with a fine harbor, splendid quays, and 
extensive docks, hewn out of the rock, are the chief places of interest 
in northern France, not previously mentioned. 

Toulouse is pleasantly situated upon the Garonne, at the termination 
of the Languedoc canal. It is an ancient town, and was once the 
capital of the Visigothic kingdom, and afterwards of Languedoc. Its 
manufactures are flourishing, and it contains several important literary 
establishments. Population 60,000. To the north are Montauban, 
25,000, inhabitants, and Limoges, 27,000 and to the northeast Clermont, 
28,250, places important for their population, manufactures, and literary 
institutions. 

There are several cities in the east of France, which deserve notice. 
Strasbourg, with 50,000 inhabitants, is a handsomely built and strongly 
fortified city, pleasantly situated in a fertile plain upon the Ill near its 
confluence with the Rhine. It was once the capital of Alsace, and the 
language and customs are chiefly German. Its trade and comfnerce 
are extensive, and its literary establishments numerous and respectable. 
A bridge of boats across the Rhine, connects it with the German terri¬ 
tory. The cathedral or minster of Strasbourg is one of the finest 
specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe ; the tower in particular 
is a masterpiece of architecture, and is remarkable for its height, which 
is 474 feet. Its clock is also a curious piece of mechanism, indicating 
the motions of the planets, as well as the hours of the day. 

Besangon, formerly capital of Franche Comte, is one of the best 
built, and oldest cities of France. Its manufactures, particularly of 
clocks and watches, are extensive, and it contains several literary insti¬ 
tutions of note. The canal of Monsieur passes by Besancon, and ren¬ 
ders it the depot of the trade between the towns of Switzerland and 
the north of France, and those of the south. Population 29,200. 

Dijon, formerly the capital of Burgundy, is pleasantly situated in a 
fertile plain, and is handsomely built, with spacious streets and elegant 
houses. Population 25,550. 

Troyes, with 23,750 inhabitants, stands upon the Seine ; its trade and 


254 


FRANCE. 


manufactures are extensive. To the north is Rheims, distinguished for 
its noble cathedra], in which the French kings have hitherto been 
consecrated, until the late revolution; in this ceremony a vial was used, 
called the sacred ampulla, said to have been brought down from 
heaven by a dove. The wine cellars of Rheims, excavated in lime¬ 
stone rock, and in which are preserved the fine wines of the district, 
destined for exportation, are also a curiosity. Population 36,000. 

Metz, with 44,400 inhabitants, upon the Moselle, and Nancy, 30,000 
upon the Meurthe, are important towns in the ancient province of 
Lorraine. The former is remarkable for its strong military works, and 
its manufactures are considerable. The latter is distinguished for its 
splendid buildings and its beautiful promenades. 

17. Agriculture. Two thirds of the population of France are agri¬ 
cultural, and a much greater proportion of the cultivators are pro¬ 
prietors, than in most other European countries. The agricultural 
products of the northern part of the country are corn, pulse, and 
potatoes; of the southern, corn, grapes, mulberries, and olives. The 
rotation of crops is little attended to, and fallows still hold a place in 
French husbandry, which is therefore proportionately less productive 
than the English. The French are, however, the best wine-makers 
in the world; the principal varieties of the French wines are those 
of Champagne and Burgundy; the Moselle and Rhenish wines, so 
called from the rivers upon whose banks they are produced ; the her¬ 
mitage ofDauphiny; and the clarets of the neighborhood of Bordeaux. 

18. Commerce. Much of the foreign commerce of France is trans¬ 
acted by foreign vessels, and the amount of shipping is much less than 
that of the United States. The annual value of imports is about 100 
million dollars, consisting chiefly of raw materials for manufactures, 
and of natural productions for food; the value of the exports is a little 
less, consisting principally of manufactured articles, wines, brandies, 
&c. The coasting trade and internal commerce between the different 
regions of this rich country, are extensive. 

19. Manufactures. The products of French manufacturing indus¬ 
try are exceedingly various and numerous, and they combine great 
excellence of quality with great elegance of taste. The annual value is 
about 300 million dollars. The porcelain of Sevres, Paris, &c., the 
silks of Lyons, Nimes, Avignon, &c ; the woollens of Elbeuf, Louviers, 
Rheims, Amiens, &c; the cotton stuffs, muslins, gauzes, &c., of 
Rouen, St. Quentin, Tarare, Paris, Cambray, Valenciennes, &c; the 
lace of Alengon, Caen, Bayeux, &c ; the shawls, jewelry, clocks and 
watches, musical and scientific instruments, of Paris ; mirrors, tapestry, 
chemical products, paper, paper hangings, &c. are among the principal 
articles. The French excel particularly in dyeing, and their goods are 
distinguished for firmness, delicacy, and brilliancy of color. 

20. Colonies. The foreign possessions of the French, are now in¬ 
considerable. They are in America, the isles of St. Pierre and Mique¬ 
lon ; Martinique; Guadeloupe, with its dependencies; a part of St. 
Martin, and Guiana: in Africa, the kingdom of Algiers; the colony of 
Senegal; the isle of Goree, and some factories: in the Indian Ocean, 
the isle of Bourbon, and that of St. Mary near Madagascar: and in 
Asia, Pondicherry, Karikal, Yanaon, Chandernagore, Mahe, and some 
factories. 

21. Finances. The ordinary revenue of France, derived from 


FRANCE 


255 


direct and indirect taxes, customs, stamps, licenses, &c., is about 200 
million dollars. The public debt, which has been much increased 
by the revolution of 1830, and the disturbed state of Europe, exceeds 
1,000 million dollars. 

22. Army and Navy. The peace establishment of the French army 
amounts to 280,000 men, but in time of war this number is increased 
to 405,000 men. The National Guards, or French militia, also con¬ 
stitute a powerful force. The naval force of France amounts to 364 
vessels, including 57 ships of the line, 64 frigates, and 21 steam ships. 

23. Inhabitants. The population of the kingdom is 32,562,500. It 
is composed of the French, or the descendants of the ancient Gauls, 
mixed with Burgundians, Franks, Goths and Normans; the Bretons, or 
descendants of the British Celts, who fled to the western part of France, 
upon the conquest of England by the Saxons; Germans, residing 
chiefly in the former provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, and a small num¬ 
ber of Basques, dwelling at the foot of the Pyrenees. Latin was the 
prevailing language of Gaul, as France was anciently called, at the 
time when the northern part was conquered by the Franks, and the 
southern by the Burgundian and Gothic tribes. Two dialects then 
grew up out of the corruption of the Latin; the southern, called the 
langue d? oc or Provencal, and the northern or langue d* oil. The 
former was once the language of the elegant courts of the south of 
France, and is still spoken, though much changed, by the lower classes 
in Provence, Languedoc, and part of Spain ; but the northern or Nor¬ 
man French has become the language of the court, of literature, and 
of the educated classes in general. 

The nation was formerly divided into the nobility, the clergy, and 
the third estate, comprising the great body of the people. The two 
former classes enjoyed important privileges and exemptions, but these 
privileges were abolished by the revolution, of 1789. The French 
nobility is divided into the same ranks, with the same titles, as the 
English; but the former are not, like the latter, by birth peers of the 
realm, and the distinction is therefore merely titular. In France, all 
the sons of a nobleman, are noble. 

There is no great difference in the character of society in the higher 
and more cultivated classes of Europe. In France, however, it is 
distinguished for delicacy, polish, refinement, elegance, and ease. The 
middling classes are characterised by the strictness and elevated tone of 
their morals. The lower class is industrious and temperate, but im¬ 
provident and ignorant. Gaiety, wit, and intelligence, with decency and 
politeness of manners, are common to all classes of the French. The 
women in France have a great influence on the character of society, 
and are distinguished for their grace and fascination of manner, rather 
than for personal beauty. 

The French are more lively and excitable, more impetuous and more 
fond of amusement than the English or Germans; but those who 
should adopt the prejudiced representations or the exaggerated satires 
of British writers on the French character, and set down the nation as 
vain, frivolous, fickle, obsequious, and licentious, would find themselves 
very much mistaken. The Frenchman is brave, high-spirited, gene¬ 
rous, and honorable; no nation has produced greater military geniuses, 
or contributed more to the progress of learning and science. 

There is a singular race, of unknown origin, found in the south of 


256 


FRANCE. 


France, called cagots. They are represented as sickly, pale, and gener¬ 
ally lame or deformed, miserably poor, destitute of clothing or habita¬ 
tion, living on the coarsest food, covered with rags, filth, and vermin, 
and seeking shelter in the night in barns or the most wretched hovels. 
They are looked upon with contempt and hatred by their neighbors, as 
lepers, heretics, and cannibals, and form in reality a class of outcasts. 
They are to be met with only in the vicinity of the Pyrenees. 

24. Building, Food, Travelling, fyc. In France, are some of the 
most magnificent edifices in the world, but these are principally in the 
cities, for a country life is seldom led by the wealthy. The great power 
of the kings, before the revolution, and of Napoleon since, enabled 
them to expend large sums in buildings, and other public monuments. 
The revolution dispersed many of the rich landed proprietors, and the 
class of rich merchants and manufacturers reside chiefly in towns. 
There are therefore few elegant and commodious country houses in 
France, compared with the number in England. The old chateaux, or 
residences of the nobles, are often gloomy and uncomfortable, but the 
cottages of the farmers are generally cheerful and prettily ornamented 
with flowers and humble finery. The food of the French, like that of 
the other southern Europeans, is much less solid than that of the En¬ 
glish and Americans. Less animal food is consumed by the wealthier, 
and many of the poorer classes live almost entirely upon vegetables. It 
is not uncommon to see a family of French children assembled to din¬ 
ner round a dish of cherries, a loaf of bread, and a jug of water, or a 
woman, who has labored all day in the fields, dining upon an apple 
and a slice of bread. 

In the vintage provinces of France, where the climate is good, this 
temperance probably conduces to the health of the peasantry ; but on 
the seacoast and marshy lands, where shaking fever and ague are very 
prevalent, these maladies are attributed by the physician in a great de¬ 
gree to the extreme poorness of the living. 

There is less internal communication in France than in England. 
The method of posting extends over France, as well as Europe gener¬ 
ally. The post-masters are appointed by the government, and furnish 
horses and carriages at a moment’s warning. The postillion, by certain 
notes of his horn, gives notice to the post-houses; and when the tra¬ 
veller arrives, the horses are in readiness. This mode of travelling is 
expensive ; and the rate is about ten miles an hour. The Diligence is 
a cheaper and a much slower method. The Diligence, is something 
between a wagon and a coach, and it goes from four to six miles an 
hour. There are usually five horses. One is within a heavy pair of 
shafts, another is harnessed without the shaft, at the side of the first, 
and three are leaders, harnessed with ropes abreast. The postillion is 
himself a character. He wears a little round hat, a green jacket, hair 
en queue, and jack-boots that may well be called enormous. The na¬ 
ture of his equipments calls upon him for perpetual expedients, and he 
seems to be always joining a bridle, knotting a whip, or knocking on a 
saddle with a stone. He is off and on his horse’s back many times 
in a stage, without stopping the vehicle. If a passenger calls, he dis¬ 
mounts, pops his head into the window, or runs by the side. The 
Diligence has a conductor, who sleeps in the cabriolet, or forward apart¬ 
ment, and who sits at the head of the table with the passengers. 

Some of the great roads of France are paved with stone in a very 


FRANCE. 


257 


superior manner. They were made in times when the peasantry were 
compelled to labor upon them, and many are shaded with rows of 
venerable trees. Yet they are far less agreeable to travel upon than the 
English macadamized roads. They seem almost deserted, and even 
the great avenues that lead from Paris, have little of the travelling that 
fills the roads for miles about London. The roads generally are in a 
wretched state, and the practicable ones not more than one third of the 
extent of those of England. The cross roads are few and neglected. 
When there is little internal circulation or travelling, the inns must 
be of a humble class, and those of France are distinguished for the ge¬ 
neral want of accommodations. There are in France many considera¬ 
ble towns without an inn that would be deemed tolerable in an English 
village, and in the hamlets the traveller will fare still worse. 

In the province of the Landes, in Gascony, there is a singular mode 
of travelling; as the district is very sandy, the shepherds and country 
people walk on stilts, by which they are elevated from three to five feet. 
This is a strange sight when the man is so far distant that a spectator 
cannot see the stilts; as he seems to be walking in the air. The people 
go in this way 8.or 10 miles an hour without much fatigue. 

There is no county in the world where there is such a variety of 
amusements as in France; and no people in the world are so easily 
amused. A stranger who visits Paris for the first time, finds himself 
in a perpetual whirl of petty diversions, which however childish, are 
amusing as long as the charm of novelty lasts, but which never become 
insipid to a Frenchman of any age or rank. One of the chief resorts 
in Paris, are the public gardens at Tivoli. They are thrown open twice 
a week, and brilliantly illuminated with colored lamps, somewhat in the 
style of Vauxhall in London, but animated by diversons which could 
never be imagined by a sober Englishman ; such as sailing in wooden 
boats slung upon wires; swinging, &c. There are also small temporary 
theatres filled with mountebanks, buffoons of every description, for¬ 
tune-tellers dressed like hermits, and jugglers, all exciting the laughter 
and admiration of the assembled crowds. 

In some parts of the gardens, groups of well-dressed persons of 
the lower classes are dancing to the sound of the violin, with that native 
ease and grace which seem inherent in the French peasantry. There 
are also cafes with ices and lemonade for those who wish for refresh¬ 
ments. Tivoli is the resort of every class, the highest and the lowest; 
yet there is neither riot or excess of any kind. The utmost mirth and 
gaiety is mingled with the most perfect decorum. The evening con¬ 
cludes with fire-works of the most brilliant description, and the whole 
scene, the lights, gay dresses, and sounds of merriment, are lively in 
the extreme. 

But though Paris is the centre of gaiety, the same love of amuse¬ 
ment is observable through every part of France. Nearly all the 
money made by the laboring classes is spent at the numerous religious 
fetes common in the country. Nearly every amusement in France ter¬ 
minates by dancing. In the most remote parts of the country, groups 
of peasants may be seen every evening dancing quadrilles and waltzing 
under the trees, to the sound of a rustic violin, and frequently singing 
in chorus. 

25. Religion. The great body of the nation belongs to the Roman 
Catholic church, but there is no established religion. There are 14 
17 


258 


FRANCE. 


archbishops, and 66 bishops of this church. The Reformed or Calvin¬ 
ists, formerly called in France, Huguenots, are about one million, chief¬ 
ly in the southern departments. There are some Lutherans in the 
eastern part-of the country. There are now few monasteries for men 
in France; but there is scarcely a town of any note, where there are not 
one or more convents for nuns. Sometimes these convents are attached 
to an hospital, and the time of the nuns is exclusively devoted to attend¬ 
ance upon the sick. In this case, they are not cloistered, as their duty 
frequently calls them to different parts of the town or country upon 
errands of charity. They merely wear a peculiar dress, divide their 
time between acts of benevolence and religious duties, and do not mix 
in society; such are the Sisters of Charity and the Sisters of Providence, 
of whom there are societies all over the continent of Europe. Still 
more frequently, they devote themselves exclusively to the education of 
girls, and many of the ladies both of France and Italy are brought 
up in these boarding schools. 

26. Education. No country presents greater opportunities for prose¬ 
cuting the study of all departments of learning. The libraries, and 
scientific cabinets and establishments, are numerous and valuable, and 
courses of public lectures are delivered by learned and able men on 
every subject of science and literature. Yet but imperfect provision 
has been made for the instruction of the mass of the people; not less 
than one third of the communes are destitute of elementary schools; 
and not more than one half of the inhabitants can read and write. The 
public institutions for what is called in France secondary instruction, 
comprising the learned languages, mathematics, and the natural sciences, 
are 317 communal colleges, or schools maintained by the towns, and 
38 royal colleges, maintained by the state. Beside these are 1300 
private schools, called in France institutions and pensions. The supe¬ 
rior instruction is given in what are called faculties, answering to the 
universities of other countries. The faculties are five; of theology, 
law, medicine, science, and literature; they grant degrees in their re¬ 
spective departments. There are in France eight faculties of theology; 
nine of law ; three of medicine; seven of science, and six of literature. 

27. Government. The government of France is a constitutional 
monarchy, the powers, duties, and rights of the executive and legislative 
authorities, being defined in a written constitution, called the Charter. 
The king is the supreme head of the state; he makes war and peace, 
and treaties and alliances with foreign nations ; convenes the legislative 
houses, and superintends the execution of the laws; nominates the 
peers, and various civil, and military officers. His person is inviolable, 
but his ministers are responsible. The legislative body is composed of 
two houses or chambers ; the chamber of peers, nominated by the king 
for life, and the chamber of deputies, chosen for the term of five years, 
by the electoral colleges of the departments. The right of suffrage is 
much restricted, and the whole number of electors does not much 
exceed 200,000. A great many administrative functions, which-in the 
United States and England are performed by the people or their im¬ 
mediate representatives, are in France executed by the authority of the 
central government. 

28. Antiquities. There are various remains of the ancient Celtic 
inhabitants of Gaul, consisting of mounds or barrows, tombs, and 
architectural works, similar to those called Druidical monuments in 


REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA. 


259 


England. One of these near Carnac, in Britanny, is remarkable for its 
dimensions. The remains of Roman monuments are numerous, com¬ 
prising roads, aqueducts, camps, temples, baths, &c. At Paris, there 
is one apartment, 60 feet long, and 42 wide, the remnant of the Warm 
Baths, built by Constantius. At Lyons, there are several antiquities, 
especially the remains of two aqueducts, a beautiful mosaic, the ruins 
of a theatre, and of subterraneous reservoirs. At Nimes, are more per¬ 
fect monuments. The beautiful edifice, called the Maison Carree 
(square house), is in almost perfect preservation. It was a temple, sur¬ 
rounded by 30 Corinthian columns. The cornice, frieze, capitals, and 
carved acanthus leaves, are perfect models in architecture and sculpture. 
But the greatest monument of ancient Nimes, is the amphitheatre, which 
has no superior, except the Coliseum, and which is in a better state of 
preservation than that. It is of cut stones of prodigious size and is 
about 1200 feet in circumference. In the vicinity are the remains of 
a Roman aqueduct, which crossed the river Gard by three tiers of 
arches; it is 872 feet long, and 157 high, and is called by the inhabitants 
the Pont du Gard (Bridge of the Gard.) It is remarkable for its gran¬ 
deur and simplicity. 

29. History. France was anciently called Gaul, and was inhabited 
by several Celtic tribes. It was conquered by the Romans, and made 
a Roman province, but was overrun in the 5th century by German 
tribes, among whom that of the Franks occupied the northern part, and 
gave their name to the country and nation. Several centuries later the 
descendants of the Frankish kings, extended their sway over the whole 
country. 

In 1789 the embarrassment of the finances, and the dissatisfaction of 
the great body of the nation with the absurd privileges enjoyed by the 
nobility and clergy, led to a revolution, which terminated in the execu¬ 
tion of the king, the abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment 
of a republic. But this order of things did not long continue; Napo¬ 
leon Bonaparte, a Corsican by birth, and one of the greatest military 
geniuses the world has ever produced, caused himself to be proclaimed 
emperor, and carried his arms over a great part of Europe. After a 
reign of ten years, he was overthrown, and driven from the country, 
and the Bourbon family was restored to the throne in the person of 
Louis XVIII. A constitutional monarchy was established, and the 
government for a time conducted on liberal principles; but in 1830, 
his successor, Charles X, having attempted to destroy the constitution, 
was driven from the throne and the kingdom, by the people of France, 
and the duke of Orleans, Louis Philip, was crowned king of the French. 

LXIX. REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA. 

This little state is situated on the southern declivity of the Pyrenees, 
between Catalonia in Spain, arid the department of Arriege in France. 
The population of the republic is 15,400, occupying 34 villages, and 
190 square miles of territory. The capital Andorra has 2,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. Iron and wood are the principal productions. 

The government is administered by a council, over which presides 
a syndic; two judges, one appointed by the king of France, and the 
other by the bishop of Urgel in Spain, preside over the administration 
of justice in the retired and peaceful valley of Andorra, 


260 


SPAIN. 


LXX. SPAIN. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Spain (called by the natives Espana), is 
bounded north by France and the Bay of Biscay; W. by Portugal and 
the Atlantic Ocean, and S. and E. by the Straits of Gibraltar and the 
Mediterranean Sea. It extends from 36° to 44° N. Lat., and from 3° 
20' E. to 9° 40' W. Lon. Its greatest length from E. to W. is 640 miles; 
its breadth 525; area 183,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. The Peninsula, which comprises Spain and Portu¬ 
gal, is covered by a system of mountains, called the Hesperian moun¬ 
tains, comprehending three separate groups; the southern, the central, 
and the northern. The Southern group stretches from Cape St. Vin¬ 
cent, on the Atlantic, to Cape de Gata on the Mediterranean, and in¬ 
cludes the three great ranges of the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra Morena, 
and the Sierra of Toledo. The Sierra Nevada or Snowy Range con¬ 
tains the loftiest summits in the peninsula, some of which are covered 
with perpetual snow ; the highest peak, that of Mulhacen, has an eleva¬ 
tion of 11,660 feet. 

The Central group consists of two chains, one of which extends 
along the northern bank of the Tagus, from its source to the rock of 
Cintra, near its mouth, and the other stretches from the sources of the 
Ebro, southeasterly to Cape Palos. Between these two chains lies an 
elevated plain from 2,200 to 2,800 feet high. The former chain contains 
many summits from 6,000 to 10,000 feet in height; the latter is less 
elevated. 

The Northern group consists of a single chain, the PjTenees, stretch¬ 
ing across the peniusula from Cape Creus to Cape Finisterre on the 
Atlantic. The term Pyrenees is sometimes confined to the eastern 
part, which separates France from Spain, and terminates at Fontarabia; 
the more westerly portion being known under the name of the Anda¬ 
lusian Mountains. Many of the peaks rise to the height of 10,000 or 
11,000 feet; the loftiest, La Maladetta, is 11,425 feet high. They yield 
great quantities of timber and are rich in minerals. Seven passes or 
defiles admit the passage of wheel carriages, and there are upwards of 
100, practicable for foot passengers. On the south, the Pyrenees have 
a sterile appearance, but their northern sides are less precipitous, and 
afford many woods and pastures. Their highest summits are capped 
with perpetual snow. The Mountain of Montserrat is a detached emi¬ 
nence of the Eastern Pyrenees, about 30 miles northwest of Barcelona. 
It consists of a cluster of sharp peaks rising to the height of 3,300 feet, 
and always capped with clouds. There are 14 hermitages upon dif¬ 
ferent parts of these heights, and about half way up is a magnificent 
convent of Benedictines. The scenery in every part of this remarkable 
eminence is strikingly bold and romantic. 

3. Rivers. The Tajo or Tagus rises in Arragon, and flows west 
through Portugal into the Atlantic. It is a large river, with steep banks 
and a rapid current; but is not navigable on account of its rocks and 
shallows. The Guadiana rises in La Mancha and flows southwesterly 
to the Atlantic, intersecting the southern part of Portugal, and at its 
mouth forming the boundary between the two kingdoms. It is navi¬ 
gable for 45 miles from its mouth. 

The Guadalquivir flows between the Sierra Morena and the Sierra 


SPAIN 


261 


Nevada southwesterly to the sea. It is a beautiful stream, and is navi¬ 
gable in the lower part of its course. In the north of Spain is the 
Duero, flowing west through Portugal into the Atlantic. The Ebro 
rises among the mountains in the north, and runs southeasterly into the 
Mediterranean ; its mouth is shallow and sandy. The Guadalaviar and 
Xucar are smaller streams running in the same direction. Most of the 
rivers of Spain have shallow and stony beds, and dry up in summer to 
such a degree, as to be nearly useless for navigation. 

4. Islands. The Balearic Islands are a group in the Mediterranean, 
consisting of Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and Fromentera with some 
smaller ones. Majorca, the largest, is about 100 miles from the coast. 
It is 40 miles in extent each way, and is mountainous. Minorca pos¬ 
sesses the valuable harbor of Port Mahon. These islands have 
generally a good soil, and produce oranges, olives, wine, &c., and they 
contain 242,900 inhabitants. 

5. Climate. This country lies in the southern part of the temperate 
zone, and the cold is never excessive even in the northern parts. In 
the south, the heats of midsummer would be intolerable, but for the 
sea breeze which begins to blow at nine in the morning, and continues 
till five in the evening. The interior is so elevated, as to be much 
cooler than might be expected from the latitude. The two Castiles 
form a raised plain above 2,000 feet in height. 

The provinces along the Mediterranean are the paradise of this king¬ 
dom. An everlasting spring seems to reign in this delightful district. 
The sky of Andalusia is pure azure and gold ; the inhabitants of Seville 
affirm that a day was never known when the sun did not shine upon 
their city. Two kinds of winds are sometimes unpleasant in Spain. 
The Gallego from the northwest is piercing and cold; the Solano, a 
southwest wind from Africa, is so hot as to relax the human system, 
and produce giddiness and inflammation. 

6. Soil. The greater part of the country is fertile, and covered with 
a luxuriant vegetation. The fruits and plants offer a greater variety 
than is afforded by any other European region of the same extent. The 
land is everywhere favorable to the cultivation of the vine. Spain may 
be regarded as naturally the most fruitful country of Europe. 

7. Vegetable Productions. There are fine forests on the different 
ranges of mountains. Among the eight species of oak which Spain 
produces, are the evergreen oak, with edible fruit; the cork tree; and 
the cochineal oak, upon which is found an insect, which yields a fine 
crimson color. The spart or Spanish broom, a flowering shrub, is 
braided or woven into 40 different articles. The exportation of dates 
from Spain forms a thriving branch of trade. 

8. Minerals. Spain supplied the ancient inhabitants of Europe with 
the greater part of the precious metals they possessed, but her mineral 
products are small at the present day. Mines of quicksilver are 
wrought at Almaden in La Mancha, and iron is furnished by the 
provinces of Biscay. Coal is wrought in Catalonia and the Asturias. 
Sulphur is found in the neighborhood of Cadiz. Mineral Springs are 
numerous; but regular watering places and bathing establishments 
do not exist in Spain. An hospital is the only common accompani¬ 
ment. 

9. Animals. The plains and mountains abound in game. The 
wild boar, the bear, and various kinds of deer are found in the moun- 


262 


SPAIN. 


tains of Galicia and the Asturian forests. Hares, rabbits, partridges, 
flamingoes, and bustards are common in Andalusia. The wolf still 
frequents nearly all the wooded and mountainous districts of the coun¬ 
try. The chamois and the lynx find a shelter in the Pyrenees and the 
other mountains of the east. The moufflon is found in the kingdom 
of Murcia. The genet, porcupine, scorpion, and chameleon may also 
be mentioned. Cantharides, tarantulas, and mosquitoes abound. 
Estremadura and Andalusia are sometimes desolated by swarms of 
locusts from the African coast. 

10. Face of the Country. Spain is an elevated, mountainous, and 
beautifully picturesque country. It exhibits an alternation of moun¬ 
tain ridges and wide plains, everywhere watered by rivers and small 
streams. The hills are covered with vineyards, and the valleys display 
the most luxuriant vegetation. The southern part looks like a garden 
in perpetual bloom. In external beauty, few countries in the world 
equal Spain. 

11. Divisions. Spain is divided for civil purposes into 33 intendan¬ 
cies ; # the military divisions are 13 captain generalships. 

12. Canals. There are only two navigable canals of any impor¬ 
tance. The Imperial Canal was begun with the intention of uniting 
Navarre with the Mediterranean, and is finished to below Saragossa. 
It is 74 feet wide and 10£ feet deep, being navigable for vessels of 100 
tons. The Canal of Castile is partly executed, and is designed to 
connect the Duero with the harbor of Santander on the Bay of Bis¬ 
cay. There are several other small canals in different parts of the 
kingdom. 

13. Towns. Madrid, the capital, stands in the centre of the king¬ 
dom, in the midst of a barren plain 2,200 feet above the level of the 
sea, and surrounded by mountains. It has a handsome appearance; 
the streets are regular, and many of the buildings magnificent. It has 
42 squares and many beautiful public walks. The Prado is an elegant 
promenade on the east side of the city, planted with trees, and orna¬ 
mented with fountains. Here the wealthy and fashionable display 
their equipages, and hither all ranks resort in quest of amusement. 
Many of the squares are adorned with fountains; the handsomest is the 

* We give here both of these divisions. 


Captain Generalships. 
1. New Castile 


Madrid, Guadalaxara, Toledo, Cuenca, 
and La Mancha. 


Intendancies. 


2. Old Castile and Leon 


Burgos, Santander, Soria, Segovia, Avi¬ 
la, Leon, Palencia, Valladolid, Sala¬ 
manca, and Zamora. 


3. Asturias 

4. Galicia 

5. Estremadura 

6. Andalusia 


Oviedo. 

Santiago. 

Badajoz. 


Seville, Xeres, Cordova. Jaen, and the 
Colonies of the Sierra Morena. 


7. Granada 


Granada and Malaga. 

Valencia, Murcia, and Carthagena. 
Barcelona. 

Saragossa. 

Pampelona. 

Vittoria. 

Palma. 


8. Valencia and Murcia 


9. Catalonia 

10. Arragon 

11. Navarre 


12. Guipuscoa (Biscay) 

13. The Balearic Isles. 


SPAIN. 


263 


Plaza Mayor, where the markets are held. The houses are generally 
of brick, and few of them have glass windows. Several royal palaces 
adorn the city and neighborhood. The new palace, considered the 
finest royal residence in Europe, forms a square of 404 feet, and 86 feet 
high ; the Buen Retiro, another palace, is famous for its beautiful gar¬ 
dens. There is a magnificent bridge over the Manzanares, a little 
stream which runs by the city. Madrid contains 75 convents, 77 
churches, three theatres, 18 colleges, &c. The learned societies, and 
cabinets of science and art are numerous, and give this city a high 
rank among the first capitals of Europe, in regard to learning and the 
arts. The Royal Library is rich in manuscripts, models, and antiqui¬ 
ties, and contains 130,000 volumes. The charitable institutions are 
numerous; they are richly endowed, and the buildings pertaining to 
them are spacious and well attended. Madrid is a place of consid¬ 
erable trade and industry: the inhabitants manufacture woollen stuffs 
of every sort, carpets, silks, printed linens, and muslins. Population 
201,000. 

Twenty two miles northwest of Madrid is the Escurial, the most 
magnificent monastery in the world ; it is built in a wild and rugged 
region, and forms a quadrangle 740 feet long, by 580 wide. It con¬ 
tains the royal apartments, a fine library and collection of paintings, 
and the sumptuous vaults in which are deposited the remains of the 
Spanish kings. The Escurial was built by Philip II, a stern and 
superstitious prince, in fulfilment of a vow, and dedicated to St. Law¬ 
rence, who suffered martyrdom by being burned to death upon the 
gridiron; the building is, therefore, made to represent that instru¬ 
ment. At St. Ildefonso, 40 miles north of Madrid, is a superb 
palace, celebrated for its beautiful gardens; here is also a royal 
manufactory of mirrors, which are made of great size and superior 
quality. 

Seville, the capital of Andalusia, is beautifully situated on the Gua¬ 
dalquivir. It stands in the midst of a plain, covered with olive planta¬ 
tions, hamlets, villages, and convents. It was formerly very rich and 
populous, being the chief mart for the American and India trade. 
The public buildings are very elegant. The general appearance of the 
city’ indicates the Moorish character of its former possessors. The 
streets are often so narrow, that a person can touch the houses on both 
sides at once. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, the 
largest Gothic edifice in Spain, with 82 altars and a fine tower; the 
archbishop’s palace, a magnificent structure ; the alcazar, or palace of 
the ancient Moorish kings: 84 convents; 24 hospitals; 29 churches; 
the exchange, &c. Seville contains a university, nine colleges, and a 
school of tauromachy, in which the bull-fighters are trained. Its man¬ 
ufactures are extensive, comprising silks, woollens, and tobacco. Sev¬ 
eral steam vessels navigate the river, but its commerce has been mostly 
transferred to Cadiz. Population 91,000. 

Barcelona, the principal manufacturing city of Spain, and one of the 
prettiest on the peninsula, is regularly built upon the shores of the 
Mediterranean. Its commerce is extensive, but the immense mole, 
designed to protect the harbor from the accumulation of sand, is unfin¬ 
ished. Cotton, silk, linen, lace, and arms are the principal products 
of its manufactories. Here are four public libraries, eight colleges, 
several hospitals, numerous churches, and some remarkable public 


264 


SPAIN. 


edifices. Population 120,000. In the vicinity are Tarragona, with 
11,000 inhabitants, and Tortosa with 16,000, remarkable for the ruins 
of their ancient splendor; Reus, an active manufacturing town, with 
25,000 inhabitants, and Figueras, celebrated for its vast and impregna¬ 
ble fortifications. 

Valencia is a rich and elegant city, situated in a fertile and delight¬ 
ful country on the Guadalaviar, not far from the sea. * It is one of the 
most flourishing manufacturing towns in Spain, and is inferior otdy to 
Madrid in the activity of its printing presses, and the extent of its book- 
trade. Its literary institutions are numerous, and its beautiful walks 
are perfumed with the orange and lemon groves, by which they are 
shaded. Population 66,000. 

The other principal places in the captain-generalship of Valencia are 
Orihuela, with 26,000 inhabitants, and extensive manu factures; Alicant, 
a strongly fortified and active commercial town, with a fine harbor and 
a population of 25,000; Murcia, with 36,000 inhabitants, containing 
numerous literary institutions, and extensive manufactures of silk; 
Lorca, a manufacturing town, with 40,000 inhabitants, and Carthagena, 
with 37,000, noted for its docks, arsenals, observatory, and excellent 
harbor. 

Granada, situated in a plain renowned for the fertility of its soil, the 
beauty of its scenery and its delicious climate, is an ancient Moorish 
city ; several magnificent edifices, its extensive squares, and numerous 
fountains attest its ancient splendor. The cathedral and the palaces 
of the archbishop and of the captain-general are spacious and elegant; 
but the boast of Granada is the Alhambra, or palace of the Moorish 
kings, which is admired for the richness and beauty of its vast colon¬ 
nades, its splendid courts, its halls, and arcades. The Generalife is 
another palace, which afforded a summer retreat to the Moorish 
princes. Granada is now the seat of a university, and various manu¬ 
factures. Its population is 80,000. On the coast of Granada is Malaga, 
a commercial city, situated in a rich district producing almonds, figs, 
and oranges, which, with dried raisins and wines from the hills, and 
cork from the mountains, constitute its principal exports. Population 
52,000. 

Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, is an ancient town partly of Roman 
and partly of Moorish origin. Many of the buildings are in ruins, and 
it contains extensive gardens; the population, therefore, does not cor¬ 
respond with the extent of the city. The archbishop’s palace, formerly 
the residence of the Moorish kings, and the cathedral, originally a 
mosque, ornamented with rows of cupolas, which are 'supported by 
850 columns of jasper and marble, are remarkable buildings. Cordova 
lias always carried on considerable trade, and has long been noted for 
its manufactures of leather. Population 57,000. Ecija, with 35,000 
inhabitants, and Jaen, with 20,000, are important manufacturing towns 
in the vicinity. 

Cadiz, situated on a fine bay, at the extremity of a projecting tongue 
of land, is a well built and strongly fortified city, with an extensive 
commerce. The trade of the rich colonies of Spain in India and 
America, formerly centered in Cadiz, but after their separation from 
the mother country, the place sank in importance. It is now, how¬ 
ever, a free port, and has somewhat revived. Population 53,000. 

Opposite Cadiz is Port St. Mary, and to the southeast is San Fer- 



SPAIN. 


265 


nando, containing an observatory and the custom house of the port of 
Cadiz. Each of these towns has 18,000 inhabitants. Fifteen miles 
northeast of Cadiz, in a rich district, is Xeres, noted as the depot for 
the excellent wines, called from this place, Sherry. It is a flourish¬ 
ing town, with 34,000 inhabitants, and contains a celebrated Carthusian 
convent. On the coast to the south of Cadiz is cape Trafalgar, 
near which Nelson gained a celebrated naval victory over the unit¬ 
ed Spanish and French fleets; and to the north is the little village 
of Palos, from which Columbus sailed on his first voyage of dis¬ 
covery. 

Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, stands upon both sides of the 
Ebro, over which there is a superb stone bridge of seven arches. 
Before the memorable siege of 1808, its churches were remarkable for 
their magnificence and wealth, but with the other public buildings 
they suffered much injury at that time. The church of Our Lady of 
the Pillar is remarkable for its splendor, and for its miraculous image 
of the Virgin Mary, which attracts numerous pilgrims from all parts 
of the country. The university of Saragossa is one of the principal in 
Spain. Population 43,000. 

Santiago, or St. Jago de Compostella, the principal city of Galicia, 
has extensive manufactures of silk and cotton, and contains one of the 
principal Spanish universities. Its cathedral, consecrated to St. James 
(in Spanish Jago), the patron saint of Spain, is supposed to contain his 
remains, and is visited by great numbers of pilgrims. Population 
28,000. 

Corunna, the capital of Galicia, is a flourishing and strongly fortified 
town, with extensive trade and manufactures. Population 23,000. 
The harbor is spacious and safe, and is esteemed one of the best in 
Spain. Here are an arsenal and an ancient tower of great height 
and solidity, by some attributed to the Phoenicians, by others to the 
Romans. 

Valladolid, capital of Old Castile, and the scene of many interesting 
events in Spanish history, is now much declined from its former 
splendor, and contains but 21,000 inhabitants. Its university is the 
second in Spain, and there are here eight colleges, and 46 convents. 
The royal castle, in which several of the Spanish kings were born, and 
the cathedral, are the most remarkable edifices. 

The other principal places in Old Castile are Santander, a flourish¬ 
ing commercial town, on the northern coast, with 20,000 inhabitants; 
Burgos, with 12,000 inhabitants, containing a great number of churches 
and convents; Segovia, a very old town with numerous Roman and 
Moorish remains, 13,000 inhabitants, and Salamanca, formerly the seat 
of one of the most celebrated universities of Europe, which has now 
lost its ancient importance. 

Bilboa, the capital of Biscay, and one of the principal commercial 
towns of Spain, has 15,000 inhabitants. 

Oviedo, capital of the Asturias, and Badajoz, capital of Estremadura, 
have each a population of 10,000. 

Pampelona, a strongly fortified place, with 15,000 inhabitants, is the 
capital of Navarre. 

Palma, on Majorca, is the capital of the Balearic isles, and has an 
extensive commerce. Population 34,000. Port Mahon, on the eastern 
coast of Minorca, has one of the safest and most convenient harbors ill 

M 


266 


SPAIN. 


the Mediterranean. It is strongly fortified and contains a naval hos¬ 
pital, an arsenal, and one of the finest lazarettos in Europe. 

Gibraltar is an important fortress, situated on a rocky promontory 
at the entrance of the straits of the same name, and rendered impreg¬ 
nable by nature and art. The promontory is seven miles in length, 
and nowhere half a mile in width, and the rocky wall rises precipit¬ 
ously to the height of above 1,400 feet. Every point bristles with 
batteries, which communicate with each other by covered ways, hewn 
out of the solid rock. The town of Gibraltar stands at the foot of the 
promontory, upon a spacious bay, which forms a covenient naval 
station. Its commerce is extensive; population 15,000, English, Moors, 
Jews, Italians, and Spaniards. This fortress was taken by the British 
in 1704, and has ever since remained in their possession. 

14. Agriculture. The greater part of the land in Spain, belongs to 
the nobility, the church, the towns, or corporate bodies. The state of 
agriculture is wretched, and the implements of husbandry are very 
rude; hardly two thirds of the productive soil is under cultivation. 
Hemp and corn are raised in almost all the provinces; olives and the 
sugar cane are cultivated in the southern parts, and in this quarter 
may be seen large fields of saffron, rice, and cotton. Every part of 
the country yields wine. The rearing of sheep is an important branch 
of industry, and the wool is distinguished for its fineness. The 
Merinos or fine woolled sheep pass the summer in the mountainous 
districts of Castile and Arragon, and the winter in the plains of Andalusia 
and Estremadura. They are driven this distance of nearly 700 miles, in 
40 days, in flocks of 10,000. The Mesta or society composed of the 
owners of the sheep, has the right to drive them over the land which 
lies on the route, and to feed them on the pastures; where the land is 
cultivated, the proprietor is obliged to leave a space 250 feet in breadth 
for their passage. The whole number of sheep in Spain is about 18 
millions, more than half of which migrate annually. 

15. Commerce. The foreign commerce of Spain is not extensive; 
wine, oil, fruits, wool, and manufactured goods are the principal arti¬ 
cles of export. The coasting trade is very active and important, but 
the want of good roads, navigable rivers, and canals is fatal to the 
internal commerce. The anchovy, tunny, and coral fisheries are ac¬ 
tively prosecuted. 

16. Manufactures. The system of taxation, founded upon produc¬ 
tion, and the privileges of particular classes and societies tend to dis¬ 
courage industry in Spain, yet her manufactures are by no means 
inconsiderable. The most important are those of wool, silk, leather, 
and cotton. Paper, hats, soap, earthen, iron, and steel wares, brandy, 
&c., are also among the products of Spanish industry. The man¬ 
ufacture of barilla, from which soda is obtained, is extensively carried 
on in the districts bordering on the Mediterranean. It is made by 
burning a vegetable, which is sown for the purpose. 

17. Government. The government of Spain is an absolute mon¬ 
archy, restricted only in Biscay by the privileges of the provincial 
estates, without whose consent no taxes can be laid. The title of the 
king is Most Catholic Majesty; the crown prince or heir apparent is 
styled prince of the Asturias, and the other children of the king, in¬ 
fantes and infantas. The Cortes, or estates of the realm, composed of 
the nobility, higher clergy, and deputies of cities, had formerly the 


SPAIN. 


267 


right of granting taxes, but are now assembled only on occasions of 
ceremony. 

18. Revenue. The revenue is about thirty million dollars, but 
varies according to the exigencies of the government. The public debt 
amounts to about 800 million dollars. 

19. Army and JVavy. The peace establishment of the army is 91,000 
men, but it is very deficient in discipline. The navy consists of ten 
ships of the line, 16 frigates, and 30 smaller vessels. 

20. Colonies. The vast territories, which formerly belonged to the 
Spanish crown, in different parts of the world, were officially styled 
the Indies, and it was said without exaggeration that upon its domin¬ 
ions the sun never set. But the only remains of this colossal power 
at the present time are the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico in America; 
the Canaries, and the presidios, or fortresses on the northern coast 
of Africa, of which Ceuta is the principal; and the Philippine and 
Marianne or Ladrone islands, in Oceania. The entire population of 
these colonies is about four millions. 

21. Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is the only religion 
tolerated. The clergy are extremely rich and powerful, enjoying 
great privileges and possessing great influence ; they have assumed 
the direction of education, and, through the inquisition, prescribed what 
books may be printed or read in the country. The number of the 
clergy is 146,700, comprising 61 archbishops and bishops, 61,300 
monks, 31,400 nuns, and 54,000 secular clergy. The Inquisition or 
Holy Office, instituted for the suppression of heresy, and the extirpa¬ 
tion of heretics, assumed its most hateful form in Spain. The slightest 
suspicion of unsound opinion was sufficient to cause any person to be 
arrested, confined in dungeons, subjected to secret and cruel tortures, 
and, if condemned, to be burnt at the stake. The burning of a Jew, 
a Moor, or a heretic, called ail auto da fe (an act of faith), was solemn¬ 
ized with great pomp, and generally like a bull fight or a dramatic 
spectacle, on days of public rejoicings. Beside these dark and bloody 
scenes, and the secret imprisonments and absurd penances inflicted by 
this baneful tribunal, the constant restraint, which it imposed upon 
freedom of inquiry even in science and literature, tended much to 
debase the Spanish character by upholding the power of ignorance 
and superstition. The inquisition has been abolished, but much of 
its spirit and influence remain. Religion in Spain is in general nothing 
but an observance of the outward ceremonies prescribed by the 
church, the practice of penances, fasting, &c. 

22. Education. There are few establishments in Spain for the 
diffusion of the first rudiments of knowledge. The lower classes 
seldom learn to read and write, and those above them are as seldom 
instructed in any thing but reading, writing, and arithmetic. Those 
who are designed for the learned professions, attend a Latin school 
for three or four years, but classical literature has made little or no 
progress, and Greek has been for several centuries almost unknown in 
Spain. There are eleven universities, but they are very far behind 
the literary institutions of other European countries. There is indeed, 
little encouragement for education, or even safety for learning, in a 
country, of which it has been truly remarked, that to learn the names 
of its best scholars and finest geniuses we need only to go to the dun¬ 
geons of the Inquisition. 


268 


SPAIN. 


23. Inhabitants. The population of Spain is 14 millions. The 
Spaniard is compounded of various races, principally of the Celtic, the 
Roman, the Gothic, and the Arabic. In the north, the Gothic is the 
most pure, but in the south the Moorish predominates. The distinc¬ 
tions between people of the different provinces are equal to the general 
difference between those of separate nations. The Biscayans are light 
and graceful though hardy; the Galicians lofty in stature and laborious; 
the Castilians tall and dark; the Murcians lighter in complexion, and 
there are many points of difference in the other provinces. But it is 
of the mass that we have to speak ; and that consists of the Basques, in 
Biscay and Navarre, descended from the ancient Cantabrians; the de¬ 
scendants of the Moors, chiefly in the Alpujarras; the Gypsies who are 
scattered over Spain, under the name of Gitanos ; and lastly, and prin¬ 
cipally, the general inhabitants or Spaniards. 

The Castilian is so widely spread over Spain and the colonies, that it 
is called the Spanish language. But in Catalonia and Valencia the Pro¬ 
vencal language is general, and in Biscay, the Basque, a harsher dialect. 
The Spanish language is rich and sonorous, and admirably adapted to 
poetry. It is founded on the Latin, mixed with the Teutonic and the 
Arabic. The approved pronunciation is that of Castile. 

The Spaniard is in general temperate, reserved, honest, and devout. 
The Spanish gravity is more observable in the higher than in the lower 
classes; the latter have more gaiety, wit, and vivacity, and are frugal, 
good humored, and courteous. Pride of birth, rank, and faith, appear 
on every occasion, and the Spaniard is suspicious, irritable, and vindic¬ 
tive. The nobles are distinguised into the titulados, or grandees, who 
have a right to cover themselves in the presence of the king, marquises, 
counts, and viscounts; and the lower nobility or cavaliers, esquires, and 
hidalgos (i. e. sons of somebody, gentlemen). 

The Spanish are in general well built, of a middling size, expressive 
physiognomy, dark hair and complexion, and brilliant eyes. The Spa¬ 
nish women are distinguished for beauty of person and dignity of man¬ 
ner, and they are characterised by intelligence, deep feeling, fidelity, 
and constancy; but they are almost entirely uneducated. The strictness 
with which they were formerly treated, and the oriental seclusion in 
which they were kept, is in a great measure done away. 

The favorite amusements are music, dancing, and bull-fights. The 
national dance is the fandango, which is danced with castanets, and is 
full of liveliness and grace; the bolero is only another form of the same 
dance. But the bull-fight is the spectacle of which the Spaniards of 
all classes are most passionately fond. The spectators being collected 
in the amphitheatre designed for this purpose, the bull is let loose at a 
given signal in the arena; here he is met by the picadores, or horsemen, 
who receive him with their long lances. The horse is often gored, or 
overthrown with his rider, in which case combatants on foot divert the 
attention of the bull by shaking pieces of colored cloth before his eyes. 
The second act is commenced by the banderilleros, who drive the bull 
to fury, by sticking little darts, with explosive powders attached to them, 
into his neck, and thus infuriating and exhausting the persecuted ani¬ 
mal. The signal is at last given for the matador (killer), who stands 
before the bull, and watches the moment, when it makes a last despe¬ 
rate plunge ; then stepping hastily aside he strikes his dagger into the 


SPAIN. 


269 

peck of the animal with so true an aim as to divide the spine, and cause 
instant death. 

There is little travelling in Spain whether for business or amusement; 
the roads are few and wretched, and infested with robbers, and the inns 
are miserable hovels in which the traveller finds little attention or pro¬ 
vision except what he brings with him. 

The food is rather meagre; chocolate is the most common drink; 
milk and cheese are little used, and butter is unknown. The wines of 
Spain are various and excellent, and there are many which are unknown 
to commerce from the difficulty of communication between the inte¬ 
rior and the coast. The Sherry, Malaga, and Catalonia wines are well 
known in foreign countries. 

The dress of the different provinces is various, though some pe¬ 
culiarities of costume run through all Spain. Generally the cloak is 
worn, and it is universal in Castile; it is very large, and so full that 
one end is thrown over the shoulder. It is said that none but a Span¬ 
iard can wear it gracefully, and he draws it into many elegant folds. 

The females seldom appear in public in any but the national dress; 
the color of which is principally black. The priests watch with great 
jealousy all innovation in dress. The mantilla is a black scarf of 
various degrees of richness, thrown over the head, yet so as to display 
a large and costly comb. It reaches to the waist. Few ladies wear 
veils except at mass. The basquina is a black petticoat, and it is as 
general as the mantilla or shawl. Neither bonnet nor ribands are usu¬ 
ally worn, though in carriages and at some assemblies, ladies may be 
seen dressed in the French mode. 

24. History. The Spanish peninsula was originally inhabited by 
various Celtic tribes, but was conquered by the Romans after a long 
and bloody struggle, and remained a Roman province for 500 years. 
In the beginning of the fifth century it was overrun by several Teu¬ 
tonic tribes, but the Visigoths finally extended their arms over the 
whole peninsula. 

Nearly three centuries later the kingdom of the Visigoths was over¬ 
thrown by the Saracens, an Arabian tribe, commonly called Moors, in 
Spain. The Saracens, though Mahometans, allowed their Christian 
subjects to retain their religion, language, and laws. A small body of 
Visigoths, retiring to the mountains of Asturia and Galicia, not only 
defended their freedom against the Moors, but gradually recovered the 
neighboring districts, and at length wrested the whole country from 
their hands. Several independent, kingdoms were at first established, 
which became successively merged into the two kingdoms of Castile 
and Arragon. 

Towards the end of the 15th century, the marriage of Ferdinand and 
Isabella, sovereigns of these two states, united them under one crown. 
At about the same time the subjugation of the Moors was completed ; 
and the discovery of America by Columbus, who sailed in the Spanish 
service, laid the foundation for the vast colonial dominion of Spain, and 
made her during the 16th and 17th centuries the first power in Europe. 
Since that time she has sunk in importance, and the recent loss of her 
American colonies, has reduced her still lower in the scale of nations. 


270 


LXXI. PORTUGAL. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Portugal is bounded north and east by 
Spain, south and west by the Atlantic. It lies between 37° and 42° N. 
Lat., and between 6° 30' and 9° 30' W. Lon., being 3G0 miles in length, 
by 150 in breadth, with an area of 38,800 square miles. 

2. Mountains and Rivers. These have already been described in the 
account of Spain. The Southern group terminates in the prominent 
headland of Cape St. Vincent, the southwestern point of Portugal, 
which has been rendered famous as the scene of two great naval bat¬ 
tles; one in 1797, in which the English admiral Jervis destroyed a large 
Spanish force, and the second in 1833, in which a Portuguese squadron 
in the service of Dorn Miguel, was destroyed by Admiral Napier, com¬ 
manding the fleet of Dorn Pedro. The Central group reaches the sea 
a little to the north of the Tagus, at cape Roca, a well known sea mark, 
called by sailors the Rock of Lisbon, and deserving notice as the most 
westerly point of the continent of Europe. 

The Minho, a small river rising in Galicia, forms part of the northern 
boundary. The Mondego is the principal river which has its whole 
course in Portugal. The Duero of the Spaniards is called Douro by 
the Portuguese, and the Tagus of English writers is known as the Tajo 
in Spain, and the Tejo in Portugal. 

3. Climate and Soil. The air is remarkably mild and healthy, and 

the climate is by no means so hot as the central and southern parts of 
Spain; the coasts being refreshed by the sea breezes, and the interior 
by the north winds from the mountains. The winter sets in in No¬ 
vember, and is attended by violent showers; in January begins a most 
delightful spring. The soil is rich and the valleys are remarkable for 
their beauty and fertility. / 

4. Minerals. There are rich mines of the precious metals, but the 
indolence of the inhabitants and the scarcity of fuel prevent them from 
being worked. Some iron mines are worked in Estremadura, and 
copper and marble are found in some provinces. Salt is chiefly obtain¬ 
ed from sea water, salt springs being rare. 

5. Face of the Country. The surface is in general mountainous, but 
not rugged. There are two plains of considerable extent, that of Beira 
in the north, and that of Alemtejo in the south. The coast is low in 
the north, but becomes high and rocky towards the south. 

6. Divisions. The political divisions of the kingdom are 44 comarcas 
or counties; it has been proposed to divide the country into 12 provin¬ 
ces, to be subdivided into 26 comarcas. The unsettled state of the 
kingdom renders it uncertain, which division will ultimately prevail. 
In books and maps we often find Portugal divided into six provinces; 
but these are merely geographical sections, not officially recognised. 
They areas follows: Entre Douro e Minho; Tras os Montes; Beira; 
Estremadura ; Alemtejo; and the kingdom Algarve. 

7. Towns. Lisbon, the capital, stands on the Tagus, not far from its 
mouth, and is built upon several hills. The harbor is capacious and 
safe, and defended by several forts, but the city is open, without walls. 
The older parts of the city are filthy and badly built; but the part des¬ 
troyed by an earthquake in 1755 is regularly laid out with straight streets, 
squares, and good houses. The city contains three royal palaces, of 


PORTUGAL. 


271 


which the new palace, is considered one of the finest in Europe, 140 
churches and chapels, several of which are remarkable for their beaut} 7 
and size, and 75 convents; in that of Belem is the burial place of the 
royal family. There are numerous scientific and literary establishments 
here, an observatory, the royal library of 80,000 volumes, &,c. 

The beautiful environs are adorned with from 6,000 to 7,000 quintas 
or country seats, and not far from Lisbon is the rock of Cintra, rising to 
the height of 2,000 feet, and much admired for the grandeur and beauty 
of its scenery. On the western side of the mountain is the little village 
of Mafra, remarkable for its convent, church, and palace, one of the 
most magnificent monuments of art in Europe. The aqueduct of 
Bemfica, about seven miles in length, is also a remarkable construction; 
it passes a deep valley on 35 marble arches, some of which are 100 feet 
wide, and have an elevation of200 feet. Lisbon has few manufactories, 
but it is the centre of Portuguese commerce. Population 260,000. 

Coimbra, on the Mondego, is celebrated for its university. It has a 
delightful neighborhood, but the town is a dismal place within. Popu¬ 
lation 15,000. On the Mondego, near the town, is the Quinta de 
Lagrimas, or house of tears, where Inez de Castro was imprisoned and 
murdered. 

Oporto, or Porto, on the Douro, is an important seaport. Its harbor 
is excellent and the town strongly fortified by nature. It has some fine 
squares and churches, but the houses generally are mean, and the streets 
narrow. It has a great trade in the exportation of oranges, lemons, and 
the wine called from this place Port Wine. Population 70,000. 

Setubal, or as it is improperly called by seamen, St. Ubes, has an 
excellent harbor, and an extensive commerce. It exports wine, oil, 
and oranges, and particularly salt, of which a large quantity is made 
here. Population 15,000. 

Braga is a commercial and manufacturing town, in the northern part 
of the country, with 14,000 inhabitants. It contains an ancient cathe¬ 
dral, remarkable for its great size, and some remains of a Roman 
temple, amphitheatre, and aqueduct. 

Lamego, in Beira, with 9,000 inhabitants, and Santarem in Estrema- 
dura, once the residence of the Portuguese kings, with 8,000 inhabitants, 
are places of historical interest. 

Evora, with 9,000 inhabitants, and Elvas, with 10,000, are the princi¬ 
pal towns in Alemtejo; the latter is one of the strongest fortresses in 
Europe. 

Batalha is a little village to the north of Lisbon, celebrated for its 
magnificent convent, esteemed one of the finest specimens of Gothic 
architecture; Alcoba^a, in its vicinity, contains a Cistercian convent, 
considered one of the richest monastic establishments in the world. 

8. Agriculture . Portugal, though rich in natural productions, wants 
the cultivation of industrious hands. The wealth of the colonies and 
commerce withdrew the attention of the inhabitants from agriculture, 
which has been for several centuries in a low state. Excellent fruit is 
raised and exported in considerable quantities, and several sorts of wines 
of excellent quality are produced; the red Port wine is much drank in 
England and the United States. Although the country affords excel¬ 
lent pastures, grazing is little attended to. Corn is raised in so small 
quantities, that it is necessary to import it. 

9. Commerce and Manufactures. The want of roads discourages in- 


272 


PORTUGAL. 


ternal commerce; there are no canals, and the navigable rivers are few, 
and often too low for boats. The foreign commerce once extensive 
and profitable, is now insignificant; the troubles, revolutions, and civil 
wars that have distracted the country since 1820, have depressed every 
sort of industry. The most important manufactures, are those of wool, 
silk, cotton, linen, hats, and glass; but their productions are of inferior 
quality. 

10. Religion. The Roman Catholic is the universal religion of the 
nation, but other sects are tolerated. There are three archbishops, that 
of Lisbon, styled the patriarch, that of Braga, styled the primate of the 
realm, and that of Evora. Under them are 15 bishops. There are in 
Portugal 360 convents for men, with 5,760 monks, and 138 for women 
with 5,900 sisters. 

11. Education. Nothing has been done in this country for the 
education of the people, and there is but one university, that of 
Coimbra. 

12. Colonies. Even since the loss of Brazil, the colonial possessions 
of Portugal are extensive and valuable. In Asia, she possesses Goa 
and Diu in Hindostan, Macao, and part of the Island of Timor, forming 
together the viceroyalty of India, with 600,000 inhabitants. In Africa 
the Cape Verd, and Madeira islands; the isle of St. Thomas, and Prince’s 
island in the Gulf of Guinea; some factories in Senegambia; Angola 
on the western coast, and the government of Mozambique, on the 
eastern, with about 1,400,000 inhabitants, are occupied or claimed by 
the Portuguese. The Azores also belong to Portugal. 

13. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy, a 
constitution having been granted in 1826 by the king Dom Pedro : but 
it has been administered for several years as an absolute monarchy, 
in the most tyrannical manner by Dom Miguel, his brother, who 
usurped the throne. Pedro has recently recovered the crown and 
restored the constitution. The revolutions and civil wars that hare 
succeeded each other during the last 12 years in this unhappy country, 
make it impossible to give any certain account, of its revenue, debt, 
and military forces. 

14. Inhabitants. The Portuguese are of the same origin with the 
Spaniards, but they early formed an independent nation, and a separate 
language. The latter however, was composed of the same materials 
with the Spanish, and closely resembles it in many points. Although 
there exists a strong mutual dislike between the two nations, they differ 
little in character, manners, habits, amusements, and social condition. 
The population of Portugal is 3,600,000. 

15. Histonj. The western part of the peninsula was called Lusitania 
by the Romans, and shared the fate of the rest of the country, until 
1139, when it became an independent kingdom. In the latter half of 
the 15th century the Portuguese, a warlike and commercial people, 
made many discoveries and conquests on the coasts of Africa and in 
the Atlantic, and finally found the passage to India by the Cape of 
Good Hope. During the 16th century the colonial conquests of Portu¬ 
gal in the east, and her vast commerce, rendered her one of the richest 
and most powerful states of Europe. On the death of Sebastian without 
an heir in 1578, Portugal was annexed to Spain, and was deprived of 
some of her richest territories; but in 1640 the Portuguese threw off the 
Spanish yoke, without however again recovering their former impor- 


NAPLES OR THE TWO SICILIES. 


273 


tance. In 1822 the rich colony of Brazil was erected into an indepen¬ 
dent empire, and the peace of Portugal has since been disturbed by 
revolutions and civil war. 

LXXII. NAPLES OR THE TWO SICILIES. 

1. Boundaries. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies is bounded on 
the north by the States of the Church; on the east by the Adriatic 
Sea, or Gulf of Venice; and on the west and south by the Mediter¬ 
ranean. It comprises the southern part of Italy, or the kingdom of 
Naples, and the island of Sicily, extending from Lat. 36° 30' to 43° N., 
and having an area of 42,000 square miles, with 7,500,000 inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The continental part is traversed from north to south 
by the Apennines, which terminate at the straits of Messina, separating 
Sicily from the continent. The highest summit, Mount Corno or 
Cavallo, reaches the height of 9,520 feet. Vesuvius, a volcanic moun¬ 
tain near the city of Naples, 3,450 feet high, belongs to this chain. 
Sicily contains two ridges extending across the island; the one from 
east to west, in which is the volcanic Mount Etna or Mongibello 10,870 
feet high, and the other from north to south. 

3. Rivers and Lakes. The rivers descend from each side of the 
Apennines into the sea. They are all small; the Volturno and the 
Garigliano, flowing west into the Mediterranean, are the principal. 
The principal lake is Celano, in the northern part of the kingdom. 

4. Islands. Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean, is divided 
from the continent by a narrow strait, five miles wide, called the Faro 
or Strait of Messina. The island has an area of 10,400 square miles, 
and contains a population of 1,800,000 souls. To the north of Sicily 
are the Lipari isles, remarkable for their volcanoes, and at the entrance 
of the Bay of Naples are the two small islands of Ischia and Capri. 

5. Volcanoes. These are Vesuvius near the city of Naples, Etna in 
Sicily, and Volcano and Stromboli in the Lipari isles. The first record¬ 
ed eruption of Vesuvius was in A. D. 03, a few years after which it 
overwhelmed the two large and populous cities of Pompeii and Hercu¬ 
laneum with lava and ashes. Since that period it has been in constant 
activity, and has frequently caused great ravages. Its sides are mostly 
barren, but in some parts vines and fruits are seen amidst fields of 
burning lava, and its base is inhabited and cultivated. 

Etna appears to have been in activity from the earliest times of tradi¬ 
tion. Its immense size and solitary elevation, the beauty and magnifi¬ 
cence of the surrounding scenery, and the terrific grandeur of the 
convulsions to which it has been subject, have made it one of the won¬ 
ders of the world. At a distance, it appears like a truncated cone. 
Upon a nearer approach, the traveller is astonished at the wild and 
grotesque appearance of the whole mountain. Scattered over the im¬ 
mense declivity, he beholds innumerable small conical hills gently rising 
from the surface to the height of 400 or 500 feet, covered with rich 
verdure and beautiful trees, villages, scattered hamlets, and monasteries. 
As his eye ascends, he discovers an immense forest of oaks and pines, 
forming a green belt round the mountain. Above this appears the 
hoary head of the volcano, capped with eternal snow. The crater is a 
hill of a conical figure, composed of ashes and scoriae. From this open¬ 
ing, smoke is continually ascending. 

18 m* 


274 


NAPLES, OR THE TWO SICILIES. 

6. Climate. On the continent, a perpetual spring seems to prevail. 
Vegetation is never interrupted; in.the depth of winter, the fields are 
green, the orange trees in blossom, the balmy air is filled with the fra¬ 
grance of blooming shrubs and flowers, and the sea reflects a clear blue 
sky. From May to September the heat is intense. On the highest 
mountains the snow sometimes lies from October till May In Sicily, 
the heat of summer is diminished by sea-breezes, but when the Sirocco 
blows, all vegetation dies away. Although rain seldom falls, the dews 
are copious. The nights are cold, but it never freezes except upon the 
mountains. 

7. Soil. There is an indescribable richness of vegetation throughout 
this country. Here flourish the fig-tree, the almond, the cotton plant, 
and sugar cane. Sicily is one of the most productive spots on the earth. 
The soil is calcareous, and its fertility is much increased by volcanic 
fire. 

8. Minerals. This country does not appear to be rich in minerals, 
and among those that have been discovered, few are wrought. There 
are some iron mines near Naples, and sulphur, alum, marble, alabaster, 
puzzolana, and salt are produced here. 

9. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into 21 provinces, which are 
subdivided into 75 districts. Of the former, 15 are in the continental 
part, and compose the Domains this Side the Faro (Dominj al di qua 
del Faro); and six in Sicily, constituting the Domains beyond the 
Faro.* 

10. Towns. Naples, the capital, is the largest city in Italy. It stands 
at the bottom of a bay, and with its suburbs and contiguous villages, 
extends 6 or 8 miles along the water. On the land side it is surrounded 
by mountains. Nothing can surpass the beauty of the bay or the pros¬ 
pect of the city viewed from the water, presenting long lines of palaces, 
hanging gardens, and terraced roofs, the shipping clustered behind the 
moles, and castles and towers on the points of projection. The shores 
of the bay are covered with interesting ruins, and broken into graceful 
inlets. The dark summit of Vesuvius rises frowning over the land¬ 
scape, while its lower regions are covered with the richest vegetation, 
and dotted with white country houses. The whole circuit of the bay 
is edged with towns, and covered with cultivation and the abundance 
of nature. 

The streets of the city are straight but narrow; some are refreshed 
with fountains; others are decorated with statues and obelisks. The 
houses are high, the roofs flat, more than half the front consists of 
windows, and every window is faced with an iron balcony. Naples in 
its interior has no parallel on earth. The whole population is out of 
doors and in incessant motion ; no street in London or Paris has any¬ 
thing comparable to it: it is one everlasting tumult. The Strada di 
Toledo is a perpetual fair, and on Sundays, the crowd is so immense 
that it is difficult to walk through it. This street is very splendid, and 
the shops gay and showy. Every trade, occupation, and amusement is 
here going on in the midst of a tumultuous crowd, rolling up and down. 

* The Sicilian provinces are Palermo; Messina; Catania; Syracuse; Cal- 
tanisetta; and Trapani, called from their chief towns. Those of Naples are the 
First and Second Farther Abruzzo; Hither Abruzzo; Terra di Lavoro; Molise; 
Naples; the Farther and Hither Principato; Capitanata; Bari; ’Otranto; 
Basilicata; the First and Second Farther Calabria; and Hither Calabria. 


NAPLES, OR THE TWO SICILIES. 275 

The public edifices are numerous, and many of them are splendid, 
but they are in bad taste. There are several royal palaces, 250 church¬ 
es and chapels, 150 monasteries, numerous hospitals and benevo¬ 
lent institutions, four theatres, and a great number of literary institu¬ 
tions, cabinets of nature and art, &c. The theatre of San Carlos is one 
of the largest and most magnificent in the world. The cathedral or 
church of St. Januarius is remarkable for the richness of its chapels, 
in one of which is kept a vial, said to contain the blood of the saint, 
remarkable for its miraculous powers. The harbor is defended by fine 
castles, and the pier or Mole is thronged with idlers, jugglers, and im- 
provvisatori, or with persons pursuing their business. 

There are numerous squares or public places, and several promen¬ 
ades, which are unsurpassed for beauty. The Neapolitan nobles are 
rich, and fond of parade ; the citizens prosperous, and the lazzaroni, of 
whom there are about 30,000, are so temperate that they can live with 
the least pittance obtained by work or begging, and reserve something 
for the amusements on the Mole. Though covered with rags, and 
without shelter for the night, the climate is so mild, that they can 
sleep under some convenient portico, and do not suffer from want 
of clothing. A few cent’s worth of maccaroni supplies all then* 
wants. The population of Naples is 365,000; compared with the 
number ctf* inhabitants the manufactures are unimportant. The cata¬ 
combs of Naples are several miles in extent, and contain numerous 
subterranean galleries and halls. They were originally quarries, but 
were afterwards used as a place of burial. 

The environs of Naples are rich in the wonders of nature and art. 
On the west is Mount Pausilippo, through which is cut the tunnel or 
arched way, called the grotto of Pausilippo, 90 feet high, 30 wide, and 
upwards of a mile long. Passing through this tunnel you come to the 
lake of Agnano, which emits sulphureous vapors, and has the singular 
property of boiling up in some places, without being hot. On its banks 
is the Grotta del Cane or Dog’s Grotto, the bottom of which is covered 
with carbonic acid gas. On plunging a dog into this gas he is suffo¬ 
cated and appears lifeless ; but revives on being withdrawn. Beyond 
is the Solfatara, a volcanic cone, from which issue sulphureous 
vapors. Then succeeds Pozzuoli, a tpwrt of 8,000 inhabitants, remark¬ 
able for its ruins and its charming situation. In its vicinity are the 
river Acheron, the lake Avernus, and the Monte Nuovo, which sud¬ 
denly rose out of the ground in 1588, to the height of 500 feet. Here 
is also Baise, once a favorite resort of the Romans, now covered with 
magnificent ruins. On the east the road leads to Portici, Vesuvius, 
Herculaneum, and Pompeii. At the foot of Vesuvius is Torre del 
Greco, a considerable town with 13,000 inhabitants. 

Near the coast, to the south are Cava, with extensive manufactures, 
a celebrated monastery, and 20,000 inhabitants; Salerno, a commercial 
city, renowned for its ancient medical school, with 11,000 inhabitants; 
and Amalfi, now a little village with 3,000 inhabitants, but interesting 
from its historical importance. Further south stand the magnificent 
ruins of Psestum, an ancient Greek city, celebrated by the poets for the 
fragrance of its twice-blowing roses, and its mild and balmy air. The 
remains of three temples of a colossal size, and beautiful architecture 
were discovered here in 1755, and in 1830 a whole street, lined with a 
long colonnade, was found. 


276 


NAPLES, OR THE TWO SICILIES. 

Bari, on the Adriatic, has a good harbor and considerable commerce, 
with 19,000 inhabitants. 

Lecce, 14,000 inhabitants, Tarentum, 14,000, and Reggio, with 
17,000, are important manufacturing and commercial towns. 

Foggia, in the Capitanata, with 21,000 inhabitants, Trani, on tho 
Adriatic, remarkable for its cathedral, with 14,000 inhabitants, and 
Barletta, noted for its salt works and its flourishing commerce, with 
18,000 inhabitants, are also important towns. 

Palermo, the capital of Sicily, stands on a small bay in the north¬ 
western part of the island. The streets are regular and wide; the 
houses elegant, and several of the public squares very beautiful. The 
city is built in a semicircular plain or valley surrounded by moun¬ 
tains. This little nook of land is called Conca d’ Oro, or the ‘ Golden 
Shell,’ and abounds with fragrant groves of orange trees and acacias. 
Palermo has a university and considerable commerce. Population 
168,000. 

Catania stands at the foot of Mount iEtna. Its streets are straight, 
spacious, and paved with lava. It is the busiest town in Sicily, 
and has a university, public library, museums, academies, &c. It 
was founded 700 years before the Christian era, and has suffered 
severely from eruptions of the mountain and earthquakes. Popula¬ 
tion 47,100. 

Messina, upon the strait of that name, at the northeastern extremity 
of Sicily, is regularly built, and has one of the best harbors in the 
Mediterranean. Its fine quay extends more than a mile along the 
port. It is the first commercial town in the kingdom, and its trade 
extends to the North of Europe and America. It was completely 
destroyed by an earthquake in 1783, but has been rebuilt. Population 
40,000. 

Syracuse, on the eastern coast of the island, is a strongly fortified 
town with a good harbor. It has many Grecian antiquities. Popula¬ 
tion 15,000. 

Girgenti, the ancient Agrigentum, on the south coast has an indiffer¬ 
ent harbor, but considerable trade. Population 14,882. 

Trapani, at the western extremity, has some commerce and coral 
fisheries. Population 24,330. 

Marsala, on the western coast, south of Trapani, is noted for its 
wines. Population 21,000. 

Caltagirone, with 20,000 inhabitants, near the southern coast, is im¬ 
portant for its manufactures and commerce. 

11. Agriculture. The land belongs mostly to the clergy and nobles ; 
the cultivators are poor, and the country is imperfectly cultivated. On 
the continent wine, oil, silk, wheat, and maize, with the various fruits 
of warm regions, are produced; in Sicily are raised the same articles, 
with flax and hemp. 

12. Commerce and Manufactures. The maritime commerce is con¬ 
fined chiefly to the exportation of natural productions, and is mostly 
carried on by foreigners. Inland trade is obstructed by the want of 
good roads, navigable rivers, and canals. Manufactures are more 
flourishing in Naples than in Sicily. The silk, woollen, and cotton 
manufactures are considerable; linen, metallic wares, and articles of 
marble, and precious stones are also produced. 

13. Government. The government is an absolute monarchy, heredi- 


STATES OF THE CHURCH. 


277 


tary in the male and female line. The revenue is about fifteen million 
dollars, the debt 100 millions. The army consists of 51,000 men; the 
navy of 2 ships of the line, 5 frigates, and 10 smaller vessels. 

14. Religion. The religion of the natives is the Roman Catholic, 
but there are some Jews, and members of the Greek church. The 
clergy are in possession of nearly two thirds of the landed property of 
the kingdom. There are 27 archbishops, 98 bishops, 410 abbots 
and priors, 60,000 secular priests, and about 70,000 monks and 
nuns. 

15. Education. There are three universities, at Naples, Palermo, 
and Catania, and in all the principal towns both of Naples and Sicily, 
there are lyceums for preparatory instruction, and especially for clas¬ 
sical studies. Some primary schools have been estbalished in Sicily, 
but the common people are extremely ignorant, being rarely able to 
read. 

16. History. This part of Italy was anciently occupied by Greek 
colonies, who covered it with flourishing and splendid cities. It after¬ 
ward formed part of the Roman empire, and subsequently underwent 
various vicissitudes, and belonged to different foreign powers. In the 
beginning of the 18th century it belonged to Austria, but was soon 
after wrested from her by Spain. In 1759, Charles III, king of Spain, 
conferred the kingdom of the Two Sicilies on his third son, as a 
separate monarchy, with the provision that it should never be reunited 
to the Spanish crown. 


LXXIII. STATES OF THE CHURCH, OR PAPAL 
DOMINIONS. 

1. Boundaries. This territory occupies the centre of Italy. It is 
washed on the northeast by the Adriatic, and on the southwest by the 
Mediterranean. On the north it is bounded by the Lombardo-Vene¬ 
tian kingdom, on the southeast by the kingdom of Naples, and on the 
west by Modena and Tuscany. Its extreme length is 260 miles from 
north to south, and its breadth from 20 to 95 miles. It contains 17,000 
square miles. The Duchy of Benevento, and the principality of Ponte 
Corvo are two small districts belonging to this territory, insulated in 
the kingdom of Naples. 

2. Face of the Country. This territory is intersected by the Apen¬ 
nines. The mountains are high and barren. The Campagna di 
Roma is a continuation of the Tuscan Maremma, and is noted for 
its unhealthy malaria. It exhibits an undulating surface bare of 
trees. The Pontine marshes are in the south. The ancient Csesars 
and modern Popes have in vain attempted to drain them. 

3. Rivers. The Tiber, though not the largest stream in Italy, is 
the first in classical celebrity. It rises in the Apennines, near the 
source of the Arno, and passes through the city of Rome to the Med¬ 
iterranean : it is 200 miles in length, and has a full, but narrow 
stream; it is only 300 feet wide at Rome. There is no other river of 
importance within this territory. The northern boundary is washed 
by the Po. 

4. Lakes. The lake of Perugia near the city of that name is the 


278 


STATES OF THE CHURCH, 


ancient Thrasymenus, and is famous for a battle between Hannibal 
and the Romans. It is a beautiful sheet of water 4 miles across, bor¬ 
dered with gently sloping hills, everywhere covered with woods or 
cultivated fields, and rising at a distance into mountains. The lakes 
of Albano and Nemi are charmingly situated among hills. There are 
other small lakes. 

5. Climate. The climate is mild, but the mountains are covered 
with snow from October to April. The Sirocco, or hot wind from 
Africa, is felt on the shore of the Mediterranean. In the mountainous 
parts, the air is healthy, but in the Maremma on the coast, and in the 
neighborhood of the Pontine marshes, are pestilential exhalations 
which cause fever and ague. The northern parts near the Po are also 
unhealthy. 

6. Falls. The cataract of the Velino, near Terni, is a beautiful 
cascade. The Velino here falls 300 feet into the Nera, a tributary of 
the Tiber. At Tivoli, the Teverone forms a beautiful fall, pre¬ 
cipitating itself over a rock 100 feet high. Both these falls are 
artificial. 

7. Divisions. The States of the Church are divided into 14 prov¬ 
inces, bearing the names of their chief towns. They are the province 
of Rome, styled comarca or county; those of Bologna, Ferrara, 
Ravenna, and Forli, styled legations; and those of Urbino, Ancona, 
Macerata, Fermo, Spoleto, Perugia, Viterbo, Frosinone, and Benevento, 
styled delegations. 

8. Toivns. Rome, the capital of the state, stands upon both sides of 
the Tiber, 15 miles from the sea. It is situated on several low hills, 
and is 16 miles in circumference, comprehending, however, within 
this space much open ground, gardens, vineyards, and fields. Once 
the capital of an empire^ which embraced nearly the whole of the 
known world, and for centuries, the residence of the popes, who have 
adorned it with all the splendors of painting, sculpture, and architec¬ 
ture, there is no place that can compare with Rome in its majestic 
ruins, its associations with the past, the solemn grandeur of its churches 
and palaces, and its endless treasures of art. 

It contains at present a population of 154,000 souls, 364 churches, 
30 monasteries, 46 public squares, and 125 palaces. The modern city 
is a little north of ancient Rome, the site of which is principally cov¬ 
ered with gardens and vineyards. Fifteen gates, several of which are 
distinguished for their magnificence, form the entrances into the city. 
Several of the principal streets are spacious and of great length ; among 
these is the Corso, in which the races are held, and which forms the 
favorite promenade of the Romans. Many streets, however, are crook¬ 
ed, narrow, and dirty. 

The winter residence of the popes is the Vatican, the largest palace 
in Europe, containing 4,420 halls, and galleries, filled with the treas¬ 
ures of ancient and modern art. The library is one of the largest and 
richest in the world. The Quirinal palace is the summer residence, 
and its gardens are the most beautiful in Italy. The palaces of the 
rich Romans, and the villas, or palaces surrounded with gardens, 
groves, and parks, resemble rather the residences of princes, than of 
private individuals; and many of them are adorned with a profusion 
of the finest works of statuary and painting; the edifices themselves 
are the productions of the greatest geniuses of modern times. 


279 


OR PAPAL DOMINIONS. 

The churches are equally distinguished for beauty of architecture, 
their vast dimensions, and the splendor of their decorations. St. 
Peter’s is the most magnificent church in the world; in front of the 
building is a beautiful square, surrounded by a noble colonnade, and 
ornamented with an obelisk and two fountains. The immense dome, 
the boldest work of modern architecture, rises to < the height of 520 
feet; under this is the high altar, with a colossal canopy, supported by 
four bronze pillars, 120 feet in height. After St. Peter’s, the most 
remarkable churches are St. John’s of Lateran, in which the popes are 
crowned, and which is their parochial church; Great St. Mary’s; 
and the Rotonda, or ancient Pantheon, a Roman temple, admired for 
its majestic portico, its colossal granite columns, and its vast dome. 

The number of literary institutions and societies in Rome is very 
great, and there are academies for all branches of the fine arts. The 
university della Sapienza, the Roman College, the Propaganda, for the 
education of missionaries, and 21 colleges, are the chief establishments 
for education. 

There are many remarkable monuments of ancient Rome, which 
should not be forgotten in an account of the modern city. The A31ian 
bridge over the Tiber, now called the bridge of St. Angelo, is one of 
the finest in Italy. The mausoleum of Adrian, a rounded pyramid of 
white marble, called also from its great size Adrian’s Mole, now bears 
the name of the castle of St. Angelo; it has been converted into a 
citadel, and in it are kept the treasures of the popes, and the bulls and 
documents of the papal court; prisoners of state are also confined 
here. The Coliseum, a vast amphitheatre, 1,600 feet in circumference, 
and capable of containing 100,000 spectators, is much decayed. Sev¬ 
eral temples, the columns of Antonine and Trajan, the triumphal 
arches of Titus and Constantine, and numerous obelisks are in good 
preservation. The Cloaca Maxima or Great Sewer is of colossal di¬ 
mensions, and is one of the oldest Roman Constructions; it is composed 
of enormous stones, and its vaults are from 10 to 16 feet high, and from 
12 to 14 wide. 

Bologna, a large and handsome city, delightfully situated at the foot 
of the Apennines, is the second town of the state. The houses are 
mostly built of stone with arcades in front, so that foot passengers can 
pass through the city under cover. There are many churches and 
palaces here remarkable for their, architecture, and their treasures of 
statuary and painting. Bologna has long been famous for its learned 
institutions, and the university is the oldest in Europe, and one of the 
best in Italy. The Scientific Institute is a magnificent institution, with 
a rich library of 160,000 volumes, an observatory, and valuable cabinets 
of art and science. Population 71,000. 

Ferrara, to the north of Bologna, is a large and superb city, but is 
rendered unhealthy by the marshes which surround it; it is now 
half deserted, and the grass grows in front of its noble palaces. Its 
polished court was once the resort of the most famous wits of Italy, 
and there are a university and a valuable library here. Ferrara con¬ 
tains a strong citadel, now occupied by Austrian troops. Population 
24,000. 

Ravenna, formerly a populous city, and successively the residence 
of the emperors of the Western Roman empire, of the Gothic kings, 
and of the exarchs of Italy, is now much reduced. The neighboring 


280 


REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. 


marshes render it unhealthy, and its fine port, in which the Roman 
fleets wintered, is now filled up with mud. It still contains many re¬ 
mains of its ancient magnificence, and here repose the bones of the 
divine Dante. Population 16,000. 

Rimini is a large and handsome city, containing numerous remains 
of antiquity and several fine churches. Its harbor is now choked up, * 
and the sea has receded more than two miles from the ancient light¬ 
house. Population 15,000. 

Ancona, is a place of considerable commerce, with a good*harbor 
upon the gulf of Venice. Its manufactures are also extensive; pop¬ 
ulation 30,000. Sinigaglia to the north of Ancona, with 8,000 inhab¬ 
itants, is famous for its fair. Loretto to the south is celebrated for its 
/cathedral, in which is shown the house of the Virgin Mary, said to 
have been brought hither by angels. 

Perugia, situated upon the Tiber, in the midst of a fertile and highly 
cultivated district, contains a university, and has a population of 30,000 
inhabitants. Its silk manufactures are important, and its library, 
museum of antiquities, ruins, &c., render it interesting. 

Civita Vecchia on the western coast, with 7,000 inhabitants, is a 
strongly fortified port, with a dock yard, and considerable commerce. 

Benevento, within the Neapolitan territories, with 14,000 inhab¬ 
itants ; Spoleto 7,000 inhabitants; and Urbino 7,000, are interesting 
from the important part they have played in the history of modern 
Italy. 

9. Industry. Neither commerce, manufactures, nor agriculture is 
in a flourishing condition. Much of the land is uncultivated, and the 
commerce is chiefly in the hands of foreigners. 

10. Government. The government is an elective but absolute mon¬ 
archy, the sovereign, styled the Pope, being elected by the conclave 
or college of cardinals. The Pope is the spiritual head of the Roman 
Catholic church, and styles himself the successor of St. Peter, and 
God’s vicegerent upon earth. The temporal power of the Popes first 
grew up in the 12th century, when they possessed the territories on 
the Tiber, thence called the Patrimony of St. Peter. Bologna, the 
duchies of Ferrara and Urbino, and the marquisate or march of Anco¬ 
na, were acquired during the 16th and 17th centuries, by conquest, 
voluntary submission, or donation. The revenue of the papal govern¬ 
ment is about $ 10,000,000 ; the debt 70 millions. 


LXXIV. REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. 

This little republic is an independent state, but is under the protec¬ 
tion of the Pope, and is inclosed in the Papal States. It consists of a 
mountainous tract among the Apennines, containing 22 square miles, 
and a population of 7,000. It is productive in wine and corn. The 
town of San Marino stands on the summit of a mountain, and is 
accessible only by a narrow path. The constitution is a mixture of 
aristocracy and democracy. The punishment of death has never been 
inflicted within this territory. 


281 


LXXV. TUSCANY. 

1. Boundaries , Extent , and Divisions. The Grand Duchy of Tus¬ 
cany is bounded north and east by the Roman States, southwest by 
die Mediterranean, and northwest by Lucca. It contains 8,430 square 
miles, and is divided into five provinces, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Arezzo, 
and Grossetto, bearing the names of their chief towns. 

2. Rivers. The chief river is the Arno, which rises among the 
mountains in the eastern part, and flows westerly to the sea. In sum¬ 
mer it is a shallow stream, flowing in the middle of a broad channel; 
but when swelled by rains or the melting of the snows, it becomes a 
broad and deep river. It is navigable by barges from Florence to the 
sea. The Ombrone in the south is not navigable. The Tiber rises 
in the mountains of this country. 

3. Island. The island of Elba, nine miles from the coast of Tuscany, 
is 60 miles in circumference, and contains 160 square miles. It is 
mountainous, and covered with aromatic plants and bushes. The 
chief production is iron, taken mostly from a single mountain. The 
island contains also copper, lead, and silver mines, and produces ex¬ 
cellent wine. The chief town, Porto Ferraio, has a good harbor, with 
2,000 inhabitants. In 1814 this island was given in entire sovereignty 
to Napoleon, who resided here till February 1815. 

4. Climate. The climate is exceedingly diversified. On the moun¬ 
tains the snow lies for weeks during the winter; in the valleys it 
scarcely continues a day. Rain is not common, but the dews are 
copious. On the Apennines, and in the delightful valley of the Arno, 
the air is always healthy. In summer the southerly winds are very 
oppressive, and the region of the Maremma is unhealthy. 

5. Soil. The vale of the Arno is rich and well cultivated. The soil 
on the Apennines is stony. The coast is low, sandy, and in some 
parts swampy. In the southern part begins the desolate region called 
the Maremma, the soil of which is impregnated with sulphur and alum. 
The Malaria or unhealthy exhalations of this region have obliged the 
population to emigrate, or swept them off by disease. In those parts 
which are cultivated, the peasants from the mountains come down to 
gather in the harvest, but they often fall victims to the insidious air. 
This region extends from near Leghorn to Terracina, about 200 miles, 
and from the sea to the foot of the Apennines, from 25 to 30 miles. 

6. Face of the Country. The surface is agreeably diversified with 
hills, valleys, and plains. The Apennines, entering the country on 
the north, traverse it in a southeasterly direction. None of the sum¬ 
mits in Tuscany rises above 3,000 feet; they are sometimes bleak and 
barren, but generally covered to the tops with vegetation and forests. 
The Valdarno or Vale of the Arno is one of the most delightful regions 
in the world. 

7. Towns. Florence (in Italian Firenze), the capital, stands on the 
Arno, 50 miles from its mouth ; its delightful situation in a populous 
and highly cultivated valley, and its noble edifices, erected and adorned 
by the genius of Raphael and Michael Angelo, justly entitle it to the 
epithet of La Bella or the Beautiful. The cradle of the reviving arts, 
and the capital of a republic, whose commerce extended oyer the 
known world and whose merchants were princes, Florence is inferior. 


282 


TUSCANY. 


only to Rome in objects of interest. The Palace Pitti, the ordinary 
residence of the grand duke, is one of the most magnificent in Europe, 
and the old palace, which is connected with it by a gallery 1500 feet 
long, is scarcely inferior to it. The Medicean gallery contains the 
richest collections of antiquities and of the fine arts in the world, and 
many of the palaces of the nobles and the churches contain cabinets, 
and works of art of every description. 

The most remarkable churches, are the Duomo or Cathedral, 
celebrated for its superb dome, its magnificent steeple, and the richness 
of its material; the Baptistery or church of John the Baptist \ and 
Santa Croce, which contains the magnificent mausoleums of the 
illustrious dead, among whom are Michael Angelo, Machiavelli, and 
Galilei. The literary establishments of Florence are also numerous, 
and there are several invaluable libraries, among which is the Mag- 
liabecchian with 150,000 volumes. There are extensive manufac¬ 
tures of silk, and of various articles of luxury in Florence, and its 
commerce is considerable. • Population 80,000. 

Leghorn ( in Italian Livorno) is the chief seaport of Tuscany. It 
is a neat, and well built town, with a tolerable harbor. The streets 
are filled with Europeans, Turks, Jews, Armenians, Greeks, and 
Moors, exhibiting a most picturesque variety of costume. The com¬ 
merce of the place is very active. Population 66,000. 

Pisa, upon the Arno, once a large and populous city, the capital of 
a powerful republic, now contains but 20,000 inhabitants. It still 
possesses the principal university of Tuscany, which a rich library, a 
valuable cabinet, and an observatory render one of the most respectable 
in Italy. The cathedral is remarkable for its vast dimensions, and 
the Campo Santo or cemetery is admired for the fresco paintings, 
which adorn the Gothic halls that enclose it. But the most sin¬ 
gular structure of Pisa is the Campanile or Leaning Tower, which is 
190 feet high, and inclines upwards of 15 feet from the perpendicular; 
it is now 600 years old. 

Sienna, a large and handsome city, was also once the capital of a 
flourishing republic, but, like many other cities of Italy, it is now 
much reduced, having only 18,000 inhabitants. Its university and 
academy of science have much celebrity. Pistoia has a celebrated 
manufactory of organs, and manufactures of wool, gold, and silver, and 
firearms. Population 12,000. 

8. Commerce and Manufactures. Tuscany is one of the most indus¬ 
trious countries of Italy. Silk manufactures are the principal branch 
of industry in the Florentine cities. Straw hats are made in great 
numbers by women, in the valley of the Arno. The other manufac¬ 
tures are porcelain, soap, perfumes, works in marble, coral, alabaster, and 
mosaics. Leghorn has a considerable commerce with the Levant, Eu¬ 
rope, and America. 

9. Government , fyc. The government is an absolute monarchy. 
The revenue is above 3,000,000, dollars. There are 4,000 regular 
troops, besides militia. The population is 1,300,000. 

10. Religion and Education. The religion of the people is Roman 
Catholic; the number of priests is about 8,000, and education is exclu¬ 
sively in their hands. There are universities at Pisa, Florence, and 
Sienna. There are also many secondary institutions or colleges, and 
females are instructed in the convents. Schools for elementary in- 


DUCHY OF PARMA. 


283 


struction have also been established in all the towns, but though Tus¬ 
cany is the best educated country in Italy, not one half of the popula¬ 
tion can read or write. 

11. History. Florence, Pisa, and Sienna were powerful republics 
during the Middle Ages. In the 15th century the rich family of 
Medici acquired the sovereignty of Florence, and in the 16th assumed 
the title of dukes of Tuscany, and conquered Pisa and Sienna. In 
1737 the Medici family became extinct, and the sovereignty passed to 
the duke of Lorraine, an Austrian prince. On the death of the duchess 
of Parma, the duchy of Lucca will be incorporated with Tuscany. 


LXXYI. DUCHY OF LUCCA. 

This duchy lies upon the Mediterranean, and is bounded on the east 
and south by Tuscany. It contains 418 square miles and a population 
of 143,000. It has a senate which exercises the legislative power. It 
is the most populous and best cultivated part of Italy, and yields good 
wine and excellent oil. 

Lucca, the capital, stands in a plain, and is surrounded by walls. The 
ramparts are planted with rows of trees, between which is an elevated 
road round the whole city. The streets are narrow, and crooked, and 
the public buildings without beauty. There is a university here with 
an observatory. Population 22,000. 


LXXVIL DUCHY OF MODENA. 

This little state is bounded by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the 
States of the Church, Tuscany, and Parma. It has an area of 2,100 
square miles with 380,000 inhabitants. The territory is fertile and 
well cultivated. The government is an absolute monarchy. 

Modena, the capital, is a handsome city with 27,000 inhabitants. 
The ducal palace is an elegant edifice, and the cathedral is remarkable 
for its tower, the loftiest in Italy. There are here a university, a library 
with 80,000 volumes, and several colleges and scientific institutions. 

Reggio also contains a ducal palace, a cathedral, and a museum of 
natural history. Population 18,000. 

Carrara is a small town from the quarries of which is procured the 
famous statuary marble, which is exported in large quantities. 


LXXVIII. DUCHY OF PARMA. 

Parma is bounded north by the Po; E. by Modena, and S. and W. 
by Sardinia. It has an area of 2,200 square miles and 440,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. The country is hilly, but fertile and highly cultivated. 

Parma, the capital, is a handsome city, containing many remarkable 
buildings, and its churches are adorned with numerous masterpieces 
of Italian painters. The ducal palace, the extensive university build¬ 
ings, and the theatre, the largest in Europe, are the principal edifices. 
Here is also the celebrated Bodoni press. Population 30,000.. 

Piacenza, on the Po, is a large city, with a great number of splendid 


284 


AUSTRIAN ITALY OR 


houses; but its population is now reduced to 28,000 inhabitants. The 
corso or principal street is one of the handsomest in Italy. The citadel 
is occupied by Austrian troops 


LXXIX. AUSTRIAN ITALY OR LOMBARDO- 
VENETIAN KINGDOM. 

1. Boundaries and Population. The Austrian dominions in Italy 
occupy the northeastern part of the country, comprising the territories 
of the former republic of Venice in the east, and those of the duchies 
of Milan and Mantua, with some Swiss districts in the west.* They 
are bounded north by the German provinces of Austria, and by Swit¬ 
zerland ; E. by the Adriatic; S. by the States of the Church, Modena, 
and Parma, and W. by Sardinia. They extend from 45° to 46° 40' N. 
Lat., and from 9° to 14° E. Lon., having an area of 18,000 square miles, 
and a population of 4,200,000. 

2. Rivers. The Po is the principal river of Italy ; it rises in the 
Alps on the borders of France and Sardinia, and receiving numerous 
tributaries from the north and south, passes easterly into the Adriatic, 
by several mouths. Its whole length is 375 miles, and it is navigable 
to Turin. The Po is every where deep and rapid. Its principal tributa¬ 
ries in Austrian Italy are the Ticino, which rises in Switzerland at the foot 
of Mont St. Gothard, and passing through Lake Maggiore, enters the Po 
just below Pavia; the Adda, which passes through Lake Como, and 
enters the Po after a course of 150 miles ; and the Mincio, which dis¬ 
charges the waters of the Lake of Garda. The Adige, which rises in 
the mountains of Tyrol, flows south and east into the Adriatic, after a 
course of 225 miles. 

3. LaJ(es. The lakes are more remarkable for their beauty than their 
size. Lago Maggiore, on the borders of Milan and Sardinia, is 45 miles 
long by from six to eight broad. Its waters are as clear as crystal, and its 
banks are highly picturesque. In it lie the Borromean Isles, laid out in 
gardens and pleasure grounds, and containing handsome villas. The 
Lakes of Como, Iseo, and Garda are smaller, but highly beautiful. All 
of these lakes discharge their waters into the Po. 

4. Climate and Face of the Country. The country is for the most 
part level, but towards the north is broken by spurs of the Alps. To 
the west of Padua are the Euganean hills, from 1500 to 1800 feet high, 
of volcanic origin. The climate is mild and healthy; near the Alps it 
is cold, and even in the other parts the rivers are sometimes frozen in 
winter, and the southern plants are injured by frosts. The heats of 
summer are tempered by refreshing breezes from the Alps. 

5. Towns. Milan, the capital of the kingdom, and the residence of 
the viceroy, is a large and splendid city, 11 miles in circumference. It 
stands in the middle of a vast plain, on a spot without any natural ad¬ 
vantages, yet the fine canals from the Ticino and Adda, make it the 

*The present political divisons are, 1st, the Government of Milan com¬ 
prising the nine Lombard provinces — Milan, Pavia, Lodi , Como, Cremona, 
Sondrio, or the Valteline, Bergamo, Brescia, and Mantua. 2d, the Gov¬ 
ernment of Venice, comprising eight Provinces— Venice, Verona, Padua, 
Vicenza, Rovigo, Trevisa, Belluno, and Udine or Friuli. These provinces are 
officially styled delegations. 


LOMBARDO-VENET1AN KINGDOM. 


285 


centre of a considerable trade. It is considered one of the most elegant 
cities in Italy, and was very much improved and beautified by Napo¬ 
leon. The finest building is the Cathedral, which, after St. Peter’s, is 
the largest and most sumptuous church in Italy. It is built of pure 
white marble, and while the exterior dazzles the beholder by the bril¬ 
liancy of its material, the richness of its Gothic ornaments, and its 4000 
statues, he is not less struck with admiration by the splendid interior, 
resting upon 52 marble columns. The college of Brera, now called the 
Royal Palace of the sciences; the viceregal palace; the vast and mag¬ 
nificent barracks; the theatre della Scala, one of the largest in the 
world; the triumphal arch at the termination of the Simplon road, 
and the great hospital, with the numerous elegant palaces and houses 
of private persons, constitute some of the ornaments of this city. The 
literary institutions of Milan are in high repute. Its manufactures are 
extensive and various, comprising silks, jewelry, &c. Population 
150,000. 

Brescia, situated in a fertile and highly cultivated plain, has exten¬ 
sive manufactures of silk, cutlery, and firearms. Population 31,000. 

Bergamo, a manufacturing place with a flourishing trade in silk and 
iron, is remarkable for its great annual fair; the fair hall is a large 
building containing 600 shops. Population 24,000. 

Cremona, on the Po is a large city famous for its manufacture of 
violins. Its cathedral is a remarkable Gothic edifice of great dimensions, 
with one of the loftiest towers in Europe. Population 26,000. To the 
north is Lodi with 18,000 inhabitants, and manufactures of silk and 
porcelain. The Parmesan cheese is made in the neighborhood. 

Mantua, on a lake near the Mincio, is a large and handsome city, but 
its population, 27,000 inhabitants, is disproportionate to its extent. Its 
situation and military works render it one of the strongest fortresses in 
Europe. In the neighborhood is shown the birth-place of Virgil. 

Pavia, on the Po, contains many elegant edifices, and a celebrated 
university. The Carthusian monastery in its neighborhood, is one of 
the finest in Italy. Population 21,000. 

Venice is certainly the most singular city in the world. It is built 
upon piles in the midst of a large Lagoon or lake, covered with a great 
number of little isles, which are separated from each other by narrow 
canals. These are crossed by 500 bridges, and as the streets are so ex¬ 
tremely naiTow as to render the use of carriages impossible, the usual 
vehicle of transportation is a sort of little bark, called a gondola, which 
plies back and forth upon the canals. A great number of sumptuous 
palaces still remind the visiter of the glorious times of the now fallen 
city, once the commercial capital of the world, the mistress of the seas, 
and the cradle of modern civilization. Among the bridges is the famous 
Rialto, one of the most magnificent in Europe; it is 187 feet long, and 
of a single arch. There are forty one public squares, but that of St. 
Mark, surrounded by splendid buildings and commanding a fine view 
of the sea, is the most remarkable. There stands the church of St. 
Mark, an ancient building in the Oriental style, and the ducal palace, a 
vast and magnificent edifice, ornamented with the splendid masterpieces 
of the Venetian painters, and connected with the Prisons called the 
leads (piombi, lead roofs), by the Bridge of Sighs. The arsenal, long 
famous as the largest in Europe, still contains every thing necessary for 
equipping a fleet. There are several literary institutions and learned 


286 


AUSTRIAN ITALY. 


societies of reputation, and the library of St. Mark’s is one of the richest 
in Italy. The commerce and manufactures of Venice, though much 
declined from their former importance, are yet considerable. The 
book-trade is extensive, and glass, silk, woollen, and linen goods, arti¬ 
ficial flowers, gold wire, &c., are manufactured here. Population 
150,000. 

Verona, on the Adige, is a large manufacturing city, with an exten¬ 
sive trade and 55,000 inhabitants. It is pleasantly situated, and, though 
many of the streets are narrow and dirty, contains several fine build¬ 
ings." Here are 93 churches, 41 convents, and 18 hospitals. The 
scene of Shakspeare’s Romeo and Juliet is laid in Verona, and a sar¬ 
cophagus is still shown here as the tomb of Juliet. Verona also 
contains the remains of an ancient Roman amphitheatre, built of enor¬ 
mous blocks of marble, 1290 feet in circumference, and capable of 
accommodating 22,000 spectators. 

Padua is a flourishing city, with an extensive trade and manufac¬ 
tures. It is remarkable for the number and excellence of its learned 
establishments, among which is its celebrated university, formerly 
visited by students from all parts of Europe ; attached to it are an obser¬ 
vatory, a botanic garden, and rich cabinets of natural history, and 
physics. Population 50,000. 

Vicenza, situated in a fertile plain, has extensive manufactures of 
silk. It is adorned with the works of the celebrated architect Palladio, 
who was born here. In its vicinity is the sanctuary of Our Lady of 
the Mount, the entrance to which is through an arcade, a mile in 
length. Population of Vicenza 30,000. 

6. Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief dependence of the inhab¬ 
itants, but the implements and operations of husbandry are imperfect. 
The artificial irrigation of lands is a striking feature of agriculture in 
Lombardy ; the canals for this purpose are very numerous, and water 
is thus employed for grass and corn lands and vineyards, and also to 
flood lands sown with rice. It is also used, when charged with mud, 
for depositing a layer of it as manure. The lands in Lombardy are 
generally farmed on the metayer or half-profit system. The landlord 
pays the taxes, and keeps the buildings in repair, while the tenant pro¬ 
vides the cattle, implements, and seeds, and cultivates the ground, and 
the produce is equally divided. 

7. Commerce and Manufactures. The inland trade with the German 
provinces is active, and Venice has considerable commerce with the 
Levant. Wine, oil, silks, rice, and various manufactured articles are 
exported. The principal manufactures are silk, glass, iron, and steel 
wares, perfumes, porcelain, carpets, and other articles of luxury. 

8. Government , Education, fyc. The religion is the Roman Catholic; 
the government, absolute monarchy. Education in this kingdom is 
wholly under the control of the government. Every town is required 
to have its elementary school, which is supported at the municipal 
expense. The higher schools are the gymnasia, in which are taught 
the learned languages and rhetoric, and the lyceums, in which are 
added history, and natural philosophy. The universities of Padua and 
Pavia are among the most distinguished in Italy. 

9. History. The ancient republic of Venice was founded in the 6th 
century, and from the marshy islands of the Adriatic, it gradually ex¬ 
tended its limits so as to embrace a large portion of the neighboring 


KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. 


287 


continent. In the 13th century this republic had become one of the 
most flourishing and powerful states in the world. The discovery of 
the passage to India by the Portuguese, at the end of the 15th century, 
ruined the commerce of Venice with the East, and from that time the 
republic began to decline. It had become totally insignificant on the 
breaking out of the French revolutionary wars, in the course of which 
it fell into the hands of Austria. The duchies of Milan and Mantua, 
formerly sovereign states, were also incorporated with the Austrian 
empire. 


LXXX. PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO. 

This state situated on the Sardinian coast, is under the protection of 
the king of Sardinia. It has an area of 50 square miles, with 6,500 
inhabitants. The prince usually resides in Paris. 

Monaco, the capital, is a small town, built upon a rock, with 1,000 
inhabitants. The largest town in the principality is Mentone, which 
has 3,000 inhabitants. 


LXXXI. KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. 

1. Boundaries , Extent , and Divisions. This kingdom takes its name 
from the island of Sardinia, yet the most important part is upon the 
continent. This portion forms the northwestern extremity of Italy, 
and consists of four principal divisions, namely, 1st. the principality 
of Piedmont, with Montferrat and a part of the Milanese; 2d. the 
county of Nice or Nizza: 3d. the Duchy of Savoy : and 4th. the Duchy 
of Genoa.* 

The continental portion is bounded by Switzerland on the north : by 
Austrian Italy and the duchy of Parma on the east:, by the Mediterra¬ 
nean on the south : and by France on the west. It extends from 
430 44/^ 46° 20'N. Lat., and from 5° 40' to 10° E. Lon., being 200 
miles in length from north to south and 135 in breadth. 

The island of Sardinia, constituting the 5th division, lies to the 
south of Corsica, and is separated from it by a narrow strait. It 
is 162 miles in length and 70 in mean breadth. The continental 
dominions contain 19,125 square miles, and the island 9,675. Total 
28,800. 

2. Mountains. Sardinia contains several chains of the Alps, com¬ 
prising the highest summits in Europe. The Maritime Alps rise near 
Savona, and extending west separate Genoa and Nice from Piedmont; 
then bending north, they divide the latter country from France, termi¬ 
nating near Mount Viso. Their highest summits do not much exceed 
10,000 feet. The Cottian Alps extend from Mt. Viso to Mt. Cenis, 
separating Piedmont from France and Savoy. Several of their sum¬ 
mits rise to the height of 12,000 feet and upwards; the loftiest, Mt. Olan, 
has an elevation of 13,819 feet. The Graian or Grecian Alps extend 
from Mt. Cenis to the col or pass of Bonhomme, separating Aosta 

* The official political division is into ten intendances, eight on the continent; 
Turin, Coni, Alessandria, Novara, Aosta, Nizza, Genoa, and Savoy, and two on 
the island of Sardinia; Cagliari and Sassari. 


288 KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. 

from Savoy. They have about the same elevation as the preced- 
ing. 

The Pennine Alps separate Piedmont from the Valais in Switzer¬ 
land, and contain the highest points in the Alps, rising into regions of 
perpetual snow; Mont Blanc, 15,732 feet high, and Mount Rosa, 
15,152. In this chain is the Great St. Bernard 11,000 feet high, 
remarkable for its hospice, which standing upon a barren height 7,668 
feet in height, and surrounded by an eternal winter, is inhabited by a 
few monks, who here devote their lives to the service of humanity. 
They provide travellers with food and if poor with clothing, and serve 
them as guides. In the midst of tempests and snow-storms, they issue 
forth accompanied by their large dogs of a peculiar breed, for the pur¬ 
pose of discovering and relieving those who have lost their way. If 
they find the body of one who has perished, they deposit it in their 
burial vault, where, on account of the cold, it remains for years unde¬ 
cayed. 

3. Rivers. The Rhone forms the northwestern boundary, and re¬ 
ceives several tributaries from the Graian and Pennine Alps. The 
principal are the Isere, which enters France, and the Arve, flowing 
through the celebrated vale of Chamouni, which lies at the foot of 
Mont Blanc, and is unrivalled for the beauty and grandeur of its 
scenery. The Po rises at the foot of Mount Viso, and receives several 
large streams from the north and the south, among which are the Ta- 
naro from the Maritime, and the Dora from the Pennine Alps. The 
Var flows down the southern declivity of the Maritime chain, and 
empties itself into the Mediterranean, after separating Nice from 
France. 

4. Climate. In the valleys of Savoy there is often fine spring 
weather, when the high grounds are covered with snow. In this part 
the climate is too severe for the southern fruits. The valley of Pied¬ 
mont is subject to the cold northerly winds from the Alps; yet the air 
is healthy, and the vine flourishes. In the south the Apennines 
afford a shelter against the northern blasts: here the olive and the 
fruits of the south prosper. The island of Sardinia has a hot climate, 
and in the marshy spots putrid fevers are common in summer. 

5. Soil. The soil of Savoy is stony, and unfavorable to agricul¬ 
ture. The fertile earth lies in thin strata on the rocks, and is often 
washed away by the torrents. In Piedmont, Montferrat, and the 
Milanese, are level and rich alluvial tracts. The soil in the island 
of Sardinia is extremely fertile; but the canals, which formerly 
drained it, are neglected, and many parts have become pestilential 
swamps. 

6. Toions. Turin, the capital of the kingdom, is situated in a 
pleasant valley, on the western bank of the Po, at the foot of a range 
of beautiful hills. It is the most regularly built of all the Italian cities, 
with broad, straight, and clean streets. It is admired for the symme¬ 
try of its squares, the splendor of its hotels, and the general elegance 
of its houses. It has 4 splendid gates, adorned with pillars and cased 
with marble; 110 churches, a university, and many fine palaces. The 
royal palace is spacious and surrounded with delightful gardens. Pop¬ 
ulation 115,000. 

Genoa stands on the shore of a broad gulf to which it gives its name. 
This city spreads over a wide semicircular tract of rocks and declivities, 


GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY. 


289 


and the aspect of its white buildings ascending in regular succession 
from the sea, is highly magnificent. The interior consists of streets or 
rather lanes, 8 or 10 feet wide, between immensely high palaces. Two 
of the streets only are accessible to carriages. The Strada Balbi is 
one of the most magnificent streets in the world, and is full of splendid 
palaces. Genoa has several public libraries, a university, and other 
literary institutions. Its harbor is one of the finest in Europe, and it 
has a considerable trade. Genoa was once the capital of a powerful 
republic, the naval and commercial rival of Venice, and its beautiful 
situation, its magnificent churches, and splendid palaces, amply entitle 
itto the surname of the Superb, given it by the Italians. Population 

Alessandria, on the Tanaro, is a place of some trade, with 35,000 
inhabitants. In its neighborhood are Marengo, the scene of one of the 
victories of Bonaparte, and Asti with 22,000 inhabitants, a commercial 
and manufacturing town. 

Nice or Nizza, situated on the Mediterranean, h'as a good port and 
an active commerce, with 25,000 inhabitants. Its delightful situation, 
and its mild climate render it a charming winter residence for many 
foreigners. Coni or Cuneo, with 18,000 inhabitants, Novara, with 
15,000, Vercelli, 15,000, and Savona, 12,000, flourishing manufactur¬ 
ing and trading towns, and Chamberry, the capital of Savoy, with 
11,000 inhabitants, are places of some interest. 

Cagliari, capital of Sardinia, is a place of considerable trade, with 
a good harbor, and 27,000 inhabitants. Sassari has a population of 
19,000. 

7. Industry. The land is principally owned by large proprietors, 
and cultivated by tenants on the metayer system. The districts 
on the Po are in a high state of cultivation. Wine, oil, rice, silk, 
perfumes, soap, &c., are among the principal articles of export. 

8. Religion and Education. With the exception of about 20,000 
Waldenses, a sect somewhat resembling the Calvinists, the inhabitants 
are Roman Catholics. The clergy is neither very numerous nor very 
rich. There are universities at Turin, Genoa, Cagliari, and Sassari; 
and elementary and higher schools have lately been established in the 
principal towns, under the direction of the clergy. 

9. Government , fyc. The power of the crown is unlimited, but in 
Genoa the assent of the Estates is necessary for the imposition of new 
taxes. The population amounts to 4,300,000; the revenue to 12 million 
dollars, the debt to 20 millions. The army is composed of 46,850 men; 
the navy of 12 ships. 


LXXXII. GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Italy is bounded on the north and 
northwest by the Alps, which separate it from France, Switzerland, 
and the Austrian empire; on the E. by the Adriatic sea, and on the 
south and west by the Mediterranean. It is comprised between 6° and 
18° E. Lon., and 37° and 47° N. Lat., forming a long peninsula about 
700 miles in length, with a general width of nearly 150 miles. Area 
125,000 square miles ; population 21,400,000. 

2. Mountains. The Alps occupy the northern and northwestern 

19 n 


290 


GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY. 


border. The Apennines extend through the whole peninsula from the 
valley of Savona to the Strait of Messina, sending off a branch to 
Otranto. They nowhere rise to the limit of perpetual ice, but are 
covered with snow in winter, and are crowned to their summits with 
trees. The highest mountains are Mount Corno, or the Gran Sasso, 
9,520 feet, and Mont Velino 8,183 feet high. 

3. Rivers. The only large river is the Po, which drains nearly the 
whole of the northern part. Most of the other streams rise in the 
Apennines, whose vicinity to the sea on both sides, prevents their 
having a long course. 

4. Islands and Seas. On the northeast is an arm of the Mediterra¬ 
nean called the Adriatic sea or the Gulf of Venice. It is about 600 
miles long, and 150 wide, and its narrow entrance is commanded by 
the island of Corfu. It has several good harbors, but in some parts the 
coast is dangerous. Its principal bays are the gulfs of Trieste and 
Manfredonia. To the southeast of Italy, between Sicily and Greece 
is the Ionian sea, which is connected by the Strait or Faro of 
Messina with the Sicilian sea, lying between Naples and Sicily, and 
containing the Lipari Isles. The part of the sea between the islands of 
Corsica and Sardinia and the Tuscan shore, is often called the Tuscan 
or Tyrrhenian sea, and between Nice and Lucca is the Gulf of Genoa. 
The principal islands are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. To the south 
of Sicily is the Maltese group, comprising Malta, Gozzo, and Comino, 
and belonging to Great Britain. 

5. Canals. It was in Italy that the great improvement of construct¬ 
ing locks and sluices in canals, so as to pass boats from one level to 
another, was first introduced. The canals of Italy are in part intended 
for purposes of irrigation, and in part for navigation. The former are 
numerous in Sardinia, the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, Tuscany, 
and the northern part of the Papal dominions. Of the latter the prin¬ 
cipal are the Naviglio Grande from the upper part of the Ticino to 
Milan, which has been continued from Milan to Pavia by the Pavia 
canal: total length 30 miles; the Martesana canal from Milan to the 
Adda 24 miles; the Pisa canal from Pisa to Leghorn ; the Cento canal 
from Bologna to Ferrara, 34 miles, whence it is continued to the main 
branch of the Po ; and the canal from Modena to the Panaro. 

6. Roads. The mountain roads which connect France with Savoy, 
and Valais with Italy, from the difficulties overcome in their construc¬ 
tion, and the immense labor necessary in erecting bridges, excavating 
tunnels, &c., rank among the greatest productions of human energy 
and art in modern times. The road over Mt. Cenis, which was for¬ 
merly passed only on mules or in sedans, is 30 miles long, and passable 
by carriages; it rises to the height of 6,775 feet. The road over the 
Simplon, from the Valais near Brieg, to Piedmont near Arona, rises to 
the height of nearly 7,000 feet, and passes through six galleries or tun¬ 
nels hewn out of the rock; one of these is 683 feet long. The road is 
36 miles in length, and crosses many tremendous precipices by means 
of bridges. The road from Bormio, in the Valteline, over the Stelvio 
or Stilferjoch, forms the communication between Innspruck and 
Milan, and is the highest road in Europe, reaching an elevation of up¬ 
wards of 8,000 feet. Several other Alpine roads have been construct¬ 
ed from France to Sardinia, and from the German into the Italian 
provinces of Austria. 


291 


GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY. 

7. Inhabitants . The Italians are descended from different nations, 
which at various times overran Italy, though they are now blended 
into one race. A few Albanians or Arnaouts live on the coast of the 
Adriatic ; there are Germans in Lombardy, Venice, &c., and Jews 
scattered over the country; but there are not probably 200,000 inhab¬ 
itants who are not Italians. The Italians are distinguished for their 
animated and expressive countenance and brilliant eyes. They are 
generally of a dark complexion, well formed, and active. The women 
have black or auburn hair, and most of the requisites for beauty. 

In all the states of Italy there are the usual degrees of European 
nobility; and the individuals are more numerous than those of the 
same class in any other country. In some of the states of Italy all the 
sons of the nobility and their sons, bear the original title. Of course 
numbers are indigent; and many of them are known to solicit charity. 

The written language of Italy is uniform, though there are various 
dialects spoken in different districts, and in Savoy the more general 
language is the French. The Italian is founded on the Latin, which 
it nearly resembles, except in the articles and auxiliary verbs. It is so 
sweet and liquid that it is consecrated to music in all European 
countries; yet though soft to a great degree, it is distinguished for 
its energy and force. The language is spoken with the most purity 
at Rome, Sienna, and Florence, but the Venetian dialect is the most 
musical. 

The higher classes wear the common European dress, but among 
the common people there are various local peculiarities of costume. 
The food of the Italians, like that of other southern nations, is light. 
Maccaroni is the common food only in Naples, but it is much used in 
other parts of the country. Fruits and vegetables are more common 
articles of food than flesh, and, as in the rest of the south of Europe, 
oil and wine supply the place of the butter and beer of the northern 
nations. 

8. Buildings, Travelling, fyc. In Italy are the most splendid and 
perfect monuments of architecture. The churches are the most costly 
and magnificent; the monasteries capacious, and the palaces unrivalled. 
Many of these latter however in the Venetian territory, though built 
by Palladio, are suffered to decay, and some are razed for the sake of 
the materials. Architecture, painting, sculpture, and other arts are ex¬ 
hausted on the churches. Many of them have a minuteness of finish 
that is truly wonderful. The pillars of some are encrusted with mo¬ 
saic pictures, or precious stones, the walls are covered with frescoes, 
the doors inimitably carved in bronze, and the interior and exterior 
profusely adorned with exquisite statues in marble or bronze. The 
dwelling houses of the rich and noble are vast palaces, which in many 
places are quite deserted or occupied by foreign residents. In 
Florence the houses resemble fortresses, a feature indicative of that 
time, when the city was convulsed by the violence and feuds of its 
factions. In the northern countries they are commonly provided 
with projecting porticoes or arcades, stretching uninterruptedly from 
one end of a city to another. In the Roman and Neapolitan territories 
they are almost universally without chimneys, as the mildness of the 
climate renders a fire rarely necessary. 

The most expeditious way of travelling is by post, which is some¬ 
what cheaper than in France. But a common method is to go with 



292 


GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY. 


a vetturino, in a coach containing 6 or 8 persons. There is no want 
of this conveyance on all the principal routes. It is cheap, and as the 
rate is but 30 or 40 miles a day, affords the best opportunity of seeing 
the country. In some places oxen are used for travelling; but they 
are of a peculiar species, very light and rapid in their gait. The 
main roads are good; but the cross-roads are hardly passable. The 
custom-houses and the passports are great annoyances. The custom¬ 
houses are at the frontiers of the states, and at the entrance to cities ; the 
officers visit the traveller with many vexations, if he should fail to pur¬ 
chase their forbearance. When this preliminary is adjusted, the travel¬ 
ler is permitted to pass with his baggage unopened. The vexations of 
the passport are of more frequent occurrence; it is taken at the gate 
of all considerable towns, carried to the commander, endorsed, and 
returned by a soldier. When a stranger resides in a city, he surren¬ 
ders his passport, and receives a written permission to remain for a 
certain time, and this must be renewed when the time has expired. 
Before quitting one independent state, to visit another, it is necessary 
to have the permission of the minister or consul of the state to which 
the traveller is going. The roads in -some parts of the country, par¬ 
ticularly the mountainous and frontier districts, have been at times 
infested with banditti; but the recent occupation of the peninsula by 
the Austrian troops has checked their depredations. 

9. Character and Manners. The Italians are naturally a cheerful 
people, with ardent passions and lively imaginations, but they have 
been debased by long oppression. With the loss of liberty they have 
lost that energy of character, which shed such a lustre over the 
Italian name during the flourishing period of the republics, that activ¬ 
ity and ingenuity which enriched the Italian cities by commerce and 
manufactures, and that aptitude for the sciences, which once rewarded 
them with so many brilliant discoveries. Even the muses seem to have 
deserted the land of slaves. Yet the natural virtues of the Italian 
character may be still traced among the degenerate descendants of the 
men of the Middle Ages ; the execrable custom of poisoning and assas¬ 
sination, founded upon the notion that it was the duty of a man to 
revenge an insult or an injury, not to defend his person or his honor; 
and the pernicious practice of .cicisbeism, which, by rendering it im¬ 
proper for a lady to appear in public alone, and yet making the hus¬ 
band, who accompanied his wife, an object of ridicule, interposed a 
third person in the character of a lover between the married pair, have 
now passed away; and the versatility of genius, the elasticity of spirit, 
the active and creative fancy, the gentleness of disposition, the elevation 
of sentiment, and the sociability of temper, so characteristic of the 
Italians, w’hen not depressed by bad laws, and perverted by a corrupt 
religion and evil customs, may yet regenerate this unhappy people. 

There is much diversity of character and manners in different sec¬ 
tions of the country. The Savoyards (who are not, however, proper¬ 
ly speaking Italians) and the Piedmontese have the manners and 
language of the French. They are frugal and industrious, and many 
of them wander over Europe and even America, accumulating a little 
fortune as pedlars, porters, musicians, &a, which they return to enjoy 
among their native mountains. 

In Lombardy, which has for many years in the present century 
had more freedom than the other states of Italy, the traces of it are 


GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY. 


293 


found in liberal principles, a better system of education, and a better 
organization of social life. 

The Tuscans are of all the Italians, the most fond of the arts and 
letters; they are polite and kind in their manners, industrious, and 
cheerful. The character of the people, the fine climate, and lively 
cities make Tuscany the residence of many foreigners, who generally 
esteem Florence the most delightful city of Italy. The society at 
Florence is intelligent and refined. The nobility have lost much of their 
ancient wealth, acquired by commerce, and they hold it to be derogatory 
to engage in commercial pursuits; but they feel no shame in selling 
wine and oil under the direction of their stewards, in the cellars of 
their palaces. 

The people of Rome are the successors, rather than the descendants 
of the ancient Romans. They are less gay than the other Italians. 

The inhabitants of the Neapolitan territory preserve the levity and 
cheerfulness of their Greek ancestors; and they have a vehemence of 
character that seems suited to their volcanic soil. All their pursuits, 
whether of pleasure, devotion, or gain, inspire them for the moment 
with the ardor of a ruling passion. The Arnaouts of Calabria are a 
fine race of men, hardy, and brave, but less cheerful than their coun¬ 
trymen of the plains. 

Naples is one of the gayest cities in Europe, as Rome is one of the 
most gloomy. The climate, is delicious; and the Neapolitans, with as 
few domestic tendencies as the Romans, and with a better climate than 
that of Rome, live principally in the streets and squares, and on the 
quays. There, in the open air, are the benches of mechanics, the fires 
of cooks, and the stages of mountebanks. The streets swarm with 
crowds of all ranks, all active, yet all idle; doing nothing, and yet 
seldom at rest. 

It is easy for a stranger to see that he is among a people much dis¬ 
posed to enjoy to-day, at the expense of to-morrow. In no other city 
are seen so many groups of the poorest rabble in boisterous merriment. 
A few grains to purchase wine and maccaroni, will raise one of the 
Lazzaroni above all the ills of mortality for a day. 

Few of the higher class in Italy live in the country. Most dwell 
in cities; and the peasants are deprived of the advantage which is 
derived from the residence of the landed proprietors, and are generally 
beggars. The towns of the south are infested with mendicants, 
whose distress is not always assumed, for in this country of fertility, 
many are without food. The stairs of palaces, the porticoes, and the 
churches are the lodgings of the miserable many, who live on the 
scanty avails of public charity. The poverty extends to all ranks; 
and the traveller is solicited to relieve the noble, as well as the peasant. 
Veiled females kneel in the streets, holding out their hands in suppli¬ 
cation ; others cover their blushes with masks; while the monks 
solicit for the souls of the dead, the alms which are forthwith applied 
to, the comforts of the living. 

The Italians are fond of religious processions, in which they have 
much faith. On occasions of public calamities, as fires, pestilence, and, 
at Naples, eruptions of Vesuvius, long processions go through the streets 
carrying images of saints and consecrated relics. There are many 
shrines, which many pilgrims visit. To St. Peter’s a few poor peas¬ 
ants annually come, with staff and scallop shell, induced by a small 


294 


SWITZERLAND. 


gratuity given by the Pope. The holy House at Loretto has a greater 
reputation with the devout. The Italian sailors, like the Grecian, put 
themselves under the protection of the Virgin Mary; and ships have 
the images of saints at their bow. In storms, they trust as much to 
prayer as to exertion or skill, and in calms, if impatient for a wind, do 
not fail to abuse St. Anthony, and others in the calendar. 

10. Amusements. The opera is the great national amusement of the 
Italians, who have a remarkable taste for music, and the decorations 
and dresses are very splendid. Masks and puppet shows are popular 
amusements, and harlequin, who is a native of Italy, plays a thousand 
droll tricks, which have been handed down for centuries from genera¬ 
tion to generation. The mask is a sort of extemporaneous play, in which 
there are several standing characters, with particular masks and cos¬ 
tume, but the dialogue is composed by the players; thus there are 
Pantalone, a rich, good natured, simple old Venetian merchant who 
is eternally imposed on by every one; Gratiano, a pedantic, prosing 
Bolognese doctor, and their knavish, cunning servants, Harlequin and 
Scapin. 

The Carnival is celebrated in Italy with all sorts of masquerades, 
shows, mummery, tricks, and sports. These are entered into with the 
greatest spirit in Rome and Venice. In Rome the Corso is the scene 
of the Carnival. The windows and balconies are filled with people, 
and there is in the street a dense and ever moving crowd, all in mas¬ 
querade. The carriages are many of them devised for the occasion, 
and some of them represent ships, temples, and classic pageants. The 
coachmen are commonly disguised as old women. All dresses and 
characters may be assumed, except those of the clergy. The masks 
are worn for defence as well as for concealment or show, for there is 
an incessant tempest of sugar-plums, or rather of a counterfeit made 
of lime. The people have bags or baskets full of these, and all pelt 
each other. Childish as this is, it is followed with so much zeal, that it 
becomes very amusing. 

At the close of the day several spirited horses, without riders, are started 
from the head of the Corso, and goaded by little points that are made 
to flap against the flanks. The crowds open to give space, and the 
horses are stopped at the foot of the street, after running about a mile. 
Then each one of the immense concourse lights the candle with which 
he has furnished himself, and a scene of uproar commences!, each one 
trying to extinguish his neighbor’s light, and to preserve his own. 

These amusements of the Carnival last three days, and they are 
similar in all the cities. It is extremely creditable to the Italians, that in 
these saturnalia, where all people mingle, there is never a breach of 
order, or decorum. The same could not be said of such a masked 
multitude, in any other country. 


LXXXIII. SWITZERLAND. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Switzerland is bounded north by the 
grand duchy of Baden and the kingdom of Wurtemberg; east by the 
Austrian province of Tyrol; south by the Sardinian and the Lombar¬ 
do-Venetian states, and west by France. It extends from 45° 5>(Y to 
47 Q 5(f N, Lat., and from 6° to 10° 3(y E. Lon. Its length from E. to 


SWITZERLAND. 295 

W. is 200 miles, its breadth from N. to S. 130, and its superficial ex¬ 
tent 15,000 square miles. 

2. Mountains. Two distinct ranges of mountains traverse Switzer¬ 
land, which in reality forms an elevated plateau between them, from 
2,000 to 4,000 feet in height. The mountains of Jura stretch along the 
western and northwestern parts; the elevation of their highest summit 
does not exceed 5,633 feet. Two principal chains of the Alps traverse 
the country, sending off several branches. The Helvetian or Le- 
pontine Alps extend from Mount Ros to Mount Bernardino ; their most 
elevated branch forms the northern boundary of the Valais stretch¬ 
ing from the lake of Geneva to Mount St. Gothard. The loftiest sum¬ 
mit is Finsteraarhorn 14,111 feet high ; the Jungfrau or Virgin is 13,718 
feet high. The Rhetian Alps extend through the Grisons and Tyrol, 
sending off a branch to Lake Constance. Some of their summits in 
Switzerland attain the height of 12,000 feet. 

3. Rivers. The Rhine has its three sources in the Rhetian Alps, and 
passing through the lake of Constance, flows to the westward until it 
reaches Bale. The Rhone is formed by different streams from Mounts 
Grimsel and Fourche, and flows through the lake of Geneva into 
France. The Inn rises in the Grisons, and joins the Danube. 

The Aar is the principal stream which has its course wholly in 
Switzerland. Rising in the Lepontine Alps, it traverses the lakes of 
Brientz and Thun, and after receiving the waters of the Lakes of 
Neufchatel, Zurich, Lucerne, and some other lakes, empties itself into 
the Rhine. 

4. Lakes. The lake of Geneva, called also Leman, is 40 miles long. 
It is 1,250 feet above the level of the sea, and its greatest depth is about 
1,000 feet. The waters of this lake are beautifully transparent, and the 
surrounding scenery has long been celebrated for its magnificence. 
The lake of Constance is about 45 miles in length and 15 in breadth. 
The lake of Lucerne or lake of the Four Cantons, is above 20 miles in 
length and from 8 to 10 in breadth ; its greatest depth is about 600 feet, 
and its navigation is dangerous. Among the numerous other lakes are 
those of Zurich, Neufchatel, Thun, Brientz, Morat, and Biel. 

5. Climate. From the great elevation of Switzerland, the air is pure 
and salubrious; and though in some of the narrow valleys, where radia¬ 
tion is great, the heat is often excessive, yet the atmosphere is in gene¬ 
ral much cooler than might be expected from the latitude. Three 
different climates may be said to exist in this country: viz. the cold in 
the Alps, the temperate in the plains, and the hot in the canton of Tes¬ 
sin. In the valleys, however, the temperature of districts at a short dis¬ 
tance from one another often varies extremely. 

6. Soil. In the upper regions of Switzerland, which fall within the 
limits of cultivation, the soil is chiefly composed of particles crumbled 
from the rocks that tower above them, and is consequently stony and 
barren, or merely clothed with a scanty covering of short herbs; but 
in the lower tracts it is often rich and productive, and in a few places 
marshy. 

7. Animals. Cattle are plentiful, and form the chief wealth of the 
inhabitants. Among the wild animals are the ibex, the chamois, and 
the marmot, and in the unfrequented tracts, bears, lynxes, and wolves 
are common. Birds of prey are not unfrequent, among which is the 
golden or bearded vulture or lammergeyer, which is known to carry 
off lambs. 


296 


SWITZERLAND. 


8. Cataracts. The falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen are the most 
celebrated in Europe. They have a descent of about 80 feet; the 
whole mass of water is broken into foam in the fall, and resembles a 
cataract of snow. The falls of the Staubbach are produced by a small 
mountain torrent which falls 800 feet into a rocky cleft: the water is 
dashed completely into vapor before it reaches the bottom. There are 
many other cascades among the mountainous parts. 

9. Face of the Country. The general surface of Switzerland exceeds 
in rugged sublimity any other portion of Europe. Nature seems here 
to have formed every thing on her grandest scale, and offers the most 
striking contrasts. Icy peaks rise into the air close upon the borders 
of fertile valleys; luxuriant corn-fields are surrounded by immense and 
dreary plains of ice ; in one step the traveller passes from the everlast¬ 
ing snow to the freshest verdure, or from glaciers of chilling coldness 
to valleys from whose rocky sides the sunbeams are reflected with 
almost scorching power. 

10. Divisions. The Swiss confederacy consists of 22 cantons, which 
are subdivided into various political divisions. The following table 
contains a list of the cantons, ranged in order of size. 


Cantons. 

Population. 

Cdpitals. 

Population. 

Grisons 

88,000 

Coire 

3,000 

Berne 

350,000 

Berne 

18,000 

Wallis or Valais 

70,000 

Sion or Sitten 

3,000 

Waadtland or Vaud 

170,000 

Lausanne 

10,000 

Tessin 

102,000 

Lugano 

4,000 

St. Gall 

144,000 

St. Gall 

9,000 

Zurich 

218,000 

Zurich 

11,000 

Lucerne 

116,000 

Lucerne 

6,000 

Aargau 

150,000 

Aarau 

3,000 

Friburg 

84,000 

Friburg 

7,000 

Uri 

13,000 

Altorf 

2,000 

Schweitz 

32,000 

Schweitz 

5,000 

G laris 

28,000 

Glaris 

4,000 

Neufchatel or Neuenburg 

51,500 

Neufchatel 

5,000 

Thurgau 

81,000 

F rauenfeld 

2,000 

Underwald 

24,000 

Sarnen 

2,000 

Soleure or Solothurn 

53,000 

Soleure 

4,000 

Bftle 

54,000 

Bile 

16,000 

Appenzell 

55,000 

Appenzell 

3,000 

Schaffhausen 

30,000 

Schaffhausen 

6,000 

Geneva 

62,500 

Geneva 

26,000 

Zug 

14,500 

Zug 

3,000 


The largest cantons have an area of from 2,000 to 2,500 square miles 
the smallest of from 100 to 125. 

11. Canals and Roads. There are several canals in Switzerland, 
but none of great extent. The canal of Linth, 15 miles in length, con¬ 
nects the Linth, by a navigable channel, with lakes Wallenstadt and 
Zurich. It has been proposed to unite the waters of lake Neufchatel 
with those of the lake of Geneva by a canal. Beside the Alpine 
roads, already described in the account of Italy, which are partly in 
Switzerland, there are several others, hardly less remarkable, entirely 
in this country. Those most worthy of note are the route over Mount 
St. Gothard from the canton of Uri into Tessin, and that over the 
Splugen from the Grisons into Tessin \ the former rises to the height of 
8,260 feet. 


SWITZERLAND. 


297 


12. Towns. Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne become alternately, each 
for the space of two years, the capital of the confederation. Lucerne 
had this privilege for 1831 and 1832, and Zurich for 1833 and 1834. 

Geneva is the most populous and flourishing city of Switzerland. It 
stands at the head of the lake of the same name, just where its waters 
are discharged into the Rhone. Its environs, filled with elegant villas, 
are remarkable for the beauty and magnificence of their scenery. 
Geneva is enriched by the industry of its inhabitants, who are also 
favorably distinguished for the interest they take in letters. This spirit 
pervades the laboring classes, and has acquired for Geneva the title of 
the Swiss Athens. Watchmaking is the most important branch of in¬ 
dustry, occupying 3,000 persons, who make annually 70,000 watches. 
Other articles of gold and silver, and scientific and mechanical instru¬ 
ments, silks, cotton goods, porcelain, &c., are also produced here. The 
commerce is likewise extensive, and the learned institutions numerous. 
Population 26,000. 

Berne is a handsome city, delightfully situated upon the Aar; its 
trade and manufactures are flourishing, and it contains a university, and 
various seminaries and scientific establishments. Its population is 
18,000. In the vicinity is Hofwyl, containing the celebrated farm- 
school of the philanthropic Fellenberg. Fourteen miles west from 
Berne is Morat, where, in 1476, the freemen of Switzerland vindicated 
their liberty by a decisive victory over the invading hosts of Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy. An obelisk has been erected here to com¬ 
memorate the event. 

Bale or Basel is the largest city of Switzerland, but its population, 
amounting only to 16,000, is not proportionate to its extent. It is dis¬ 
tinguished for its erudition and its industry, having an active trade, a 
flourishing commerce, and many learned institutions. 

Zurich is pleasantly situated on the Limmat, at the extremity of the 
pretty lake of the same name. Like Bale and Geneva it has long been 
distinguished for its cultivation of learning, and it has extensive manu¬ 
factures and a flourishing trade. Population 11,000. 

Lausanne, the capital of the Pays de Vaud, is much visited by 
foreigners on account of its delightful situation. It stands near the lake 
of Geneva, the banks of which are covered with vineyards, while the 
snowy summits of the Alps rise in the distance. Gibbon resided here 
for some time. Population 10,000. In the northern part of the canton 
is Yverdun, where Pestalozzi established his school. 

St. Gall contains a celebrated abbey, numerous manufactures, and 
some literary institutions. Its trade is extensive; population 9,000. 

Friburg. deserves notice on account of its numerous literary establish¬ 
ments, and its Jesuits’ college. Population 7,000. 

13. Agriculture. The nature of the country presents numerous 
obstacles to its cultivation; but they have been, in a great measure, 
overcome by the industry of the inhabitants. The traces of the 
plough are visible on the sides of precipices apparently inaccessible, and 
spots, which nature seemed to have doomed to eternal sterility, are 
crowned with vegetation. The produce of grain is generally equal to 
the consumption ; but pasturage is the chief object of the farmer. 

14. Manufactures and Trade. The chief manufactures are cotton 
goods, linen, silk, leather, jewelry, metallic ware, and particularly 
watches. Though in the centre of Europe, Switzerland has been much 

N* 


298 


SWITZERLAND, 


restricted in its commercial intercourse by the barriers of the Alps, and the 
prohibitory systems of the neighboring states. Of late years, however, 
all the branches of industry have been flourishing, and the various roads 
over the Alps, and the introduction of steam navigation upon the lakes 
have facilitated the intercourse with foreign nations, and between the 
different cantons. The principal exports are cattle, the productions of 
the dairy, and manufactured goods. 

15. Religion . The Roman Catholic is the religion of rather less than 
half the population. It is professed by all the inhabitants of Lucerne, 
Uri, Schweitz, Underwald, Zug, Tessin, and the Valais, and by the 
greater part of those of Friburg, Soleure, St. Gall, and Appenzell. The 
northern and western cantons are principally Calvinistic Protestants. 

16. Education. The Protestant cantons contain the principal towns, 
and have a more fertile territory, and greater industry and wealth; they 
have done much for the education of the people, as well as for higher in¬ 
struction. The only Swiss university is in Bale, but the academies of 
Geneva, Zurich, Berne, and Lausanne differ little except in name. 
The secondary schools or gymnasia are also numerous and well con¬ 
ducted, and Geneva is particularly celebrated for the attention paid to 
female education. Elementary instruction is furnished for nearly the 
whole population, and is gratuitous for the poor. Sunday schools are 
also instituted, the course of studies in which comprises other branches 
besides religious instruction. In the Catholic cantons several of which 
embrace the poorest and most mountainous parts of the country, less 
has been done both for popular and superior education. They have 
no university, and some of them no superior establishments for instruc¬ 
tion. 

17. Government. Each canton is a sovereign state, but the twenty- 
two cantons are united by the act of confederacy into a federal body for 
the preservation of order, and the security of liberty and independence. 
The diet or federal congress is composed of deputies from the cantons, 
each canton having one vote. The president of the diet, who is con¬ 
sidered the chief magistrate of the confederation, is styled the Land- 
amraann ; this dignity is borne by the chief of the canton in which the 
session of the diet is held. The diet has power to make war and peace, 
contract alliances, and make treaties with foreign states ; regulates the 
military contingent of each canton ; provides for the general security, 
&c. The federal army amounts to 33,758 men. Each canton, like 
the states in this country, is governed by its own laws, and the constitu¬ 
tions of government are various; Neufchatel is a constitutional mon¬ 
archy, the king of Prussia being its executive head ; Berne, Lucerne, 
Friburg, and Soleure are aristocracies; the other 17 cantons have con¬ 
stitutions based on more or less democratic forms and principles.* 

18. Inhabitants. The population of Switzerland is two millions. 
The inhabitants are partly of the Teutonic and partly of the Latin race. 
The latter comprises the French or people of the western cantons, 
amounting to about one fifth of the population, and the Italians, still 
less numerous, who occupy the canton of Tessin, and some localities 
in the Grisons and the Valais. The northern, central, and eastern can¬ 
tons are inhabited by the German race, forming more than three fifths 

♦The cantons of Appenzell and Schweitz, divided into Inner and Outer; that 
of Underwald into Upper and Lower; and that of Bale into the City and Country, 
actually form eight separate governments. 


SWITZERLAND. 


999 


of the whole population. The German language is the language 
of the majority of the inhabitants, of the acts of the confederation, 
and of those of all the cantons, except Tessin, Vaud, Geneva, and Neuf- 
chatel. The literature of Switzerland is, therefore, mainly a branch 
of German literature, but the language of the people is composed of 
numerous patois or rustic dialects; no less than 35 German, and 15 
French dialects are spoken in different districts. The French and 
German cantons have given some brilliant names to their respective 
literatures. 

The Swiss are moral, industrious, and faithful; simple, temperate, 
and frugal in their habits, and of a quiet temperament. There is of 
course, however, a great difference between the pastoral manners of 
the mountaineers, and the trading and manufacturing population of the 
lowlands. The Swiss often emigrates to acquire in other countries 
that competency which the unproductive mountains of his native land 
deny, and foreign ranks have often been filled with Swiss mercenaries. 
In Paris, Swiss became the common term for porter, as they were so 
commonly employed there in that capacity. 

As many of the roads are impassable by wheel carriages, travelling 
on foot, or on sure-footed mules is not uncommon ; on some routes 
there afe regular post-coaches. 

The higher classes generally follow the French fashions; but the 
common people have many peculiar forms of dress; varying somewhat 
in the different cantons, and all picturesque, but less becoming than the 
common prints would lead one to suppose. They are generally simple 
and convenient. The dress of the females is the most peculiar, for the 
men have no longer a national dress. It consists partly in a short 
petticoat, which shows the stockings as high as the knee, and a wide 
flat hat, without a crown, tied under the chin. Near Berne the hat 
gives place to a black cap, standing off the face, and in shape like the 
wings of a butterfly. In some parts, the hair hangs plaited down to 
the heels. 

Hunting the chamois and ibex is pursued by many as an employ¬ 
ment, but it is full of perils. The hunter must have a steadiness of 
nerve that can look down without terror from the most tremendous 
precipices, and activity and address in surmounting the barriers of ice 
or rock that rise up before him; and no vigor, skill, or hardihood can 
protect him from the falling stones or ice, and the bewildering storm or 
mist; the ibex will sometimes suddenly turn, when closely pressed, 
and dash his pursuer down a precipice. 

19. History. In the Middle Ages Switzerland formed a part of the 
German empire. In the beginning of the 14th century, the encroach¬ 
ments of the emperors upon the liberties of the Swiss, excited disaffec¬ 
tion among the latter; William Tell, a peasant of Uri, killed the Aus¬ 
trian governor, Gesler, with his own hand, and in 1315 the peasants of 
Uri, Underwald, and Schweitz, after having deposed the imperial gov¬ 
ernors, and destroyed the castles built to overawe them, defeated the 
Austrian forces at Morgarten, and the three cantons entered into a per¬ 
petual league. This was the basis of the Swiss confederacy, which 
was soon after joined by the neighboring cantons. The war continued 
with some interruption till the end of the 15th century, during which 
time the confederation was successively increased by the accession of 
new cantons. In the 16th century the doctrines of the reformation 


300 


BADEN. 


were preached in Switzerland by Zwingli and Calvin. A new federal 
constitution was adopted in 1815, when the number of cantons was 
increased. 


LXXXIV. BADEN. 

1. Boundaries and Population. The grand duchy of Baden is bound¬ 
ed on the N. by ducal Hesse ; on the E. by Bavaria and Wurtemberg, 
and on the S.and W. by the Rhine, which separates it from Switzerland 
and France. Area 6,000 square miles; population 1,230,000. 

2. Face of the Country and Rivers. Baden consists mostly of a 
fertile plain, containing excellent corn-fields and vineyards. On its 
eastern border extends the mountainous chain of the Black Forest, in 
which rises the Danube. The Neckar, a tributary of the Rhine, flows 
through the northern part of the ckichy. The Rhine washes its west¬ 
ern and southern border. 

3. Industry. Its central position between the Swiss, French, and 
German territories, and its situation upon the navigable waters of the 
Rhine, give Baden a considerable transit trade. Its manufactyres are 
not extensive; toys, trinkets, and wooden clocks are the principal 
articles; these with the products of its forests, vineyards, and pastures 
are exported. 

4. Religion and Government. The majority of the inhabitants are 
Roman Catholics, but the grand duke is himself a Lutheran. Liberal 
provision is made for the education of all classes, by the maintenance 
of elementary and Latin schools, and gymnasia or higher schools. 
There are universities at Heidelberg and Freyberg. The government 
is a constitutional monarchy, the legislative authority being vested in 
two houses or chambers. 

5. Divisions and Towns. The grand duchy is divided into six 
circles, which are subdivided into semte or bailiwics. 

Carlsruhe, the capital, is a handsome and regularly built city, near 
the Rhine, with 18,000 inhabitants. The nine principal streets diverge 
in different directions from the ducal palace, and are intersected at 
regular intervals by cross-streets forming concentric circles. The ducal 
library contains 70,000 volumes, and there are fine gardens attached to 
the palace. 

In the vicinity is Baden with 3,500 inhabitants, celebrated for its 
mineral waters, which are annually resorted to by upwards of 8,000 
visiters. There are here 26 warm springs, in some of which meat can 
be cooked. 

Rastadt, with 4,000 inhabitants, contains a castle, once the residence 
of the margraves of Baden; here were held the congresses of 1713 and 
1798. 

Manheirn, the largest town in Baden, is a handsome city, situated at 
the confluence of the Neckar with the Rhine. It was once the residence 
of the court of the elector palatine, and its palace, observatory, literary 
institutions, and population, 22,000 inhabitants, render it important. 

Freyberg is noted for its university, and its magnificent Gothic 
minster, the spire of which is nearly 500 feet high, being one of the 
loftiest in Europe. Population 10,000. 

Heidelberg contains one of the oldest and most respectable univer- 



VIEWS IN SWITZERLAND 



M O U IN T SIMPLON. 


































































































VIEWS IN EUROPE AND ASIA 




JERUSALEM 
































































WURTEMBERG. 301 

sities in Germany. The situation of the town is delightful; strangers 
are here shown a tun of enormous size. 


LXXXV. WURTEMBERG OR WIRTEMBERG. 

1. Boundaries and Population. The kingdom of Wurtemberg is 
bounded N. and E. by Bavaria, and S. W. and N. by Baden. Its 
southern border also touches lake Constance. Area 7,625 square miles; 
population 1,600,000. 

2. Surface and Rivers. Two mountainous ranges traverse the coun¬ 
try ; the Schwartzwald or Black Forest extends through the western 
part; many of the summits in this range, which contains the sources 
of the Danube, are from 3,500 to 4,600 feet high: the Alb Moun¬ 
tains, or Swabian Alps, branch off from the Schwartzwald in the 
southwestern p&rt of Wurtemberg, and traverse the kingdom in a 
northeasterly direction, separating the waters of the Neckar from those 
of the Danube ; they are less elevated than the former. 

The Neckar, which rises in the Alb mountains, flows north and west 
into the Rhine, after a course of 160 miles. 

Wurtemberg is one of the most fertile and best cultivated parts of 
Germany, producing corn, wine, and various fruits. Except in the 
mountainous tracts, the surface is agreeably diversified with moderate 
hills and pleasant valleys, and the climate is mild. 

3. Industry. Iron mines are worked in the Black Forest, and iron 
and salt are exported. The book-trade of Wurtemberg is an important 
branch of industry, but the situation of the country is not so favorable, 
as that of Baden, for commercial operations. 

4. Religion, Education , and Government. The Lutheran religion is 
professed by the great majority of the inhabitants; but nearly one third 
are Roman Catholics. There is one university, at Tubingen, and there 
are numerous lyceums, gymnasiums, and popular schools. The 
government is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, the king pos¬ 
sessing the executive power, and sharing the legislative with the two 
houses. 

5. Divisions and Towns. Wurtemberg is divided into four cir¬ 
cles ; the Neckar, the Schwartzwald, the Danube, and the Jaxt. 

The capital is Stuttgard, delightfully situated in a charming country, 
a few. miles from the Neckar. The royal palace is a noble structure, 
and the library, one of the richest in Europe, containing 200,000 
volumes, is particularly remarkable for its collection of Bibles, the most 
numerous in the world, comprising 8250 copies in 68 languages. The 
Solitude or Hermitage, the country residence of the king, is beautifully 
situated upon a hill near the capital, and is remarkable for its fine pros¬ 
pect, magnificent halls, and handsome gardens. Population of Stutt¬ 
gard 32,000. „ 

Ulm, on the Danube, is a place of some trade and considerable 
manufactures. Its cathedral, though unfinished, is one of the finest 
specimens of Gothic architecture. Population 12,000. 

Reutlingen, a manufacturing town with 10,000 inhabitants ; Tubing¬ 
en, 7,000 inhabitants, noted for its university and other literary institu¬ 
tions ; and Hall, for its salt works, with 7,0Q0 inhabitants, are the other 
principal towns. 


302 


BAVARIA. 


LXXXVI. BAVARIA. 


1. Boundaries and Population. Bavaria is bounded N. by Hesse, 
and the Saxon duchies; E. and S. by the Austrian empire; and W. by 
Wurteinberg and Baden. The circle of the Rhine is separated from 
the rest of the kingdom, lying on the western side of the Rhine between 
Hesse, the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, and France. Area 
29,500 square miles; population 4,240,000. 

2. Surface and Rivers. In the northeastern part is the mountainous 
range, called Fichtelgebirge or Pine Mountains, which is neither 
very extensive, nor very lofty ; yet it gives rise to rivers, which flowing 
into the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Danube find their way to three differ¬ 
ent and distant seas. The Schneeberg or Snowy Mountain, 3,500 feet 
high, is the highest summit. In the northwest on the right bank of 
the Rhine is the low mountainous ridge of the Spessart. The Danube 
traverses Bavaria from west to east; its principal tributaries in this 
kingdom are the Isar and the Inn from the southwest. The Mayne or 
Maine rises in the centre of Bavaria, and flowing northerly and west¬ 
erly, through Baden and Hesse, empties itself into the Rhine, after a 
course of 250 miles. It is navigable to Bamberg. Much of the soil is 
unproductive from the rugged or marshy character of the surface, 
and there are extensive bogs and forests. The climate is mild and 
healthy. 

3. Industry. Bavaria is not favorably situated for trade, and its 
manufactures are not very extensive. In some parts, however, the 
people are distinguished for mechanical ingenuity; and philosophical 
instruments, toys, and clocks, besides articles required for domestic 
consumption, are produced. 

4. Divisions and Towns. The kingdom is divided into eight cir¬ 
cles, * bearing the names of the principal rivers which water them. 

Munich (Muenchen), the capital, is situated on the Isar, and the 
embellishments and additions, which it has received within the last 
twenty years, have rendered it one of the handsomest cities in Germa¬ 
ny. Its environs are pleasant, being adorned with numerous parks, 
gardens, and walks, and the streets of the city are in general spacious, 
with many elegant buildings. The literary institutions, scientific 
cabinets, collections of art, and the numerous publications issued from 
its presses, give Munich a high rank among the learned cities of 
Europe. It is not distinguished for trade or manufactures. The 
royal palace is one of the largest and most richly furnished royal resi¬ 
dences in Europe; the magnificent glypthothek or sculpture-gallery; 
the pinakothek or picture-gallery; the large and beautiful theatre, 
called the Odeon ; the New Palace, 680 feet long; several of the twen¬ 
ty two churches, &c., are sumptuous edifices. The university is one 
of the most respectable in Germany; the public library contains 
400,000 printed volumes, and 10,000 manuscripts. Population 80,000. 
At Schleisheim in the vicinity there is a magnificent royal palace, with 
a rich collection of 1500 paintings. 


* Isar, 

Upper Danube, 
Lower Danube, 
Regen, 


Rezat, 

Upper Maine, 
Lower Maine, 


Rhine. 


SAXONY. 


303 


Nuremberg, in German Nurnberg, is an old town, and the antiquat¬ 
ed appearance of its streets and buildings reminds the visiter of the 
Middle Ages, when it was one of the principal commercial and manu¬ 
facturing cities of Europe, having been the great martfor the trade 
between Italy and the North of Europe. The inhabitants have been 
distinguished for their ingenuity and skill in the fine and useful arts, 
and philosophical and musical instruments, metallic wares, looking 
glasses, toys, &c., are made here. The Nuremberg toys amuse chil¬ 
dren in all parts of the world ; they are made in great numbers by the 
peasants of the vicinity, assisted by their children, and sold so cheap as 
to be exported to all countries. Population 38,000. 

Augsburg, on the Lech, is a place of some trade and considerable 
manufactures. The arsenal, the principal in the kingdom, and its town- 
hall, the finest in Germany, deserve to be mentioned. Augsburg is 
interesting in the history of the reformation as the place, in which the 
Protestants presented to the German diet and emperbr their confession 
of faith, drawn up by Luther, and known in history as the confession 
of Augsburg. Population 34,000. To the northeast, is the village of 
Blenheim, rendered famous as the scene of the victory gained by the 
English general, Marlborough, over the united French and Bavarian 
armies in 1704. 

In Ratisbon or Regensburg on the Danube, were formerly held the 
sessions of the German diet; the town-hall in which that body sat is 
still to be seen. Population 26,000. 

Wurzburg, on the Maine, with 22,000 inhabitants, stands in the 
midst of a fertile and highly cultivated district, and contains a univer¬ 
sity, and other literary institutions, a handsome palace, citadel, &c. 

Baireuth, with 14,000 inhabitants, Furth, with 17,000, Anspach, 
16,000, and Passau, 10,000, have an extensive trade and manufactures. 

In the circle of the Rhine is Spire with 8,000 inhabitants, in which 
the German diets were often held. It was at a diet held here in 1529, 
that the religious reformers entered a Protest against certain acts of the 
emperor, whence their name of Protestants. 

Deux-Ponts or Zwei Bracken (i. e. Two Bridges, in Latin Bipons) 
in this circle is noted for the editions of the Greek, Latin, and French 
classics published there, and thence called Bipont editions. 

5. Religion , Government , fyc. There are three universities at Mu¬ 
nich, Wurzburg, and Erlangen, of which the two first are particularly 
distinguished; and the government has paid much attention to the 
improvement and extension of the means of education. The Roman 
Catholic religion is professed by the majority of the inhabitants, but 
the Lutherans are numerous. The Government is a constitutional 
monarchy; the legislative body is composed of two houses, that of 
peers, styled the counsellors of the realm, and that of the deputies of 
the clergy, cities, and landholders. 


LXXXVII. SAXONY. 

1. Boundaries and Population. The kingdom of Saxony (Sachsen) 
is bounded N. by the Prussian provinces; S. and E. by the Austrian, 
and W. by the Saxon duchies and Reuss. Area 5,800 square miles; 
population 1,435,700. 


304 


SAXONY. 


2. Surface and Rivers. The southern part is somewhat mountain¬ 
ous, being traversed by the Erzgebirge, a range of mountains, which 
separates Saxony from Bohemia in Austria; the northern part is more 
level. In the vicinity of Dresden rises a picturesque group of rocky 
hills, interspersed with rivulets and vales; this district is called the 
Saxon Switzerland, and is much visited. The Elbe is the only naviga¬ 
ble river of Saxony. 

3. Industry. Much attention has been paid to sheep breeding, and 
the Saxon wool is noted for its fineness; the number of sheep is about 
two million, yielding 4,500,000 lbs. of wool. The mountainous dis¬ 
tricts are rich in mines, which are skilfully worked, and their produc¬ 
tions are manufactured into various articles; there are cannon founde- 
ries, and mineral dyes, as verdigris, smalt from cobalt, &c., are made. 
The book-trade is very extensive, and there are linen, woollen, and cot¬ 
ton manufactures. The pearl fishery is prosecuted in the river Elster. 

4. Religion, Education , Government. The great majority of the 
inhabitants are Lutherans; there are about 50,000 Roman Catholics, 
and l,f>00 Herrnhutters. In no country in Europe has more attention 
been paid to education. There is a university at Leipsic, with numer¬ 
ous high schools and gymnasia, and there are common schools in all 
the parishes, so that the lower classes are very generally, able to 
read and write. The government is a constitutional monarchy. 

5. Divisions and Toivns. The kingdom is divided into five circles, # 
which are subdivided into districts and bailiwics. 

Dresden, the capita], is a beautiful city, with spacious streets and 
elegant buildings, delightfully situated in the midst of a rich district, 
through which broad and well shaded avenues lead to the city. One 
of the finest bridges in Europe has been built over the Elbe, upon the 
banks of which Dresden is built. The palaces belonging to the royal 
family, several of those of the nobility, many of the 18 churches, its rich 
collections of art, cabinets of science and learned establishments, par¬ 
ticularly the picture gallery, one of the richest in the world, the collec¬ 
tion of engravings, comprising 200,000 pieces, and the library with 
250,000 volumes, are among the ornaments of the city. Dresden has 
an active trade, supported by its extensive manufactures, including 
jewelry, musical instruments, gloves, cotton and woollen goods, &c. 
Population 70,000, exclusive of many strangers who reside here, 
attracted by its treasures of art, its excellent institutions for education, 
and its agreeable situation. In the vicinity are Pilnitz, with a mag¬ 
nificent summer residence of the royal family, and Kcenigstein, an 
impregnable mountain fortress, built upon a rock rising out of a 
plain to the height of J,400 feet; it contains a well 1200 feet deep. 

Leipsic or Leipzig is a well built town, pleasantly situated in an 
extensive plain, and is chiefly remarkable for its trade and manufac¬ 
tures. Three great fairs are held here annually, which are considered 
among the most important in the world. The number of purchasers 
who assemble at these fairs, is 8,000, or 9,000, and the amount of the 
sales is between 15 and 20 million dollars. The book fairs in particular 
are unique, and Leipsic is the greatest book market in the world. The 
university here is one of the best in Germany. Two celebrated bat¬ 
tles have been fought on the plains of Leipsic; in 1631, the Swedish 

* Misnia, Erzgebirge, Lusatia. 

Leipsic, Voigtland, 


HANOVER. 


305 


king Gustavus Adolphus defeated the troops of the empire here, and 
thus saved the Protestant cause in the north of Germany; in the great 
battle of 1813, one of the most important in modern times, Napo¬ 
leon was obliged to retreat before the emperors of Russia and Austria 
and the king of Prussia, after a protracted resistance of several days. 
Population of Leipsic 41,000. 

Freyberg, with 12,000 inhabitants, a celebrated mining town, is 
surrounded by rich silver mines, which with those of copper and lead 
employ 5,000 laborers. The mining academy is the most remarkable 
institution. 

Chemnitz, noted for its cotton manufactures, has 16,000 inhabitants; 
Meissen with 4,000 is noted for its porcelain, and Bautzen, 12,000, for 
its trade and manufactures. 


LXXXVIII. IIANOYER. 

1. Boundaries and Population. The kingdom of Hanover is bound¬ 
ed N. by the German Ocean ; E. by the Elbe, which separates it from 
Denmark, by Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and by Prussia; S. by Prussia 
and Electoral Hesse, and W. by the Netherlands. Area 14,800 square 
miles; population 1,580,000. 

2. Surface and Soil. The Hartz Mountains extend through the 
southern part; the highest summit, the Brocken has an elevation of 
3,650 feet. These mountains are rich in minerals, yielding some gold, 
with much silver, iron, lead, copper, &c. They are well-wooded, and 
the forests are also a source of wealth to the inhabitants. The Brocken 
is famous as the supposed resort of the German witches, and of the 
wild huntsman of the Hartz. What is called the spectre of the 
Brocken is the magnified and distorted image of the spectator, reflected 
under certain circumstances from an opposite cloud. The northern 
part of Hanover is level, forming a part of the great European plain, 
which extends along the North and Baltic seas, from Paris to Moscow. 
In the south the valleys are fertile ; in the north are many barren heaths 
and moors. 

3. Rivers. The Ems is a navigable stream, which flows northerly 
through the western part of the kingdom into the North Sea. The 
Weser, which traverses the kingdom from south to north, and the Elbe, 
which washes its northern boundary, empty themselves into the same 
sea. 

4. Industry. Agriculture is in general in a low state; the heaths of 
the north are not susceptible of cultivation, but they are used as sheep 
walks, or for the raising of bees. The mines and forests of the Hartz 
are diligently worked, and boards, iron, and copper are, with cattle, the 
chief articles of export. The inland trade, favored by the Weser and 
Elbe, is considerable, but the foreign commerce is not extensive; the 
articles imported are manufactured goods. 

5. Religion , Education , Government. About four fifths of the inhab¬ 
itants are Lutherans, the rest are Roman Catholics, Mennonites, and 
Jews. The government is a limited monarchy, but the representative 
principle is imperfectly in operation. The crown of Hanover belongs 
to the king of Great Britain, and the government is administered 
by a governor-general. There is a university at Goettingen, one of 


306 


MECKLENBURG. 


the best in Germany, and the gymnasia and common schools are 
numerous. 

6. Divisions and Towns. The kingdom is divided into six gov¬ 
ernments,* taking the names of their capitals, and the captainship 
(Berghauptmannschaft) of Clausthal. 

Hanover, the capital, situated in a sandy plain upon the Leine, con¬ 
tains a population of 28,000 inhabitants, employed in commerce and 
manufactures. Hanover belonged to the Hanseatic league during the 
Middle Ages r and it has an antiquated appearance. 

Gcettingen, situated in a fertile valley on the Leine, is one of the 
literary capitals of the world. Its university is the principal in Germany, 
or inferior only to that of Berlin. The library, the richest in the world 
in the department of modern literature, has 300,000 volumes. The 
observatory is furnished with excellent instruments ; the botanical gar¬ 
den is one of the best in Europe ; the collections of natural history, the 
cabinets of natural philosophy, &c., and the valuable journals published 
here, render Goettingen the resort of the studious from all parts of the 
world. Population 11,000. 

Hildesheim with 13,000 inhabitants; Luneburg with 12,000, and 
Osnaburg or Osnabruck, with 11,000, have considerable manufac¬ 
tures. 

Emden is the principal port and commercial town in the kingdom. 
Population 11,000. 


LXXXIX. GRAND DUCHIES OF MECKLENBURG 
OR MECKLEMBURG. 


1. Boundaries. The two grand duchies of Mecklenburg lie between 
the Baltic on the N.; Prussia on the S. and E.; and Hanover and Den¬ 
mark on the West. They are both limited monarchies, and the inhab¬ 
itants, with the exception of some Jews and a few Roman Catholics, 
are Lutherans. 

2. Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin has an area of 4,800 square miles, with 440,000 inhab¬ 
itants. 

The capital Schwerin, prettily situated upon a lake of the. same 
name, has 12,000 inhabitants. The grand duke usually resides in the 
village of Ludwigslust, where is a magnificent palace. 

Rostock, the largest town in the duchy, has a port on the Baltic, with 
considerable commerce and manufactures. It contains a university and 
some other literary institutions. Population 19,000. 

Wismar, with 10,000 inhabitants, has a good harbor on the Baltic, 
and some trade and manufactures. 

3. Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
lies to the east of the preceding, and has an area of 770 square miles, 
with 78,800 inhabitants. 


New Strelitz is the capital and residence of the grand-duke. Popu¬ 
lation 6,000. 


* Hanover, 
Hildesheim, 
Luneburg, 


Stade, 

Osnaburg, 

Aurich. 


SAXON DUCHIES. 


307 


XC. GRAND DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 

1. Bounda7~ies and Extent. Oldenburg has the German Ocean on 
the north, and Hanover on the three other sides. It also holds some 
detached portions of territory. Area 2,500 square miles; population 
248,000. Much of the country is low and wet, and is intersected by 
canals and dikes, to drain it or to defend it from inundations. 

2. Towns. The capital, Oldenburg, is a pretty town, on the Hunte, 
a tributary of the Weser, which is navigable by small vessels. Pop¬ 
ulation 6,000. 

Eutin and Birkenfeld are capitals of the detached territories, the 
former in the Danish-German provinces, and the latter in the Prussian 
province of the Lower Rhine. 


XCI. SAXON DUCHIES. 

1. Boundaries. These states are bounded on the north by Prussia; 
E. by Reuss and the kingdom of Saxony; S. by Bavaria and W. 
by Hesse-Cassel. The inhabitants are Lutherans, with few Roman 
Catholics, and the forms of government constitutional monarchy. 

2. Saxe-Weimar. The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar consists of 
three detached parts, the principalities of Weimar and Eisenach, and 
the circle of Neustadt. Area 1,425 square miles ; population 233,800. 

Weimar, the capital, is agreeably situated in a pleasant valley, and 
contains a number of handsome edifices, and learned establishments. 
The theatre, the grand ducal residence, the public library of 130,000 
volumes, the geographical institute, and the fine English park, are 
among the objects worthy of mention. Weimar has acquired much 
literary celebrity, from its having been in the beginning of the present 
century, the residence of many distinguished German scholars and 
authors, attracted thither by the patronage of the court. Schiller, 
Herder, Goethe, Wieland, and Kotzebue, with others, were assembled 
here at the same time. Population 10,000. 

Jena, in a charming valley, contains an ancient university, which 
ranks among the first in Germany; the library comprises 100,000 
volumes. In 1806 Napoleon gaiued a complete victory over the 
Prussians here. Population 5,000. 

Eisenach, 8,000 inhabitants, is a well built town, with some manu¬ 
factures. In its vicinity on the Wartburg, is a mountain fortress, 
in which Luther was concealed by his friends, when put under the 
bann of the empire for his religious doctrines. Here he spent nearly 
a year, and occupied his time in translating the New Testament into 
the vernacular tongue. 

3. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg consists of 
three detached portions, the principalities of Coburg, of Gotha, and of 
Lichtenberg. Area 975 square miles; population 154,000. 

Gotha, the capital, is a manufacturing town with 12,000 inhabitants; 
here are the ducal palace, and a fine public library of 150,000 volumes. 
In the vicinity is the celebrated observatory of Seeberg. 

Coburg, with 8,000 inhabitants, has several literary establishments, 
and considerable manufacturing industry. 


308 


HESSIAN STATES. 


4. Saxe-Altenburg. The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg has an area of 
530 square miles, with 115,200 inhabitants. 

Altenburg, the capital, is a place of some trade and manufactures, 
with 12,000 inhabitants. 

5. Saxe-Meiningtn-Hildburghausen. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen 
has an area of 920 square miles, and a population 138,000. 

Meiningen, the capital, is a manufacturing town with 5,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. Hildburghausen has a population of 4000 souls. 


XCII. DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 

This state consists of three entirely detached portions, surrounded 
by the Hanoverian and Prussian provinces. Area 1,500 square miles; 
population 250,000. 

Brunswick, the capital, is a large and well built city, which contains 
a number of public edifices, and several literary institutions of some 
celebrity. Its trade and manufactures are important, and its fairs rank 
next to those of Leipsic and Frankfort. Population 36,000. 

Wolfenbuttel in the vicinity, with 8,000, inhabitants, contains a very 
large and valuable library, considered one of the richest in Europe; 
it comprises 200,000 printed volumes, and 10,000 manuscripts. 

The religion of the great majority of the people is Lutheran; the 
government is a constitutional monarchy, The breweries and dis¬ 
tilleries, the manufactures of linen, and leather, the porcelain works, 
and the iron, lead, and copper mines, employ many of the inhabitants. 


XCIII. HESSIAN STATES. 

1. Boundaries , fyc. The estates of the house of Hesse consist of 
the three states of Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Hesse-Homburg. 
They lie between Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, and Nassau. The inhabi¬ 
tants are chiefly Protestants, but about one fifth are Roman Catholics. 
The government of Hesse-Darmstadt is a constitutional monarchy; 
the others are absolute. 

2. Electoral Hesse. Hesse-Cassel or the principality of Electoral 
Hesse has an area of 4,460 square miles, with 652,270 inhabitants. 

Cassel, the capital, situated upon the Fulda, has 26,000 inhabitants. 
It has several handsome squares, and a great number of important 
public institutions, learned and charitable. The palace is one of the 
most magnificent in Germany. Cassel was the capital of the kingdom 
of Westphalia, erected by Napoleon in 1807, and dissolved on his 
overthrow in 1814. In the neighborhood is the castle of Wilhelms- 
hohe, one of the most beautiful and splendid princely residences in 
Europe. 

Hanau, an active manufacturing town, with 10,000 inhabitants; 
Fulda, 9,000, with its literary institutions; and Marburg, 7,000, with 
its university, to which belongs a library of above 100,000 volumes, 
are places of some note. 

Smalkalden, with 5,000 inhabitants, is interesting in history, as the 
place in which the Protestant princes of Germany united, in 1531, 
in a league to defend then* faith against the emperor and the Catholic 
princes. 


WALDECK. 


309 


3. Hesse-Darmstadt. Grancl-Ducal Hesse or Hesse-Darmstadt is 
divided into two detached parts by Hesse-Cassel. Area 3,770 square 
miles; population 747,000. 

Darmstadt, the ducal residence, has 20,000 inhabitants. Its library of 
90,000 volumes, the museum, the vast arsenal, the palace, &c., are the 
objects of most interest. To the south lies Worms, with 7,000 inhab¬ 
itants, one of the oldest cities in Germany, and long conspicuous in the 
history of the empire. At the diet held here in 1521, Luther vindicat¬ 
ed his conduct and defended his faith before the emperor, princes, and 
prelates of Germany, by whom he was put under the bann of the empire. 

Mayence, Maintz, or Mentz is an ancient city, situated at the con¬ 
fluence of the Maine with the Rhine ; its dark and narrow streets, and 
its old buildings give it a gloomy appearance, but it is a place of 
historical interest, and its environs are remarkable for their beauty. Its 
citadel and vast fortifications, belonging to the system of military 
works erected by the German confederation, render it the strongest 
town in Germany. Long the capital of a sovereign archbishopric, 
Mentz still contains numerous ecclesiastical buildings. Here is still 
shown the house in which Faust and Guttenberg, natives of Mentz, 
made their first essays in the art of printing. Population 26,600. 

At Giessen, with 7,000 inhabitants, there is a university. 

4. Hesse-Homburg. The landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, consists 
of two distinct parts, the one situated in Hesse-Darmstadt, and the 
other between the Bavarian circle of the Rhine, and the Prussian 
government of Coblentz. Area 166 square miles; population 22,800. 

The capital is Homburg, with 3,500 inhabitants. 


XCIV. DUCHY OF NASSAU. 

Nassau lies between the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine 
and Hesse-Darmstadt. The government is a limited monarchy; 
rather more than half of the inhabitants are Protestants. Area 1,920 
square miles; population 363,600. 

Wisbaden, the capital, is a prettily built city, in a delightful situa¬ 
tion. Its sixteen hot springs, which all the year round have a tem¬ 
perature of 140°, attract from 10,000 to 12,000 visiters annually. Pop¬ 
ulation 7,000. 

Niederselters is noted for its mineral spring, the famous Seltzer 
water, of which about two million bottles are sold annually; Hoch- 
heim, Johannisberg, and Rudesheim for their wines, and Langenschwal- 
bach for its mineral waters. 


XCV. PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK. 

This little state, with an area of 460 square miles and 56,600 inhab¬ 
itants, is surrounded by the Prussian and Hessian territories. The 
county of Pyrmont is a detached part bordering on Hanover and Lippe- 
Detmold. The religion is Lutheran; the government, constitutional. 

Arolsen, the capital, has 1700 inhabitants. 

Pyrmont, the principal town, is much visited for its thermal saline 
waters. Population 2,400. 


310 


THE REUSS PRINCIPALITIES. 


XCVI. THE ANHALT DUCHIES. 

1. Boundaries. These states are surrounded by the Prussian pro¬ 
vince of Saxony. The inhabitants are Protestants; the governments, 
constitutional. 

2. Anhalt-Dessau. The duchy of Anhalt-Dessau has an area of 
348 square miles, and a population of 61,000. 

Dessau, the capital, is a pretty town in a charming situation, with 
10,000 inhabitants. 

3. Anhalt-Bemburg. The duchy of Anhalt-Bemburg has an area of 
340 square miles, and 40,800 inhabitants. 

Bern burg, the capital, has a population of 5,300 souls. 

4. Anhalt- Ccethen. The duchy of Anhalt-Coethen has an area of 
320 square miles, and 36,700 inhabitants. The capital is Ccethen, on 
the Ziethe, with a population of 6,800. 


XCVII. SCHWARTZBURG PRINCIPALITIES. 

1. Boundaries. These principalities are surrounded by the Prussian 
province of Saxony and the Saxon duchies. The inhabitants are 
Protestants. 

2. Schicartzburg-Rudolstadt. The principality of Schwartzburg- 
Rudolstadt has an area of 410 square miles, with 62,000 inhabitants. 
The government is constitutional in its forms. 

Rudolstadt is the capital. Population 4,000. 

3. Schwartzburg-Sondershausen. The principality of Schwartzburg- 
Sondershausen has 52,000 inhabitants, on an area of 360 square miles. 
The government is absolute. 

The capital is Sondershausen with 3,300 inhabitants. 


XCVIII. THE REUSS PRINCIPALITIES. 

1. Boundaries. The states of the princes of Reuss are surrounded 
by the Saxon duchies, Saxony, and Bavaria. The inhabitants are 
Protestants, and the forms of government constitutional. 

2. Reuss-Greitz. The principality of Reuss-Greitz has an area of 
145 square miles, and 25,100 inhabitants. 

Greitz, the capital, has some manufactures, and a population of 7,000. 

3. Reuss-Schleitz. The principality of Reuss-Schleitz, has an area 
of 208 square miles, and 31,400 inhabitants. Schleitz, the capital, has 
5,000 inhabitants. 

4. Reuss-Lobenstein. The principality of Reuss-Lobenstein is the 
largest of these states, having an area of 242 square miles. Population 
28,500. The capital is Lobenstein, with 3,000 inhabitants. 

Gera is the capital of a district which belongs to the two last des¬ 
cribed states, in common. Its trade and manufactures are consider¬ 
able ; population 8,000. 


REPUBLIC OF BREMEN. 


311 


XCIX. THE LIPPE PRINCIPALITIES. 

1. Boundaries. The estates of the Lippe family are bounded by the 
Prussian government of Minden, by Brunswick, and Electoral Hesse. 
They are governed according to constitutional forms; the inhabitants 
are Protestants. 

2. Lippe-Detmold. The principality of Lippe-Detmold has 79,800 
inhabitants, with an area of 440 square miles. Detmold with 2,800 
inhabitants, is the capital; Lemgow, 3,800, the principal town. 

3. Lippe-Schauenburg. The principality of Schauenburg Lippe has 
an area of 210 square miles with 24,000. Its capital, Buckeburg, has 
2,100 inhabitants. 


C. THE PRINCIPALITY OF LICHTENSTEIN. 

This little state, with an area of 54 square miles and 6,150 inhabitants, 
professing the Roman Catholic religion, is situated between Switzer¬ 
land and the Tyrol. The prince usually resides at Vienna; the village 
of Lichtenstein, with about 1,000 inhabitants, is the capital. 


Cl. THE HOHENZOLLERN PRINCIPALITIES. 

1. Boundaries. These two states are nearly surrounded by the king¬ 
dom of Wurtemberg. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics. 

2. Hohenzollern-Htchingen. The principality of Hohenzollern-Hech- 
ingen has an area of 110 square miles, with 20,000 inhabitants. Its 
capital is Hechingen ; population 3,000. 

3. Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen. The principality of Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen has an area of 390 square miles, with 42,600 inhabitants. 
Trochtelfingen, the principal town, has a population of 2,000. The 
capital, Sigmaringen, is an insignificant town with 1500 inhabitants. 


CII. LORDSHIP OF KNIPHAUSEN. 

This Lilliputian state, the smallest in Europe, has an area of 18 
square miles, with 2,860 inhabitants. It lies upon the northern coast 
of Oldenburg. The capital, Kniphausen, is a castle of the sovereign 
lord, surrounded by about 50 inhabitants. 


CIII. THE REPUBLIC OR FREE CITY OF 
BREMEN. 

The Republic of Bremen comprises the city of that name, and the 
adjoining territory, lying on the Weser, and surrounded by the Hano¬ 
verian territories. Area 68 square miles; population 58,000. 

The city of Bremen is a place of considerable commerce, though 
the larger vessels are obliged to discharge their cargoes below. The 
government is administered by four burgomasters and a senate, all of 


312 


REPUBLIC OF LUBECK. 


whom are chosen for life. The town is surrounded by gardens and 
walls shaded with trees, which occupy the site of the old fortifica¬ 
tions. Population 40,000. 


CIV. THE FREE CITY OF HAMBURG. * 

The territories of Hamburg are surrounded by the German provin¬ 
ces of Denmark. The bailiwic of Ritzebuttel is detached from the 
rest of the states, lying at the mouth of the Elbe. The bailiwic of 
Bergedorf belongs to Hamburg and Lubeck in common. Area 152 
square miles; population 150,000. The government is aristocratic, 
being vested in four burgomasters, and a council, which fill their own 
vacancies. 

The city of Hamburg, on the northern bank of the Elbe, 75 miles 
by the river, from the sea, is built partly on a great number of islands 
formed by the Elbe and the Alster. It is divided by a canal iuto the Old 
and New Town. The whole city is surrounded by a lofty rampart, and 
a broad ditch. Most of the streets are narrow and dark, especially in 
the Old Town, and the houses are mostly in the Dutch fashion, 6 or 7 
stories high. A few of the streets are handsome, and bordered by long 
and wide canals. The ramparts are planted with trees, and are so 
wide that they admit several carriages abreast. The churches are 
mostly Gothic, with beautiful altars, large organs, and lofty spires cov¬ 
ered with copper, which makes a brilliant appearance in the sun. The 
exchange is a noble structure, and Hamburg has always enjoyed a thriv¬ 
ing commerce. It has manufactures to a considerable extent of cotton 
and linen cloths, and refined sugars; it has many schools, libraries, and 
literary institutions. Population 122,000. 

Cuxhaven, upon the coast, is a little village important for its port, 
from which sail regular packet and steam vessels to Amsterdam and 
Harwich. 


CY. REPUBLIC OF LUBECK. 

The territories of Lubeck consist of several detached portions, situ¬ 
ated on the Baltic and bounded by the Danish and Mecklenburg terri¬ 
tories. Area 118 square miles; population 43,000. The government 
resembles that of the other free cities of Germany. 

The city of Lubeck, on the Trave, is still a place of considerable 
business, though much declined since the time when it was the head 
of the Hanseatic # towns, and its fleet commanded the Baltic. Its for¬ 
tifications are now converted into promenades. Population 22,000. 

I 

* The Hanseatic League was a celebrated association of the Middle Ages. 
Toward the middle of the 13th century, both sea and land were covered with pi¬ 
rates and robbers, and the flourishing commerce of Germany was especially exposed. 
This suggested a league for mutual assistance, and a confederacy was formed in 
1239, between Hamburg, and the districts of the Ditmarschen and Hadeln, which 
was joined by Lubeck in 1241. In a short time, the league increased to such a 
degree, that it comprised 85 towns. They established 4 great factories abroad: 
namely, at London, Bruges, Novogorod, and Bergen in Norway, and grew so 
powerful that they ruled by their treasures and arms a great part of northern 
Europe. 


GERMANY. 313 

CVI. REPUBLIC OF FRANKFORT. 

This republic is principally bounded by the Hessian states. Area 92 
square miles; population 54,000. The burgomasters are chosen annu¬ 
ally, and with the legislative senate and executive assembly, administer 
the government. 

Frankfort on the Maine, the capital, is the seat of the German diet, and 
the German emperors were crowned here, until the dissolution of the 
empire in 1806. It is one of the most important trading towns in Ger¬ 
many, and its fail’s, though not what they were when they attracted 
50,000 strangers to their stalls, are among the richest and most fre¬ 
quented in Europe. Frankfort contains several note-worthy buildings, 
collections, and institutions. Population 52,000. 


CYII. AUSTRIAN, PRUSSIAN, NETHERLANDISH, 
AND DANISH GERMANY. 

1. To Denmark belong the German duchies of Holstein and Lauen- 
burg, with 3,730 square miles, and 440,000 inhabitants. 

2. The Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Rhine, Sile¬ 
sia, Saxony, and Westphalia, with an area of 70,000 square miles and 
9,300,000 inhabitants, are also parts of the German confederacy. 

3. The German states of Austria are the Archduchy of Austria, the 
duchy of Stiria, Tyrol, Bohemia, Moravia, a part of Silesia, and the 
duchies of Carniola, Carinthia, and other parts of Illyria. They com¬ 
prise an area of 74,000 square miles, and contain 10,600,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. 

4. The grand duchy of Luxemburg with 3,600 square miles, and 
295,000 inhabitants, belonged till recently to the king of the Nether¬ 
lands, but is now claimed by Belgium. 


CVIII. GENERAL VIEW OF GERMANY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Germany is bounded N. by the German 
Ocean, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; E. by the Prussian provinces of 
Prussia, and Posen, the kingdom of Poland belonging to Russia, 
and the kingdoms of Galicia, and Hungary belonging to Austria; 

S. by the Adriatic Sea, Italy, and Switzerland; and W. by France, 
Belgium, and the Netherlands. It extends from 45° 30' to 55° N. Lat., 
and from 4° 50' to 20° 20' E. Lon., having an area of 245,000 square 
miles, and a population of 36,281,000. 

2. Mountains. The central and southern parts of Germany are tra¬ 
versed by several ranges of mountains. The mountains to the south 
of the Danube belong to the Alpine system, those on the north to the 
Carpathian system, which sends out numerous branches. The Hartz 
Mountains, belonging to the latter system, are the most northerly range. 
The northern part of the country is low and level, descending towards 
the North and Baltic Seas. 

3. Rivers. Germany is watered by 500 rivers, 60 of which are na¬ 
vigable. The Danube flows through the southern part. The Weser, 
the Elbe, and the Oder are the principal German streams, and many 

o 


314 


GERMANY. 


of their tributaries are navigable rivers. The Rhine, which rises in 
Switzerland, and flows into the sea in the Netherlands, has but a part 
of its course in Germany. 

4. Climate. The climate of Germany is modified by the elevation 
of the surface, and the exposure of the different sections. For purposes 
of general description it may be divided into three regions. In the 
first or that of the northern plains, the climate is humid and variable, 
though not cold; it is exposed to every wind, which conveys fogs and 
storms from two seas. The northwestern plain from its vicinity to the 
North Sea is subject to frequent rains and desolating tempests, while 
the influence of the Baltic Sea on the northeastern plain is less power¬ 
ful, and the climate though colder is less variable. The second region 
comprehends all the central part of Germany, which is sheltered by 
the mountains from the variableness and humidity of the maritime cli¬ 
mate ; this zone, the most agreeable of Germany, extends from Lat. 48° 
to 51°, but the general elevation of the surface renders it colder than 
other European countries of the same latitude. The third general di¬ 
vision is the Alpine section ; here the lofty heights and sudden depres¬ 
sions bring very different climates into contact with each other. The 
eternal glaciers of the Tyrol and Saltzburg are contiguous to the vine- 
covered valleys of Stiria and Carinthia, and but little removed from the 
olive groves of Trieste and the ever blooming gardens of Italy. Vines, 
rice, and maize thrive as far north as 54° ; beyond that latitude they do 
not arrive at perfection. The olive and silk-worm are successfully 
raised only in that small part of Germany which lies south of 46°. 

5. Soil. The soil is generally productive. The plains in the north 
have indeed much arid land, but along the rivers are rich and fruitful 
soils, yielding abundant harvests. In the south, there is much barren 
or slightly productive land on the mountains, but the beautiful valleys 
and small plains rival in fertility the best alluvial lands on the banks of 
the northern rivers. In general the soil in the north is heavy and best 
adapted for corn; in the south, light and best fitted for vines. The 
best soil is in the central section, between the mountains and the sandy 
plains. 

6. Religion. All religions are professed in Germany without restric¬ 
tion. Rather more than one half of the inhabitants are Roman Catho¬ 
lics, and above two fifths are Protestants. The Lutherans and Calvin¬ 
ists have been united in many places into one church, which takes the 
name of the Evangelical church. There are some Mennonites, and 
Moravians or Herrnhutters. The Jews in Germany are about 300,000. 

7. Government. The German confederacy was formed in 1815, to 
protect the independence and secure the tranquillity of the states, which 
entered into it. Thirty-six monarchical states, and four republics or 
Free Cities were the parties to the federal act. The organ of the 
confederacy is the diet composed of the plenipotentiaries of the sove¬ 
reign members; it is constituted in two different forms. 1. The Plenum 
or general assembly, in which each member has at least one vote, and 
the great powers have several; Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, 
Hanover, and Wurtemberg have each four votes; Baden, Hesse- 
Darmstadt, Hesse-Cassel, Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg), and 
the Netherlands (for Luxemburg), each three; Brunswick Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin, and Nassau each two, and the others, one each, * making 

* Kniphausen, however, is joined with Oldenburg, aud Reuss-Schleitz with 
Reuss-Lobenstein in voting. 


GERMANY. 


315 


71 votes. 2. The ordinary diet is the other form of the assembly ; in 
this there are but 17 votes, the principal powers (the eleven first named 
above) having each one vote, and the others voting collectively. This 
body discusses all questions, and proposes them for adoption to the 
plenum, executes its decrees, and in general manages the affairs of the 
confederacy. The general assembly decides upon the propositions of 
the ordinary diet, makes war and peace, &c. 

8. Army. The army of the confederation consists of 300,000 men, 
each state furnishing a contingent of troops, proportionate to its popula¬ 
tion. There are several cities considered as federal fortresses; these 
are Luxemburg, Mayence, Landau, Ulm, &c. 

9. Inhabitants. Nearly all the inhabitants of the confederacy are 
Germans, or descendants of the old Teutonic tribes, who have occupied 
the country ever since any thing is known of its history. They call 
themselves Deutschen , and their country Deutschland. The language 
is various dialects of the German ; that of the cultivated classes and of 
literature is the High German, which is nowhere spoken in its purity 
by the people. Various dialects of Low German are spoken in the 
northern districts. The Sclavonic inhabitants are chiefly in the Ger¬ 
man provinces of Austria, and Prussia. 

The Germans are characterised by habits of industry, by great integ¬ 
rity and fidelity, by perseverance, and firmness of purpose, and by 
ingenuity and intelligence ; to them we are indebted for the invention 
of gunpowder, of printing, of watches, &c., and the religious reforma¬ 
tion was the work of a German monk. The lower classes are slow to 
adopt new modes of living, and they are deficient in enterprise, but the 
learned men of Germany are distinguished for their liberality of senti¬ 
ment, their eagerness for novelty, and keenness of research. The 
nation is in a high degree imaginative, and full of sensibility to the im¬ 
pressions of the beautiful and the grand in nature and art. 

In person the Germans are robust, and hardy, and they have very 
generally light hair and blue eyes. 

The Germans of the south are in general less favorably distinguished 
for morality and intelligence than those of the north, and much less 
has been done in the former section towards enlightening the great 
mass of the people; yet there are many exceptions to this remark. In 
many quarters of the country the moral condition of the peasantry is 
very miserable ; ignorant, superstitious, dull, indolent, and dirty in their 
habits, and slovenly in their mode of cultivation, they still bear the 
traces of their recent servitude. 

In Tyrol, Stiria, Carinthia, and the other mountainous tracts of the 
south, the manners of the inhabitants are very primitive. Moderate in 
their desires, and content with what their lands and cattle furnish them, 
they are frugal and cheerful, but ignorant and superstitious. The 
Tyrolese are accustomed like the Savoyards to wander abroad, peddling 
small wares, but they return home to enjoy their savings and their 
gains. 

The Austrians, properly so called, are industrious and orderly, and 
the number of criminal offences committed among them is very small. 
A striking feature in their character is their general good humor, a 
habitual content and cheerfulness; they are fond of amusements, an .« 
excel particularly in music. But blindly attached to old usages, an 1 
averse from change, their agriculture and manufactures are backwar I, 


316 


GERMANY. 


and their condition stationary. Though by no means destitute of inge¬ 
nuity and invention, they are much behind the French and English in 
the mechanic arts. 

The Bavarians have many of the same traits of character, but the 
Bavarian peasantry are not in general so industrious, and there is a 
prevailing laxity of morals among all classes. Much improvement has, 
however, recently been made in the intellectual and moral condition of 
the nation by the more general diffusion of the means of education, 
and more liberal maxims of government. 

In the north the ,Saxons are characterised by industry, intelligence, 
and honesty ; but the peasants in Saxony are oppressed with taxes, 
and excluded from the mechanical trades, which are reserved to the 
citizens, or inhabitants of towns, not noble. The nobility enjoys many 
exemptions and some feudal privileges, and in some districts the peas¬ 
antry are still in a state of bondage. 

The Hessians are distinguished by their robust figure and military 
air, they are brave and frank, but phlegmatic and slow. The Hessians 
have taken part as mercenaries in most of the wars of Europe, and 
12,000 of them were kept in pay by the British in our revolutionary 
war. This system of hiring out the inhabitants as troops, has proved 
injurious to the industry and general improvement of the state. 

The lower classes dress in the manner the most convenient for their 
occupations, and without any very distinguishing peculiarities: the 
higher classes follow English and French fashions. Caps are nearly 
universal with the men : they are made of cloth with low crowns two 
or three inches only in height, and have a small projection over the 
eyes. The female peasants and domestics wear on holidays, gaudy 
caps of gold stuffs, and those who are too poor to wear these, adorn 
their heads and arms with a few flowers. 

Many of the amusements are those which are common in England 
and France. The favorite active sport is the chase of the wild boar, 
and although the game privileges may be, as in England, distinct from 
the soil, yet all classes are permitted to attend the prince in the chase, 
but not otherwise to engage in the sport. Hares are exceedingly nu¬ 
merous, and they are hunted, not with grey-hounds, but wjth peasants. 
These form a xarge circle, and with great vociferation close by degrees 
upon a centre, driving before them the hares, which the hunters shoot 
down in great numbers. But dancing is the national amusement, 
and it is pursued with more enthusiasm than in France. The waltz is 
the national dance, and it is introduced into most of the foreign figures 
that prevail in Germany. 

10. Education. In the means of education, the north of Germany far 
surpasses the south. The Protestant states are more enlightened than 
the Catholic, and in Saxony there is hardly a peasant that cannot 
read and write. In Prussia, Bavaria, &c., elementary schools are nu¬ 
merous. The gymnasiums of the north of Germany are celebrated; 
they are schools preparatory to the universities; but the studies pursued 
in them are equal to those of the universities in some countries. The 
gymnastic exercises are pursued with ardor in some, though in the 
most they are discontinued. The universities of Germany are the best 
in the world. They have students from every European nation, and 
from America. Those of Berlin, Goettingen, Jeua, Halle, Bonn, and 
Leipsic, are celebrated. The instructions are given in a great measure 


EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 


317 


by lectures, and one professor often lectures on several subjects. The 
libraries are the best and most extensive in the world, and contain all 
that is valuable in ancient or modern science. There are upwards <5f 
20 universities in Germany, and 150 public libraries, with five million 
volumes. There are no less than 10,000 authors, producing annually 
from 4,000 to 5,000 books. 


CIX. THE EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 

1. Boundaries. The Austrian Empire is bounded on the N. by 
Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, and Poland; on the E. by Russia and the 
principality of Moldavia; on the S. by Walachia, Servia, the Ottoman 
Empire, the Adriatic, and the Po ; and on the W. by Sardinia, Switzer¬ 
land, and Bavaria. It extends from 42° to 51° N. Lat., and from 8° to 
26° E. Lon., having an area of 260,000 square miles, with 33,500,000 
inhabitants.* 

2. Mountains. Austria is traversed in different directions by numer¬ 
ous chains of the great Alpine and Carpathian systems of mountains. 
The mountainous chains to the south of the Danube belong to the former. 
The Rhetian Alps traverse the Tyrol; of which the Order, 12,850 feet 
high, is the loftiest summit. The Noric Alps extend across Saltzburg 
and Stiria to the neighborhood of Vienna; principal summit, Gross 
Glockner 12,775 feet high. The Carnic Alps extend from the sources 
of the Brenta to Villach, separating Tyrol and Carinthia from the 
Venetian provinces: highest summit 11,500 feet. A continuation of 
this chain extends to the southeast under the name of the Julian Alps. 

The principal chain of the Carpathian Mountains surrounds the 
plains of Hungary like a semicircle, separating Hungary and Transyl¬ 
vania from Moldavia and Galicia, and dividing the waters of the Baltic 
from those of the Black Sea; they terminate at Orsova on the Danube. 
None of their summits exceeds the height of 10,000 feet. A western 
branch of this system extends from the sources of the Oder to those of 
the Elsler, under the general name of the Sudetic Mountains. They 
have an elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. 

3. Rivers. Austria abounds in navigable rivers, which find their 
way to the four great seas of Europe. Those of Austrian Italy have 
already been described. The Danube traverses the governments of 
Upper and Lower Austria, and part of Hungary in an easterly direction, 
then turning to the south, reaches the southern frontier of the latter 
kingdom, and, flowing easterly, separates it from Servia, and enters the 
Ottoman empire at Orsova. Its principal tributaries in Austria are the 
Morava or Marsch, and the Theiss from the north; and the Inn, the 
Drave, and the Save on the south. The Elbe traverses Bohemia, and 
passes into Prussia; the Moklau, which flows into it below Prague, is 
its principal tributary. The Oder rises in the Sudetic Mountains, and 
passes north into Prussia. The Vistula, which rises in the Carpathian 
Mountains, enters Poland ; and the Dniester has its source in the same 
mountains, but takes a contrary direction and ehters Russia. 

4. Lakes. The principal lakes are the Plattern, 45 miles long and 

* This includes the Italian provinces. The description of the physical features 
of the empire will not extend to them, as they have been separately described in 
the account of Italy. 


318 


EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 


from six to ten wide, and the Neusiedle, 20 miles long by six broad, hi 
Hungary; and the intermitting lake Zirknitz in Carniola. The last is 
situated amidst lofty mountains, and is left dry for several months by 
the loss of its waters in some subterranean passages. During that 
period its bed is cultivated, but after about four months, the waters 
rush in, and again fill the basin in the space of twenty-four hours, 

5. Climate. The climate is various. Hungary, protected from the 
north winds by high mountains, lies open to the mild southern breezes. 
In the elevated regions of the Tyrol, Stiria, tfie borders of Bohemia, 
&c.., the air is cold, but pure and elastic. In the valley of the Danube 
excessive heat is experienced. In Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and 
Galicia the climate is for the most part mild, but in some of the moun¬ 
tainous districts of Bohemia, the cold is severe. 

6. Soil. In the archduchy of Austria there is much fertile land. 
Hungary exhibits some extensive tracts of sandy plains, and there are 
also large tracts of marshy land in that kingdom, with fertile alluviat 
lands along the rivers. The soil of Bohemia and Moravia is generally 
good, and the pastures are excellent. 

7. Minerals. The Austrian provinces are rich in mineral produc¬ 
tions. Iron ore, tin, and copper are abundant in many parts of Bohe¬ 
mia, Austria, Stiria and Carinthia. Gold, silver, and copper are 
wrought in Hungary; the gold and silver mines of Schemnitz and 
Kremnitz are worked by the government, and yield annually about 
$400,000 worth of gold, and twice that amount in silver. Lead and 
quicksilver are obtained from the mines of Carinthia and Carniola. 
Coal has been found in various parts of the empire, but the facilities for 
transportation are few, and it is not much worked. Rock-salt is plenti¬ 
ful and the salt mines of Galicia are the greatest in Europe. This valu¬ 
able mineral is found on both sides of the Carpathian Mountains from 
Moldavia to Suabia. There are no less than 600 mineral springs in the 
empire, 150 of which are in Bohemia. 

8. Divisions. Geographers often describe Austria as divided into 
four great sections: The German provinces ; the Polish provinces, or 
that part of Poland, which has been annexed to the empire ; the Hun¬ 
garian districts; and the Italian provinces. The political division of 
the empire is into 15 governments, differently denominated and regu¬ 
lated, and variously subdivided into circles, provinces, counties, &c. 
The following table contains a view of these various divisions. 

German Provinces. Governments. 1. Upper Austria; 2. Lower 
Austria; 3. Tyrol; 4. Duchy of Stiria; 5. Laybach, and 6. Trieste 
(forming the kingdom of Illyria); 7. kingdom of Bohemia; and 8. gov¬ 
ernment of Moravia and Silesia: 

Polish Province. Government. 9. Kingdom of Galicia: 

Italian Provinces. Governments. 10. Milan; and 11. Venice 
(forming the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom): 

Hungarian Provinces. Governments. 12. Kingdom of Hungary, 
(comprising the kingdoms of Sclavonia and Croatia); 13. Transylvania; 
14. The Military Frontiers; and 15. The kingdom of Dalmatia. 

9. Canals and Rail Roads. The Francis canal connects the Theiss 
with the Danube; 60 miles in length. The canal from Vienna to 
Neustadt, 40 miles, is to be continued to Trieste. There are numerous 
other canals but none of great extent. A railroad, from Mauthausen 
to Budweis, connects the Elbe and Danube; 75 miles in length* 


EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 


319 


10. Towns. Vienna, the capital, is pleasantly situated upon the 
Danube, in the midst of a fertile and picturesque region. It consists of 
the city proper, which is small and surrounded with walls, and 34 
suburbs, whose spacious streets and elegant edifices form a striking 
contrast with the narrow streets and mean buildings of the former. 
Vienna contains 18 public squares, 20 monasteries, 5 theatres, 50 
churches, numerous scientific and charitable institutions, palaces, &c., 
and 300,000 inhabitants. The finest promenade is the Prater, on an 
island in the Danube, which the rich equipages, the gay crowd, the 
fine walks, and the various amusements combine to render unrivalled 
in Europe. The imperial palace is a splendid, but irregular building, 
containing numerous treasures of art, and a fine library of 300,000 
volumes. 

Many of the palaces of the nobles are magnificent and enriched with 
galleries of paintings and sculpture, cabinets of medals, scientific collec¬ 
tions, &c. Among the churches are St. Stephen’s, a large and noble 
Gothic edifice, the tower of which, 450 feet high, is one of the loftiest 
in Europe, and the church of the Capuchins, which contains the burial 
vault of the imperial family. The great hospital is remarkable for its 
extent, comprising seven courts, planted with trees, 111 halls, and 2000 
beds, and receiving about 16,000 patients annually. The literary in¬ 
stitutions are important; the university is one of the best in Europe, 
particularly for the medical department, and its library contains 110,000 
volumes. 

In Vienna and its environs are the greatest number of botanical 
gardens of any place of equal extent in the world, and several of them 
are unrivalled by any similar establishments. Pleasure is the great 
occupation of the inhabitants of Vienna. In the environs are numerous 
parks, and pretty towns. Schcenbrunn and Luxemburg are favorite 
summer residences of the emperor. 

Other towns in the archduchy of Austria are Neustadt, containing 
8,000 inhabitants, with flourishing manufactures, and connected with 
Vienna by a canal; Lintz with 20,000, containing extensive woollen 
manufactures, and connected with the salt works of Gmunden by a 
railroad; Steyer, 10,000 inhabitants, noted for the excellence and 
cheapness of its cutlery, which is exported to all parts of Europe, 
and Saltzburg with 14,000 inhabitants, with a cathedral, archbishop’s 
palace, several literary institutions, and manufactures. 

Graetz, a well built town, and the capital of Stiria, contains a uni¬ 
versity with a rich library, and numerous other institutions for educa¬ 
tion, among which the Johanneum, or college founded by the archduke 
John, is the principal. Its manufactures of cotton goods, hardware, 
silk, &c., are extensive. Population 34,000. 

Innspruck, the capital of Tyrol, with 10,000 inhabitants, contains a 
university and some other literary institutions. Bolzano, noted for its 
fairs, with 8,000 inhabitants; Trent, 10,000 inhabitants, celebrated in 
history as the seat of the last general council of the Catholic church 
(from 1545-63); and Roveredo, with 10,000 inhabitants, a busy manu¬ 
facturing place, are the other principal towns of the Tyrol. 

Trieste, situated upon the northern extremity of the Gulf of Venice, 
is the principal commercial town in the empire. Including the imme¬ 
diate neighborhood, with its beautiful gardens, vineyards, and country 
seats, it has a population of 42,000 souls. The commerce of Trieste 


320 


EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 


has rapidly increased since it has been declared a free port. In the 
vicinity is Aquileia, now a small village, once the centre of commerce 
between the northern and southern parts of the Roman empire, and a 
large city with 100,000 inhabitants. 

Laybach, formerly capital of the duchy of Carniola, and at present 
of the kingdom of Illyria, has an active trade, and its manufactures are 
extensive. A congress of European sovereigns was held here in 
1820. Population 10,000. Idria, in the same government, derives 
importance from its rich mines of quicksilver. Population 5,000. 

Clagenfurth, a busy manufacturing town with 9,000 inhabitants, was 
the capital of the former duchy of Carinthia; Rovigno, with a good 
harbor, has an active commerce, and contains 10,000 inhabitants; Pola, 
in the vicinity, contains some magnificent Roman ruins, among which 
are a temple in good preservation, a vast amphitheatre, consisting 
of three stories, each having 72 arches and capable of accommodating 
18,000 persons, and a beautiful triumphal arch, called the Golden 
Gate. 

Prague, the capital of Bohemia, is a large and flourishing city, situ¬ 
ated on both sides of the Moldau, over which there is a splendid bridge 
of 16 arches. It contains 48 churches, 16 monasteries, 9 syna¬ 
gogues, a number of elegant palaces, among which are an imperial 
castle, and the palace of Wallenstein, and other public buildings. It is 
strongly fortified with very extensive works. The university is one of 
the oldest, and was long one of the most celebrated in Europe; its 
library contains 100,000 volumes. Prague is the centre of Bohemian 
commerce, and the depot of the active manufacturing district in which 
it is situated. Population 105,000, of which 7,500 are Jews. It is cele¬ 
brated in history as the residence of Huss, the Bohemian reformer, 
and the birth-place of his disciple Jerome. 

Reichenberg with 10,000 inhabitants, a flourishing town, with exten¬ 
sive manufactures of cotton and woollen; Budweis, 6,000, with an 
active trade; Joachimsthal, 4,000, noted for its mines of silver and 
cobalt, and the centre of a mining district, which furnishes lead and 
tin ; Pilsen, 8,000 inhabitants, deriving an active trade from its woollen 
manufactures, and the mines of iron and alum in its vicinity, and 
Carlsbad, Tceplitz, and Seidlitz, known for their mineral waters, are 
the other most important Bohemian towns. 

Brunn, the capital of Moravia, is a flourishing manufacturing city, 
with 38,000 inhabitants. Its woollen manufactures are the most exten¬ 
sive in the empire. Spielberg, a fortress on a neighboring hill, is now 
used as a state-prison. At Austerlitz, ten miles from Brunn, Napoleon 
gained a brilliant victory over the Russian and Austrian forces in 1805. 
Olmutz, a fortified place, with 13,000 inhabitants, was for a time the 
prison of Lafayette. 

Lemberg, the capital of Austrian Poland, or the kingdom of Galicia, 
is a large and well built city, with a population of 52,000 souls, among 
whom are 20,000 Jews. It contains a university and other literary 
institutions, and is the residence of Roman Catholic, Armenian, and 
Greek archbishops, and of a superior Rabbi. Its w r oollen and cotton 
manufactures are important,and it carries on an active trade with Rus¬ 
sia, Turkey, &c. 

Brody, the second city, and the most important commercial town 
of Galicia, has 20,000 inhabitants, of whom 16,000 are Jews, 


321 


EMPIRE OP AUSTRIA. 

Rochnia and Wieliczka, with about 6,000 inhabitants each, are im¬ 
portant from their salt mines. 

Biula, the capital of Hungary, stands upon the right bank of the 
Danube, opposite Pesth, with which it is connected by a bridge of 
boats. It contains the palace of the viceroy of Hungary, and several 
other public buildings. Pesth is the largest, most populous, and active 
city of the kingdom, and each of its four annual fairs attracts 20,000 
strangers from Hungary, and other provinces of the empire, and from 
Turkey. It is well built, containing many elegant public edifices, and 
mansions of the Hungarian nobility. Its university is one of the most 
richly endowed on the continent. The population of the two cities is 
96,000, of which 60,000 are in Pesth. 

Presburg is a well built city on the Danube, with 41,000 inhabitants. 
It was formerly the capital of Hungary, and the Hungarian diet is still 
occasionally held here; it is chiefly remarkable for the great number 
of its institutions for education. 

Debretzin is the principal town in eastern Hungary, and the chief 
manufacturing place in the kingdom. Population 45,000. Its four 
annual fairs are attended by great numbers of traders; its manufactures 
comprise coarse woollens, leather, pottery, soap, &c. 

Theresienstadt and Ketskemet are large towns wfith extensive manu¬ 
factures of woollens, leather, soap, &>c ; the former has 40,000, the latter 
34,000 inhabitants. 

Schemnitz with 22,000 inhabitants, and Kremnitz, with 10,000, are 
remarkable for their rich gold and silver mines. 

Mischkolocz is a large town, with an active trade in corn, wine, and 
leather ; in its vicinity are numerous forges, glass-works, and paper¬ 
works. Population 30,000. 

Temeswar, one of the strongest fortresses in the empire, owes its 
commercial activity to a canal, which connects it with the Danube. 
Population 12,000. 

Szeged in, on the Theiss, has an extensive trade, with manufactures 
of tobacco, soap, woollen goods, and boots. Population 32,000. 

The principal towns in Transylvania are Klausenburg, the capital, 
containing a number of literary institutions, with 20,000 inhabitants; 
Hermannstadt, 18,000, and Kronstadt, 25,000, important commercial 
and manufacturing towns, and Karlsburg, 6,000, the centre of the rich¬ 
est gold and silver mines of the empire. 

Zara, the capital of Dalmatia, has a good harbor, and a thriving 
commerce ; population 5,000. Ragusa, formerly the capital of a repub¬ 
lic, has 6,000 inhabitants. 

11. Agriculture. Although Austria presents a great extent of good 
soil, agriculture is in so backward a state, that it is not highly produc¬ 
tive. The processes and implements of husbandry are extremely 
imperfect. A considerable part of the country is covered with forests, 
which supply the inhabitants with fuel, coal being little used. There 
are extensive pastures in the Hungarian provinces, and natural forests, 
which contain vast herds of cattle in a wild state. Some of the wines 
of Austria are highly esteemed, but the difficulties of transportation 
prevents them from being largely produced for exportation. The wine 
of Tokav in Hungary is particularly celebrated. 

12. Manufactures. The manufactures of Austria are extensive in 
the aggregate, but the operations are generally carried on upon rather 

21 o # 


322 


EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 


a small scale, and the Austrians have neither that perfection of finish 
nor that ingenious machinery, which are to be found in the work¬ 
shops of western Europe. Woollen, linen, and cotton goods, paper 
cutlery, and hardware, leather, and glass, are the most important arti¬ 
cles of manufacturing industry. 

13. Commerce. Austria is unfavorably situated for foreign com¬ 
merce ; her northern provinces communicate with the sea only through 
the Elbe and the Vistula, by a long and difficult navigation ; the eastern 
have navigable waters, which lead to countries not'adapted for com¬ 
mercial operations, and the maritime coast on the Adriatic, although it 
has some good harbors, is separated from the interior by mountainous 
ranges, which render communication difficult. Trieste is the principal 
port, and displays considerable commercial activity. Fiume is the 
inlet to the Hungarian provinces, and Ragusa, to Dalmatia. The 
inland trade of Austria is active and flourishing. 

14. Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is professed by a very 
great majority of the inhabitants. The adherents of the Greek church 
are numerous in Transylvania, the southern part of Hungary, and in 
Croatia, Sclavonia, and Galicia. There are many Protestants in Hun¬ 
gary, Galicia, and the German provinces, and some Socinians or Uni¬ 
tarians in Transylvania. The number of Greek Christians is about 
1,500,000, that of Protestants 3,000,000, and that of Catholics 28,000,000. 
There are nearly 500,000 Jews, chiefly in Galicia, Moravia, Hun¬ 
gary, and Bohemia. All religions are tolerated in Austria. The 
archbishop of Vienna is the head of the Austrian church ; the land¬ 
ed property of the church is extensive, and there are 300 abbeys, and 
above 500 convents in the empire. 

15. Education. There are six universities in the empire, besides 
those of the Italian provinces; they are at Vienna, Prague, Pesth, 
Lemberg, Innspruck, and Grsetz. High schools, and primary schools 
have also been established in some parts of the country, but in general 
the national education is extremely deficient. The restraints upon the 
press and freedom of speech, render the Austrian incurious upon many 
moral and political subjects which occupy the minds and pens of men 
in freer countries, and shut out large fields of literature from popular 
inquiry. 

16. Government. The sovereign is styled the emperor of Austria, 
and the government, with some diversities in the different parts, is 
absolute in all, except in Hungary and Transylvania. In Hungary 
there is a diet, composed of the clergy, the nobility, deputies of the 
royal cities, and of the boroughs, which has the right of making laws 
in concurrence with the king, as the emperor is there styled, and of 
laying taxes. The constitution of Transylvania is similar. There are 
assemblies of the estates in Bohemia and Galicia, but their powers are 
merely nominal. In the hereditary states, as the archduchy of Austria, 
Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola are called, the power of the emperor is 
uncontrolled, but is exercised with mildness. The Military Frontiers 
have entirely a military administration, and in fact are nothing more 
than a vast military colony, under the immediate management of the 
minister of war. They consist of a narrow tract extending along the 
northern frontiers of Turkey and the southern boundary of Hungary 
and Transylvania, and divided into four generalats or generalships. 
The inhabitants enjoy the use of the land which they cultivate, on 


EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 


323 


condition of rendering certain military services, and all are, therefore, 
trained to military exercises. Even civil affairs are here conducted in 
a military form, and the magistrates have military titles. The purpose 
of this singular institution is to maintain a disciplined army of cultiva¬ 
tors of the soil, always in readiness to defend the frontiers against the 
Turks. & 

17. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of this great empire belong to several 

entirely distinct races. 1. The Germans form the population of the 
archduchy of Austria, the greater part of that of Stiria and Tyrol, and 
the minority in the Hungarian and Polish provinces, and in Bohemia, 
Moravia, and Silesia. 2. The Sclavonic race, comprising nearly one 
half of the population, consists of several different people ; these are 
the Tzechs or Bohemians; the Slowacs in Moravia and Hungary; the 
Poles in Galicia ; the Wends in Stiria, Carniola, Carinthia, and Tyrol; 
the Croatians, Dalmatians, &c. 3. The Uralian race comprises the 

dominant people of Hungary and Transylvania, or the Magyars. 4. 
The Latin race comprises the Italians, and the Walachians of Hunga¬ 
ry, Transylvania, and the Military Frontiers. 

The Sclavonians, scattered, as we have described, over a great extent, 
are the most backward and ignorant part of the population. They are 
commonly employed in mere rustic labors, and many of them are still 
in a state of servitude. Thus in Bohemia and Moravia the German 
population conducts public affairs, transacts commercial operations, 
and exercises the mechanic arts, while the Sclavonians are the common 
laborers; and in Hungary the Magyars, who, though in general illiterate, 
are a spirited and intelligent race, and fond of active employments and 
a military life, leave the more servile kinds of labor to the Sclavonic in¬ 
habitants. The Sclavonians in fact are the conquered aborigines, who 
were reduced to slavery or kept in a subordinate state by their con¬ 
querors. 

In the Polish provinces, where the Sclavonians form almost the 
whole population, they evince an aversion from mechanic arts and 
commerce, and the traders and dealers there, as in Poland, are mostly 
Jews. 

18. Revenue , Army. In an agricultural country like Austria, the 
customs are small, and the revenue is principally raised by land and 
poll taxes. In the Hungarian states the nobility are exempt from 
taxes. The revenue of Austria is much smaller than those of England 
and France, not exceeding seventy million dollars; the debt is 320 
millions. The army is composed of 271,400 men. 

19. Mines. The salt mines of Wieliczka have been worked for 
six centuries, but still appear inexhaustible. They have reached the 
depth of 1500 feet, and have a great extent, comprising numerous 
long galleries, halls, chapels, &c. The salt is cut out in large blocks, 
which are then broken to facilitate their conveyance. In making these 
excavations solid masses are left at intervals, to support the roof. The 
brilliancy and variety of coloring displayed by the crystal salt give 
these mines a splendid appearance. The quicksilver mines of Idria 
are also remarkable for their extent. There are nine horizontal gal¬ 
leries, which are entered by six descending shafts; the galleries are 
spacious and neat, and are all arched, except when cut through the 
solid rock. Although well ventilated they are extremely hot and 
unhealthy. In 1803 the woodwork in the galleries took fire, and the 

21 o* 


324 


PRUSSIA, 


heated and sulphureous exhalations rendered it dangerous to approach 
them. The fire was finally extinguished only by turning the course 
of a stream into the mines. 

20. History. -Austria began to acquire importance in the 12th cen¬ 
tury, when it was made a duchy. In the following century the house 
of Hapsburg laid the foundation of the Austrian greatness. New ter¬ 
ritories were subsequently acquired, and the electoral crown of Ger¬ 
many was obtained by this dynasty in 1438. Austria was raised to 
an archduchy in 1453, and with the acquisition of Bohemia and Hun¬ 
gary in 1526, it was allowed the rank of a European monarchy. It 
was erected into an empire in 1804, and though much abridged of its 
territory and influence by the conquests of Napoleon, its losses were 
subsequently retrieved, and it is now one of the chief powers of 
Europe. 


CX. KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 

/ 

1. Boundaries and Extent. This kingdom is composed of two dis¬ 
tinct portions of territory, separated by the German States. They are 
bounded north by the Netherlands, Hanover, Mecklenburg, and the 
Baltic Sea; east by Russia and Poland; south by Austria, Saxony, and 
several of the small German States; and west by Belgium. The 
northern extremity is in 55° 46", and the southern in 49° N. lat. The 
eastern extremity is in 23°, and the western is 6° E. Ion. The eastern 
division contains 88,800 and the western 18,600 square miles. Total 
107,400.* Population 13,800,000. 

2. Mountains. Some parts of the eastern division are skirted by the 
Hartz and Sudetic Mountains. In the western part, there are some 
ranges of hills. The eastern part is an immense plain, so flat towards 
the sea, that the coast would be exposed to inundation were it not pro¬ 
tected by downs of sand. The rivers have so little descent to carry 
off their waters that they run into stagnant lakes. Forests of great 
extent exist in both divisions. 

3. Rivers . The Oder rises in Moravia, and flow's through the 
whole'of eastern and southern Prussia northwesterly into the Baltic; 
it is 460 miles long, and for the most part is navigable. The Elbe 
enters Prussia from Saxony, and flows northwesterly into the North 
sea, at Cuxhaven, after a course of about 580 miles. The Spree, Saale, 
Havel, and Elster, are tributaries of the Elbe. The Pregel, Niernen, 
and Vistula water the northeastern part. The Vistula, w'hich has a 
course of about 650 miles, flows into the Baltic by several mouths, 
and is navigable to Cracow. The western part is traversed from 
southeast to northwest by the Rhine.’ 

4. Coast and Bays. Prussia has 500 miles of coast upon the Baltic, 
comprising the large open Gulf of Dantzic, and three Haffs or close 
gulfs; the Kurische HafF, which receives the Niernen, the Frische 
HafF at the mouth of the Vistula, and the Stettin HafF at the mouth of 
the Oder. The lakes are very numerous, but small. 

5. Islands. On the coast of Pomerania, in the Baltic, is the island 

* The canton of Neufchatel also acknowledges the sovereignty of the king of 
Prussia; but this is in his own right, and not as king of Prussia, and it forms 
a separate state. 


PRUSSIA. 


325 


of Rugen, the largest belonging to Germany. It contains 370 square 
miles, and is partly covered with a forest of beech trees. Many parts 
of it are fertile. It has 28,150 inhabitants. The chief town is Ber¬ 
gen, with a population of 2,200. Several small islands are scattered 
around it. 

6. Climate. The climate is in general temperate and healthy, though 
varying much in the different provinces. Along the Baltic it is cold, 
damp, and variable. In the interior it is much more agreeable. 

7. Soil. In the eastern part there is little fertile land, except strips 
of low marshy territory along the coast and rivers. The remainder 
is sandy and overgrown with heath. In the western part the soil is 
much superior: yet here are many tracts that are stony and unproduc¬ 
tive. 

8. Minerals. The mountainous parts contain iron, copper, lead, and 
silver. Salt is obtained from springs in Prussian Saxony. Eastern 
Prussia is the only country of Europe which produces in any abun¬ 
dance the remarkable substance called amber; naturalists are yet 
ignorant of its origin, and it is uncertain whether' it should be ranked 
among vegetable, mineral, or animal productions. It is found on the 
shores of the Baltic, thrown upon the beach by the strong northeast¬ 
erly gales. Sometimes it is found in sand hills near the sea, in regular 
strata, which are worked as in a mine. It is also found in the 
interior, but in small pieces and to a trifling amount. 

9. Divisions. The Prussian Monarchy is divided into eight provin¬ 
ces, which are subdivided into 25 governments and 328 circles. Two of 
the provinces are in the western, and the remainder in the eastern section. 

Provinces. 


. Eastern Prussia. 


Western Prussia. 

10. Canals. The Bromberg canal connects the Brahe, a tributary 
of the Vistula, with the Netze, a tributary of the Oder; 16 miles long. 
The Frederic-William canal unites the Oder above Frankfort with 
the Spree, and the Plauen canal connects the Oder and the Havel. 
There are some other canals, but, as well as those above mentioned, 
they are of no great extent. 

11. Towns. Berlin, the capital, situated in the midst of a sandy 
plain upon the Spree, is a handsome city, with spacious and regular 
streets, adorned with several fine squares and many elegant edifices. 
The royal palace is one of the most magnificent in Europe, and the 
arsenal is one of the largest in the world. Several palaces of the 
royal princes and of the nobility, and many public edifices and 
churches, are also handsome buildings. Some of the twenty-two 
squares are adorned with statues or other monuments, and Lime-street, 
planted with six rows of lime trees, is one of the most beautiful streets 
in Europe. There is a great number of literary institutions and scien¬ 
tific establishments, which are of a high order. The university, with 
its beautiful halls and excellent collections, is perhaps equal to any 


Prussia 

Grand Duchy of Pos 

Saxony 

Silesia 

Pomerania 

Brandenburg 

Westphalia 

Rhine 



326 


PRUSSIA. 


in the world, and there are 5 colleges, 7 gymnasiums, and other higher 
schools, with upwards of 100 elementary schools. The Zoological 
Garden is a favorite promenade ; and the Parade ground is an extensive 
field, used for military reviews. Population 240,000. 

Potsdam, the capital of Brandenburg, situated upon the Havel, is the 
second royal residence. It is a handsome city, with a royal castle 
and many elegant edifices. Population 32,000. In its neighborhood 
are three royal palaces, among which that of Sans Souci is the most 
famous. Frankfort, on the Oder, has a thriving commerce, and 17,000 
inhabitants. 

Stettin, on the Oder, is a fortified town with one of the best ports 
in Prussia. Population 32,200. Large vessels stop at Swinemunde. 
Stralsund, in this vicinity, is an important commercial town, 16,000 
inhabitants. 

Breslau, upon the Oder, capital of Silesia, is officially styled the 
third capital of the kingdom. Its university, with numerous scientific 
institutions and a valuable library, the extent of its commerce and 
manufactures, and its population, amounting to 90,000 souls, render it 
the second city in Prussia. 

Posen is a large and flourishing city upon the Wartha. It is 
strongly fortified, and its three annual fairs render its trade brisk. 
Population 28,500. 

Koenigsberg, near the mouth of the Pregel, is a large city with 
straight and spacious streets, and 70,000 inhabitants. It carries on 
an active commerce, and it contains a university, observatory, several 
gymnasiums, &c. Its port is Pillau, at which the largest vessels stop, 
as there is not sufficient depth of water in the Frische Haff. 

Dantzic, formerly the capital of a republic, is the principal com¬ 
mercial port of Prussia, being the outlet for the products of Poland. 
It is beautifully situated, but badly built, and is one of the chief Prus¬ 
sian fortresses. Population 63,000. 

The other most important towns in this part of the country are 
Elbing, a manufacturing and commercial place, with 20,000 inhab¬ 
itants ; Thorn, the birth-place of Copernicus, 11,000 inhabitants; and 
Tilsit, with a population of 12,000. 

Magdeburg, the capital of Saxony, is one of strongest fortresses in 
Europe, and is a commercial place of some importance. Population 
51,000. 

The other principal towns of this province, are Halle, important 
from its salt-works, its manufactures, its book-trade, and its celebrated 
university, with 26,000 inhabitants; Halberstadt, with an active trade, 
and a magnificent cathedral, 16,000 inhabitants; and Erfurt, noted 
for its literary establishments, its flourishing commerce and its strong 
works, and containing 25,000 inhabitants. 

Munster, capital of Westphalia, is interesting from its historical 
associations. The peace of Westphalia, 1648, was signed in the coun¬ 
cil-house of Munster. Population 18,000. 

Cologne, on the Rhine, the capital of the province of the Rhine, is 
a strongly fortified, commercial, and manufacturing city. Its cathedral 
is one of the finest in Germany. Population 65,500. In the neigh¬ 
borhood are Dusseldorf with extensive manufactures, 28,800 inhab¬ 
itants ; Elberfeld, which has lately been rendered one of the most 
flourishing towns of Germany by its manufactures of wool, silk, cot- 


PRUSSIA. 


327 


ton, &c., and its brisk trade, 30,000 inhabitants; Barmen, adjoining 
the latter, with 20,000 inhabitants, engaged in the same manufactures, 
and Bonn, noted for its university, with 12,000 inhabitants. 

Coblentz, at the junction of the Moselle with the Rhine, is chiefly 
remarkable for its immense military works, designed to render it the 
bulwark of Germany on the side of France. Population 15,000. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, an ancient city, pleasantly situated between the 
Rhine and the Meuse, has long been a place of historical interest, and 
the mineral waters in its vicinity have for centuries been much resorted 
to. It was the favorite residence of Charlemagne, who built the cele¬ 
brated minster. The old town house, in which 55 German emperors 
were crowned, is also an interesting object. The important treaty of 
peace called the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, was concluded here in 1748, 
and in 1818 a congress of the great powers was held in this city. The 
inhabitants are actively engaged in manufactures of cotton and woollen 
goods, watches, and jewelry, and carry on a brisk trade. Population 
37,000. 

In the neighborhood is Treves with 15,500 inhabitants, which con¬ 
tains many remains of its former splendor, and a celebrated cathedral 
and church of Our Lady. The Roman bridge over the Moselle, and the 
vast structure called the Black Gate are the most remarkable monu¬ 
ments of antiquity. 

Crefield, with 16,000 inhabitants, and Wesel, 14,000, noted for their 
manufactures; Saarlouis, an important fortress, and Xanten, interesting 
from its magnificent cathedral and numerous antiquities, are also in 
this section of the country. 

12. Agriculture. In much of the eastern section the implements of 
husbandry are rude, and agriculture is in a backward condition; but in 
the western section much of the country is skilfully cultivated. The 
raising of cattle and sheep is the employment of many of the inhabi¬ 
tants; the vine is cultivated along the Rhine. 

13. Manufactures. The principal articles of manufacturing industry 
are woollen, linen, and cotton goods, and hardware. Silesia and the 
Rhenish governments are the most extensively engaged in this branch 
of industry. Iron and steel wares are made largely at Berlin, Solingen, 
and Iserlohn. The printing-presses of Berlin and Halle are numerous 
and productive. 

14. Commerce. Prussia has little maritime commerce, and but a 
small commercial and no military marine. Corn, provisions, cattle, the 
Silesian linens, the Rhenish and Moselle wines, the Westphalian hams, 
and amber and metallic ornaments, are the chief exports. Colonial or 
India goods form the bulk of the imports. The inland trade is more 
extensive. 

15. Religion. Perfect religious freedom exists in Prussia. Three 

fifths of the inhabitants belong to the Evangelical or united Lutheran- 
Calvinistic church. There is a Protestant archbishop of Kcenigsberg, 
and there are bishops of Berlin, Stettin, and Potsdam. The Catholics 
are most numerous in the provinces of Posen, Westphalia, and the 
Rhine. There are two Catholic archbishops, of Cologne and Posen, 
and six bishops. .... . 

16. Education. There are six universities in Prussia, at Berlin, 
Halle, Breslau, Bonn, Kcenigsberg, and Greifswalde. Those of Berlin, 
Halle, and Bonn rank among the most excellent institutions of the kind 


328 


PRUSSIA. 


in Europe. The next inferior degree of education, called the secondary 
education, is liberally provided for by numerous and excellent institu¬ 
tions, such as gymnasiums or classical schools, real-schulen, or schools 
for instruction in mathematics, sciences, &c. Elementary education is 
afforded bv upwards of 22,000 common or primary schools, to which 
all the subjects are required by law to send /heir children, after they 
reach a certain age. On the whole there is no country where the sys¬ 
tem of public education is so extensive and complete as in Prussia. 

17. Government, Army. The Government is an absolute monarchy ; 
the revenue is about 35 million dollars; the public debt 140 millions. 
The military is composed of the regular troops, and the militia or land- 
wehr. The former amounts to 162,000 men : the latter to 360,000. 
Every subject is required to serve three years in the standing army, 
between the 17th and 23d year of his age, with the exception of those 
who have received a certain education ; these serve but one year. After 
this term of service every person belongs till his 30th year to the first 
class of the landwehr, which is drilled every Sunday, and is in active 
field service for the space of three weeks once a year. The second 
class of landwehr, composed of those above 30, is exempt from further 
duty except in war. Thus the whole nation is essentially military, and 
Prussia has been called by a late traveller ‘the classic laud of barracks 
and schools.’ 

18. Inhabitants. Five sixths of the whole Prussian population are 
Germans. In the provinces of Prussia and Posen, the Sclavonic race 
is numerous, comprising Poles, Lithuanians, &c. The Wends in the 
province of Brandenburg are likewise Sclavonians. The Jews are 
numerous in Posen, and there are some French on the western fron¬ 
tiers of the province of the Rhine. The Germans of Prussia are in¬ 
dustrious, and orderly, but though well educated, the lower orders are 
without that civil and political freedom which alone can bring their 
knowledge and talents into activity. 

The Sclavonic nations are very much behind the Germans in the 
useful arts, intelligence, foresight, and the comforts of life, and even 
when surrounded by a German population, obstinately adhere to their 
own language and customs. 

19. History. The present kingdom of Prussia has been formed by 
various conquests since the beginning of the 18th century, when it first 
assumed the rank of a kingdom. Frederic William I, who reigned 
from 1713 to 1740, laid the foundation of the military power of Prussia. 
His son and successor Frederic II, called the Great, augmented his 
territory by the conquest of Silesia, and the partition of Poland, and 
left the kingdom with a high political influence in Europe. The battle 
of Jena, in 1806, threw the whole kingdom into the hands of Napo¬ 
leon. From this time it was little more than a dependancy of the 
French empire till the Russian campaign. After the fall of Napo¬ 
leon, the kingdom was established upon its present footing, with great 
accessions of territory, and it is now the fifth of the great European 
powers. 


THE NETHERLANDS. 


329 


CXI. THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. 

1. Boundaries and. Population. The Netherlands are bounded north 
and west by the German Ocean, east by Hanover and Prussia, and 
south by Belgium. Area 11,500 square miles; population 2,560,000. 

2. Rivers. The Rhine enters the country from Germany, and di¬ 
vides into two branches; the southern, or Waal, joins the Meuse; the 
northern sends off a branch, under the name of the Yssel, into the 
Zuyder Zee, another called the Leek to the Meuse, a third called the 
Vecht into the Zuyder Zee, and after a course of 850 miles, enters the 
North Sea, below Leyden, a feeble stream. 

The Meuse or Maese rises in France, and flowing through Belgium, 
empties itself by two principal branches into the North Sea. The 
Scheldt enters the Netherlands from Belgium, and divides into two 
principal branches, which carry its waters into the North Sea. 

3. Seas and Lakes. The Zuyder Zee, is a large inland ba)^ in the 
northern part, 60 miles in extent. The Sea of Harlem is a lake, 14 
miles in length, to the west of the Zuyder Zee. and communicating 
with it by the river Wye, which passes by Amsterdam. There are 
many small lakes in the northern province of Friesland. 

4. Islands. A group of islands lies on the western coast, in the 
channels between which the waters of the Rhine, Maese, and Scheldt 
find their way to the sea. The largest are Beierland, North and South 
Beveland, Walcheren, &c. At the mouth of the Zuyder Zee are the 
islands of Texel, Vlieland, Ameland, &c. 

5. Shoi'es and Dikes. The shores are remarkably flat and low, and a 
great part of the country would be laid under water by the tides, were 
it not for the enormous dikes erected along the coast. These dikes are 
mostly 30 feet in height and 70 broad, at the bottom. They are built 
of clay, faced on the land side with wood and stone, and toward the sea 
with rushes and seaweed. The provinces of Holland and Guelderland 
are also exposed to river inundations, particularly of the Rhine and 
Meuse, and here levees or river-dikes are necessary to protect the coun¬ 
try behind them. Both the sea and river-dikes are not unfrequently 
broken through, and the consequences are most disastrous. 

6. Climate. The number of lakes, rivers, and canals in Holland, ge¬ 
nerates a cold and damp air. Chilling northeasterly winds prevail during 
winter, and the Zuyder Zee is frozen for several months. The weather 
is subject to sudden changes, and the climate on the whole is insalubri¬ 
ous : few of the Dutch live to a great age. 

7. Soil. The soil is generally a sandy loam, sometimes interspersed 
with tracts of clay, but more frequently with extensive districts of sand. 
Peat bogs are common. 

8. Face of the Country. The whole country is low and flat, and a great 
part of the territory is below the level of the sea. In some places low 
marshy tracts or shallow lakes have been drained, and their former 
beds are fenced round with dikes; these spots are called by the inhabi¬ 
tants polders. As there is a constant filtration of water from the sea 
and rivers through the dikes, and there is no natural outlet for that 
which falls in rain, it becomes necessary to keep these low tracts clear 
by artificial means. For this purpose pumps, moved by windmiils, are 


330 


THE NETHERLANDS. 


used in great numbers, and the water is poured out, as from a leaky 
ship, into the canals and rivers. 

9. Divisions. This kingdom consists of 10 provinces; North Hol¬ 

land, South Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelderland, Overyssel, Drenthe, 
Groningen, Friesland, and North Brabant, and the German grand duchy 
of Luxemburg. • 

10. Canals. Canals are as numerous in Holland as roads in other 
countries, and the country is so level that they scarcely need a lock in 
their construction. Some of them are as old as the 10th century. The 
most noted is the Great Canal, 50 miles in length, from Amsterdam to 
the Helder. It is 124 feet wide at the surface, aud 21 feet deep. It has 
two tide locks at the extremities, and two sluices with flood gates 
in the intermediate space. The width is sufficient to allow two frigates 
to pass each other. This canal was begun in 1819, and completed in 
1825. It is highly convenient for vessels sailing from Amsterdam, 
which otherwise are liable to be detained by head winds for several 
weeks. 

11. Towns. Hague, the capital of the kingdom, situated not far from 
the sea, and intersected by numerous canals, is one of the best built 
cities of Europe. It contains the royal palace, the house of the States- 
General, numerous private palaces, &c. Population 56,000. In the 
neighborhood is the castle of Ryswick, where was concluded the 
celebrated treaty of 1697. 

Amsterdam, the principal city of the kingdom, and one of the chief 
commercial places of Europe, is a well built town upon the Ainstel. It 
is divided by that river into two parts, and intersected by numerous 
canals, which form 90 islets, communicating with each other by 280 
bridges. The streets mostly border on the canals, and are well paved; 
several of them are remarkable for their rich display of shops, filled 
with the productions of all parts of the world, and the houses are gaily 
painted of different colors. The city contains many literary institutions, 
scientific establishments, and collections of art; among the public edi¬ 
fices, the stadt-house, built upon 13,600 piles, and nearly 300 feet long, 
is the most magnificent. Amsterdam, once the queen of the ocean, 
and the centre of the commerce of the world, is still important from 
the great wealth of its mercantile houses, and the extent of its commer¬ 
cial operations. Its fine quays along the river Y or Wye, which forms 
its port, its vast naval magazines, and ship-yards, and the industry of 
its inhabitants, together with its population of 200,000 souls, attest its 
former splendor and present prosperity. 

Rotterdam, the second city of the Netherlands, stands upon the 
Meuse, which here bears the name of Merwe. It is a place of great 
commercial activity, and its numerous canals are navigable by large 
ships. Population 66,000. 

Harlem, with 21,000 inhabitants, is noted for its bleacheries, cotton 
and silk manufactures, type-founderies, and particularly for its gardens, 
in which are raised an immense number of flowers, forming an impor¬ 
tant branch of trade. Harlem disputes with Mentz the honor of the 
invention of printing. The town house, one of the handsomest in the 
country, the celebrated organ with 8,000 pipes, and the many scientific 
and literary institutions and collections, deserve to be noticed. 

Leyden, upon the Rhine, contains a celebrated university long one 
of the most famous in Europe, and its scientific establishments are 


THE NETHERLANDS. 


331 


numerous and important. Its manufactures, particularly of salt, are 
extensive. Population 30,000. 

Utrecht is also distinguished for its university, and its manufactures. 
Population 43,000. Here was concluded the important peace of 
Utrecht, 1713, which placed England at the head of the European 
powers. 

Groningen is the principal place in the northern part of the kingdom. 
It is a flourishing and industrious town, and contains a university. 
Population 30,000. 

Leuwarden, the capital of Friesland, with 20,900 inhabitants, and 
Bois-le-Duc or Hertogenbosch, the capital of North Brabant, and a 
strongly fortified town with 20,500, are important trading and manu¬ 
facturing places. 

Dort or Dordrecht, 20,000 inhabitants, has an active commerce, and 
is noted in history for the Protestant synod held there. 

Delft, 13,000 inhabitants, gives its name to a sort of earthern-ware 
made there in great quantities ; the celebrated Grotius was born there. 

Middleburg, the capital of Zeeland, with 15,000 inhabitants; Flushing, 
noted for its excellent harbor, its fortifications and its vast ship-yards, 
with 5,000 inhabitants; Breda an important frontier fortress; Schiedam, 
10,000 inhabitants, and Nimeguen 15,000, are important towns. 

The small town of Texel, on the island of the same name, is an im¬ 
portant naval station. 

The German province of Luxemburg, which lies to the south of 
Belgium, belongs partly to the king of the Netherlands. It contains few 
considerable towns, the largest, Luxemburg, having a population of 
10,000 inhabitants. It is one of the strongest places in Europe, and is 
one of the fortresses of the German confederation. 

12. Agriculture. The Dutch, by unwearied industry, have conquered 
every disadvantage of climate, soil, and territory. The humidity and 
coldness of the air are unfavorable to the culture of corn ; the water is 
equally bad ; the soil, by nature produces hardly any thing except peat, 
and the very possession of the territory is disputed by the sea. Yet the 
labors of the patient inhabitants have converted their boggy, insignificant 
territory into one of the richest spots in Europe. The corn raised is 
insufficient for home consumption, but the products of the dairy are 
abundant. By draining the bogs and marshes, excellent meadows are 
created, upon which great numbers of cattle fatten to a vast size. 

13. Commerce. Holland became at an early period, a maritime 
power, and established settlements in various parts of the globe. The 
manufacturing industry of the country was one great support of its 
commerce, and the linens, silks, and woollens of Holland were spread 
over all Europe. The political revolutions of modern times have been 
ruinous to the Dutch commerce, yet the trade is still considerable and 
extends to all parts of the world. Vast floats of timber are received by 
the Rhine from Switzerland and Germany. 

14. Manufactures. The manufactures of Holland have been greatly 
checked by the rivalship of the English. Before the French revolution 
there was scarcely a manufacture which the Dutch did not carry on. 
In this they were assisted by the populousness of the country, the 
cheapness of labor, and above all, by the water carriage, which gives an 
immense facility to all the operations of trade and industry. The manu¬ 
factures are still considerable, and consist of woollen, linen, silk, cotton, 


332 THE NETHERLANDS. 

tobacco, snuff, pipes, leather, &c. The distillation of gin is largely 
carried on. 

15. Religion. Nearly three fifths of the inhabitants are Protestants, 
and the majority belong to the Calvinistic or Dutch Reformed church. 
There are about 50,000 Jews, and some Mennonites, and nearly two 
fifths of the population are Roman Catholics. 

16. Education. There are three Dutch universities at Leyden, Gron¬ 
ingen and Utrecht, and the lower degrees of education are well pro¬ 
vided for by high schools, and numerous elementary schools. 

17. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy ; the 
crown is hereditary in the house of Nassau-Orange. The two legisla¬ 
tive chambers are styled the States General; the upper house is com¬ 
posed of members nominated by the king for life, like the chamber of 
peers in France, and the lower house consists of deputies chosen by the 
provincial estates, or local assemblies of the three orders or estates of 
the realm; viz. the nobility, the citizens, and the landholders. 

18. Colonies. The Dutch colonies though less extensive than 
formerly, are still important, comprising a population of nearly ten 
millions. They are the islands of Cura§ao, and St. Eustatia, and part 
of St. Martins, with Surinam on the coast of Guiana, in America; a 
number of forts and factories on the coasts of the Gulf of Guinea, in 
Africa ; and the Islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Timor, the 
Moluccas, &e., in Oceania. 

19. Inhabitants. The inhabitants belong to the Low German stock, 
comprising three distinct people, the Dutch, Frisians, and Flemings, 
speaking distinct dialects. The Frisians are not numerous, and are 
founcf only in Friesland, and the neighboring isles; they are hospitable, 
simple in their manners, with less commercial enterprise than the 
Dutch, and more attached to the primitive employments of agriculture 
and fishing. 

The Dutch are a robust, laborious, and hardy people, of a phlegmatic 
temperament, rarely and with difficulty roused, but when excited un¬ 
governably violent. Their industry is concentrated with unwearied 
perseverance and coolness upon its object. Though cautious, reserved, 
and even mistrustful, the Hollander is free from duplicity, honest in his 
dealings, and sincere and steady in his attachments. The nation is 
almost superstitiously neat and frugal. 

There is much wealth among the upper classes, but it is always a 
Dutchman’s passion to accumulate. Among the lower classes there is 
a great deal of poverty, and their food is often miserably meagre. 
Smoking is a general habit and is carried to great excess; even the 
females of the lower class are addicted to it. 

Though slow and cautious the Dutch are an enterprising people; they 
were once the masters of the ocean, and of a vast colonial empire, and 
they were the first to penetrate the frozen recesses of the northern seas 
in the prosecution of the whale fishery. Though frugal, they are liberal 
in their public establishments of learning and charity, and in religious 
matters they are free from bigotry. 

The roads are not more numerous than the canals, and a general 
method of travelling is, therefore, by the trekschuyt, or drag-boat; this 
is ten feet wide, and fifty long; and in shape it resembles the common 
representations of Noah’s ark. The rate of travelling is three miles an 
hour, and is so invariable, that distances are reckoned by hours, and not 


BELGIUM. 


333 


by miles x When frozen, the canals are travelled over by sleighs and 
skates. All persons skate ; the peasant girl skates to market with her 
merchandise on her head, the senator to his assembly, and the clergy¬ 
man to his church. 

There is nothing in Holland which makes a more agreeable impres¬ 
sion on the traveller, than the number and size of the villages and 
towns; the former are populous, and lie scattered along the route at the 
distance of two or three miles from each other, pleasantly diversifying 
the dead level of the plains which surround the treckshuyt. The 
towns are connected by canals and level roads, which are neatly paved 
with brick, and planted with trees. 

20. History. In the 15th century the 17 provinces of the Nether¬ 
lands, or, as the name signifies,'the Low Countries, belonged to the 
dukes of Burgundy, but passed by marriage into,the hands of the 
Spanish branch of the house of Austria. The attempt of Philip II, 
king of Spain, to crush the Protestant religion in the Low Countries, 
gave rise to a revolt of those provinces, and after a long and heroic 
struggle, the seven northern provinces achieved their independence. 
In 1581 they renounced their allegiance to Philip, and formed the 
republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, often simply called 
Holland from the name of the most extensive and powerful province. 
The war of independence was continued, however, with interruptions, 
until the peace of Westphalia in 1648. With liberty came industry, 
foreign commerce, wealth, and power, and during the 17th century 
Holland was one of the first European states. After the French 
revolution, the Netherlands were conquered by France, and in 1810 
incorporated with the French empire. On the fall of Napoleon in 1815 
the Belgic and D-utch Netherlands were united together as an indepen¬ 
dent kingdom, under the Dutch stadtholder, but in 1830, the former 
provinces revolted, and now form the kingdom of Belgium. 


CXII. KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. 

1. Boundaries and Population . Belgium is bounded north by the 
kingdom of the Netherlands; east by Prussia and Luxemburg; south 
by France, and west by the North Sea. Area 12,500 square miles; 
population 3,800,000. 

2. Surface and Soil. The face of the country is mostly level; there 
are some low hills in the southeastern, and some elevated forest-tracts 
in the central parts. The soil in the northeast is sandy, but in general 
it is highly productive. The climate on the coast resembles that of the 
Netherlands, but in the interior the air is dryer and more healthy. 

3. Rivers and Canals. The Scheldt, a wide and deep river, enters 
this country from France, and passing by Antwerp and Ghent, runs 
into the German Ocean. The Meuse passes through the eastern 
provinces into the Netherlands. The principal canals are the Northern 
Canal, which unites the Scheldt at Antwerp with the Meuse at Venloo, 
and is continued through the Prussian province of the Rhine to Neuss 
on that river; the Ostend canal, from that city through Bruges to 
Ghent; the Dunkirk and Bruges canal, connecting with the former, and 
the Brussels canal, from Brussels to Antwerp. 


334 


BELGIUM. 


4. Divisions. Belgium comprises eight provinces, or that part of 
the Netherlands, formerly known as the Austrian Low Countries. 
These are South Brabant, Antwerp, East Flanders, West Flanders, 
Hainaut, Namur, Liege, and Limburg. 

5. Towns. Brussels, the capital, stands on both sides of the little 
river Senne, flowing into the Scheldt. It is partly situated on a rising 
ground, and makes a fine appearance at a distance. The walls have 
been demolished, and the space formed into a handsome public walk 
planted with trees. The suburbs are extensive, and there are many 
neighboring villages joined to the city by long avenues. The lower 
part of the town consists of narrow streets and old houses. The upper 
part is modern and regular, with fine buildings and a beautiful park 
laid out in large regular walks, shaded with trees and surrounded by 
palaces, public offices, and elegant private houses. Public fountains 
are interspersed throughout the city, and a large canal here leaves the 
river. There are many fine squares and palaces, and a public library 
of 100,000 volumes. Half a league from the city is the splendid palace 
of Schoonenburg. Brussels is distinguished for its manufactures of 
laces, carpets, tapestry, woollen and cotton cloths, silk stockings, gold 
and silver lace, and earthen ware. Population 100,000. 

Antwerp, on the Scheldt, is a large and well built city, surrounded 
by a wall with carriage roads on the top planted with rows of trees. 
The city is built in the form of a semicircle, aud is intersected by 
canals. The cathedral is one of the finest Gothic structures in the 
world, and its beautiful spire is 441 feet high. The Stadthouse and 
Exchange are noble edifices. The harbor is deep and capacious. In 
the height of its prosperity, Antwerp was one of the most flourishing 
and wealthy commercial cities in the world, and contained 200,000 
inhabitants, but its commerce has greatly declined. The inhabitants 
carry on some manufactures. Population 65,000. 

Ghent stands at the confluence of three rivers with the Scheldt, 
and is 7 miles in compass, but contains within its walls many fields 
and unoccupied grounds. Many of its canals are bordered with quays 
planted with rows of trees. The houses are large, but heavy and inele¬ 
gant : here are a fine Gothic cathedral and a university. Ghent has 
manufactures of fine lace, cotton, linen, woollen, silk, paper, and leath¬ 
er : the trade of the city has lately increased. Population 82,000. Its 
citadel is one of the largest in Europe. 

Bruges, 8 miles from the sea in a fertile plain, communicates with 
the sea and the towns in the interior by canals. It was formerly one 
of the great commercial marts of the world, but is now much declin¬ 
ed ; yet its commerce, manufactures, and extensive ship-yards render 
it still important. Population 36,000. 

Ostend, twelve miles west of Bruges, is one of the most important 
seaports in the country: regular packets sail from this place to Eng¬ 
land several times a week, and it has a great trade in the exportation 
of grain and other products. Population 10,554. 

Liege, on the Maese, is divided into three p&rts by the river, and 
has extensive suburbs. The houses are high, and many of the streets 
are narrow, crooked, and gloomy. Most of the inhabitants are engag¬ 
ed in manufactures and trade. Iron, coal, and alum abound in the 
neighborhood, and afford occupation for all the industry of the place. 
The manufactures consist of iron, fire-arms, clock-work, nails, &c. 


BELGIUM. 


335 


Population 54,000. Liege contains a university, and numerous institu¬ 
tions of education and learned societies. 

Tournay, the principal manufacturing town in the kingdom, is a 
flourishing place with 33,000 inhabitants; carpets, camlets, and porce¬ 
lain are among the principal products of its industry. 

Mons, the capital of Hainaut, is noted for the extensive coal mines 
in its neighborhood. Population 20,000. 

Louvain, with 25,000 inhabitants, is an active manufacturing town, 
with a celebrated university. 

Namur, capital of the province of the same name, is rendered im¬ 
portant by its manufactures of cutlery, leather, and earthern ware, its 
extensive fortifications, and its population of 19,000 souls. 

Malines or Mechlin, with 18,000 inhabitants, Ypres, 15,000, and 
Courtray 16,000, are among the other most considerable towns. 

Waterloo, near Brussels, is a small village, near which the fate of 
Europe was decided in 1815. 

Maestricht, an important town in the Belgic province of Limburg, 
with 21,000 inhabitants, belongs to the kingdom of the Netherlands. 

6. Agriculture. The industry of the Belgic cultivator is chiefly 
directed to tillage, and corn is raised in sufficient quantities for expor¬ 
tation. The practice of agriculture has been carried to a high degree 
of improvement in these provinces. 

7. Commerce and Manufactures. In the fourteenth century the 
Flemish were one of the most commercial and manufacturing people 
of Europe. Bruges, and, afterwards, Antwerp, were the centres of an 
extensive commerce, which finally passed mostly into the hands of the 
Dutch. The manufactures of Belgium are highly valuable and vari¬ 
ous. The linens of Flanders, the lace of Brussels and Mechlin, the 
printed cottons of Ghent and Brussels, the woollens of Verviers and 
Mechlin, the smoking pipes of Gonda, and the cutlery and hardware 
of Namur and Liege, are some of the products of Belgian industry. 

8. Religion and Education. The Belgians are mostly Catholics, the 
number of Protestants not exceeding 10,000. There are three univer¬ 
sities, and the provision for general education is extensive. 

9. Government. The form of government is monarchical, and the 
power of the king is limited by the constitution. There are two legisla¬ 
tive chambers, both elected by the citizens paying a certain tax; the 
senate is chosen for the term of eight, and the house of representatives 
for four years. 

10. Inhabitants. The Belgians are in part Flemings of German 
origin, and in part Walloons, of the Latin race, and closely allied to 
the French. The former resemble the Dutch in their character and 
manners, the latter are more like the French. The language of the 
higher classes is French, of the lower classes Flemish, a dialect of the 
Low German, or the Walloon dialects, a sort of rustic French. 

11. History. Belgium was erected into an independent kingdom in 
1830, and Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, was chosen the first ruler 
of the new monarchy. The heir apparent of the crown bears the title 
of duke of Brabant.* 

* Luxemburg and Limburg are at present divided between Belgium and the 
Netherlands, the claims of the two powers not being yet definitively settled. 


336 


DENMARK. 




CXIII. DENMARK. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Denmark is a peninsula, divided on the 
north from Norway by the-Scagerac, and from Sweden on the east 
by the Sound; it is bounded on the south by Germany and the Baltic; 
and the German sea divides it from Great Britain on the west. In¬ 
cluding the insular portion it lies between 53° 21/ and 57° 42' N. Lat., 
and 8° and 12° 30' E. Lon. Its length from north to south is nearly 
300 miles, and its breadth 100. Area 22,000 square miles; population 
2 , 000 , 000 . 

2. Rivers. The most considerable river is the Eyder, which, rising 
near the Baltic, runs westward, and after a course of 56 miles, falls 
into the German sea at Tonningen. The other rivers are numerous, 
but inconsiderable. 

3. Lakes. There are above 400 lakes, but none of any magnitude. 
That of Ploen, in Holstein, is one of the largest, and does not exceed 
10 miles in circumference. 

4. Islands. The islands in the Baltic are the most fertile and pop¬ 
ulous parts of the kingdom, and of these Zeeland is the largest. It is 
generally flat, and, except in a small part of the coast, very little elevat¬ 
ed above the level of the sea. It contains 2,800 square miles. Pop¬ 
ulation 360,000. Funen, the next in importance, is separated from 
Zeeland by the strait, called the Great Belt; and is about 50 miles 
long and 40 broad. Odensee is the capital. The island of Bornholm, 
surrounded by rocks highly dangerous to navigators, contains 7 towns. 
Langeland lies between Funen and Laaland: Laaland has a consid¬ 
erable trade in grain ; the isle of Falster is to the east of Laaland. 

5. Bays , Straits, fyc. The coasts of Denmark are indented by nu¬ 
merous branches of the sea, called fiords, or firths, the principal of 
which is called the Lymfiord. The Sound, or Oresund, one of the 
three straits which connect the Cattegat and Baltic, is the most fre¬ 
quented strait in the world. 

6. Climate. The vicinity of the sea renders the air more humid 
and temperate than in the interior of the continent in the same lati¬ 
tude. The sky is often obscured by fogs, and rain falls at least one 
third of the whole number of days in the year. The summer is often 
oppressively warm, it begins in June, and ends with September. 

7. Soil and Surface. The prevailing soil is sandy. In some parts 
it CQnsists of a very rich mould, of which the component substances 
are marl and a bituminous matter. Marshes are found everywhere. 
Some fuller’s earth, alum, and vitriol found in Jutland, and porcelain 
clay obtained in the island of Bornholm, constitute the whole of the 
mineral productions of Denmark. The general surface of Denmark is 
level, with slight undulations. The coasts are in some parts steep 
and bold ; but usually low and sandy. Towards the west, where the 
Jutland peninsula terminates, the aspect of the country is exceedingly 
barren and desolate. 

8. Divisions. Denmark is divided into three parts, the first com¬ 
prehending the kingdom of Denmark Proper; the second the three 
duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which belong to the 
German confederation; and the third embracing the Faroe Islands, 


DENMARK. 


337 


which are considered as foreign colonies. The kingdom of Denmark 
consists of the peninsula of Jutland, and the islands contiguous. 

9. Canals. By the canal of Kiel, a communication is maintained 
between the German Ocean and the Baltic. The canal of Steckenitz, 
unites the Elbe with the Baltic. The canal of Odensee unites Odensee 
with the sea. 

10. Towns. Copenhagen, called by the Danes Kiobenhavn, the 
metropolis of the Danish dominions, is situated on a low and marshy 
promontory on the east side of the island of Zeeland. Its harbor is 
excellent, and its quays and dock-yards extensive. The regularity of 
its streets, the beauty of its squares, and the great number of its elegant 
buildings render Copenhagen one of the handsomest cities in Europe. 
The royal castle of Christiansborg is a magnificent palace with a rich 
gallery of paintings, and a fine library of 300,000 volumes. There are 
three other royal palaces; and many fine palaces of the nobility. The 
halls of the university, the town house, and numerous other public 
edifices are distinguished for the beauty of their architecture. Among 
the churches are that of Our Lady, adorned with some pieces of 
statuary by Thorwaldsen, and that of the Trinity, the round tower of 
which, used as an observatory, can be ascended by a winding path 
in carriages. No city of its size surpasses Copenhagen in the number 
and excellence of its learned societies, its scientific establishments, and 
its institutions for education. The university has a good library of 
100,000 volumes, and enjoys a high reputation. Copenhagen is the 
centre of an active commerce and of flourishing manufactures, and it 
contains a population of 120,000. Its vast docks and its massive and 
extensive fortifications are worthy of notice. 

Elsinore, about twenty miles from the capital, stands on the narrow¬ 
est part of the Sound; it has an excellent roadstead, and is protected 
by the magnificent fortress of Kronborg. Vessels passing the Sound 
here pay a toll to the Danes. Population 7,000. 

Altona, on the Elbe, below Hamburg, is the principal place in 
Holstein, and the second city of the kingdom for commerce and manu¬ 
factures ; population 27,000 

Flensborg, 16,000 inhabitants, and Sleswick, 8000, both situated on 
the Baltic, are the principal places in the duchy of Sleswick. 

Kiel, upon a gulf of the Baltic, in Holstein, contains a university, 
and a royal castle, and is much resorted to for its sea-baths, and beauti¬ 
ful promenades. Population 8,000. Lauenburg, a small town, is 
important on account of the toll collected there upon vessels navigating 
the Elbe. Aalborg and Aarhuus, with each about 8.000 inhabitants, 
are the principal towns of Jutland. 

11. Colonies. The Faroe Islands lie between Iceland and the 
Shetland isles. They consist of 25 islands, 17 of which are inhabited, 
the rest being mere rocks. Their superficial extent has been estimated 
at 500 square miles; and the number of inhabitants at 6,800. These 
islands are composed of basaltic rocks; and some of the mountains 
rise to the height of 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. The climate 
is rigorous; trees are unknown, and the only fruit is wild berries. 
Cows of a small breed, and sheep form the principal wealth of the in¬ 
habitants, who are supported chiefly by bird-catching and fishing. 
The other colonies are Iceland and Greenland in North America; the 
islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John in the West Indies ; 

22 p 


338 SWEDISH MONARCHY. 

Christianborg and a few other forts on the coast of Guinea, and 
Tranquebar and some factories on the Coromandel coast in Hindostan. 
The entire population of these possessions is about 200,000. 

12. Industry. The state of agriculture is in general very backward, 
but in the German provinces it has reached a higher degree of improve¬ 
ment. Grazing is the principal branch of agricultural industry, and 
horses and horned cattle are largely exported. In manufactures the 
Danes have made little progress, but they carry on some foreign com¬ 
merce, and the fisheries are prosecuted with activity. 

13. Religion and Education. The Lutheran religion is professed by 
almost the whole population, but there are a few Calvinists, Roman 
Catholics, and Herrnhutters. No religious sect enjoys any special politi¬ 
cal privileges. There are universities at Copenhagen and Kiel, and the 
means of education are ample for all classes. There are upwards of 
3,000 grammar and parish, and 2,000 Lancasterian schools. 

14. Government. The government is an absolute monarchy, but 
there is much practical freedom, as the arbitrary use of power is check¬ 
ed by the general moral improvement of the nation, and the freedom 
of the press. The king of Denmark is a member of the Germanic 
confederacy, as sovereign of Holstein and Lauenburg. 

15. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are all of Teutonic origin but be¬ 
long to three distinct nations; the Danes, occupying Jutland and the 
islands, the Germans in Holstein and Lauenburg, and the Frisians, 
upon the islets on the western coast. 

The Danish language is a branch of the great Scandinavian family 
of languages, and is closely allied to the Norwegian and Swedish. It is 
one of the softest European languages. 

The Danes are of a middling stature and fair complexion, and like 
the other inhabitants of the north of Europe are more addicted to the 
use of animal food and spirituous liquors, than those of the south. 
Excepting in the capital, they are not acquainted with the refinements 
of the more polished nations of Europe. Though personal slavery 
has been abolished among the peasantry since the beginning of the 
present century, there yet remain many traces of the feudal system. 
Having hardly any capital the tenants pay their rent in kind, or by the 
labor of themselves and their cattle. The poverty of the peasants ap¬ 
pears from the fact that they wear wooden shoes, and their families 
pass the long evenings of winter in spinning and making articles of 
clothing for domestic use. 

16. History. In the eighth and ninth centuries the inhabitants of 
this country, with the Swedes and Norwegians, rendered themselves 
the terror of Europe by their piratical excursions to the coasts and up the 
rivers. In the eleventh century three Danish kings wore the crown of 
England, and in the 14th and 15ih centuries the sovereigns of Denmark 
ruled over Sweden and Norway. Sweden was lost in the 16th century, 
and in 1814 Norway was ceded to that power. 


CXIY. SWEDISH MONARCHY. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. This state, comprising the two kingdoms 
of Sweden and Norway, is bounded north by the Arctic Ocean ; east 
by Russia, the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea; south by the Baltic, 


SWEDISH MONARCHY. 


339 


the Cattegat, and the Scagerac, and west by the North Sea and the 
Atlantic Ocean. It forms a vast peninsula, often called Scandinavia 
extending from Lat. 55° to 71° N., and from Lon. 6° to 31° E., having 
an area of 300,0C0 square miles with a population of 4,230,000. 

2. Mountains. The Scandinavian system forms a long chain of- 
mountains extending in a northeasterly direction from Cape Lindes- 
nes to the North Cape, a distance of upwards of 1000 miles. During 
a part of their course they separate Norway from Sweden. The high¬ 
est summits are Scagstlostind, 8,400 feet high, and Sneehoetta 8,120 feet, 
both in the central part of the chain, which bears the name of the 
Dofrines or Doffrefield mountains. The northern and southern parts of 
the range form rather broad high table-lands than a connected chain. 

3. Rivers. Numerous streams descend from both sides of the moun¬ 
tains ; those on the west have a short course and are not navigable. 
The rivers of Sweden running into the Cattegat and the Gulf of Both¬ 
nia, have a longer course; the principal are the Dahl, 260 miles in 
length, and the Tornea, which separates Sweden from Russia. The 
Gotha, the outlet of lake Wenner, has a fall at the village of Trolhatta 
of 100 feet, forming a celebrated cataract. 

4. Lakes. The largest lakes are in Sweden; lake Wenner is 100 
miles long by 60 broad ; lake Wetter, of nearly the same length and 
about half the breadth, empties its waters through the Motala into the 
Baltic; lake Malar is 60 miles long, by 18 broad, and covered with 
numerous islands. In Norway the Mioesen, and Faemund are the 
chief Jakes. 

5. Islands. The Atlantic coast is strewed with small rocky islets 
called holms , interspersed with groups of larger islands. The Loffoden 
islands are chiefly celebrated for the famous whirlpool called the Mael¬ 
strom, which in rough weather is violent enough to engulf whales and 
small vessels, that should get within the current. The coast of Norway 
is indented by innumerable inlets of the sea, but affords few good har¬ 
bors. Gothland and CEland are the principal Swedish islands in the 
Baltic. 

6. Capes. The two most remarkable capes lie at the two extremities 

of the country. North Cape, at the northern extremity, is formed by 
several islands lying close to the shore; they consist of high craggy 
rocks, and exhibit the most dreary and desolate appearance. The 
southern extremity of Norway is called the Lindesnes, or Naze, and 
forms the northern point of the entrance to a strait called the Sleeve, 
which communicates with the Baltic. . 

7. Climate. Scandinavia extends beyond the Arctic circle, and its 
northern part is exposed to all the rigors of a polar winter; here the 
sun continues above the horizon in summer for two months and a ha f, 
and in winter remains below ic for an equal space There is hardly 
such a thing as spring hie summer’s heat so suddenly succeeds the cold 

of winter. The summer is short. nr ..t- 

8. Soil. In die southern part are some tracts of considerable fertility, 

yet the soil generally is stony and barren; and in many parts it may 
be said there is none at all. . . 

9. Animals and Vegetables. In the north the country is an almost 
impenetrable forest of pines and firs, and dwarf birches, abounding iq 
deer, hares, elks, bears, and wolves. Gluttons, lynxes, foxes, and lem¬ 
mings are also found. In the extreme north mosses and lichens, and 


340 SWEDISH MONARCHY. 

berry-bearing shrubs only occur. In the southern parts the oak, beech, 
aad elm flourish. 

10. Minerals. There are valuable mines of silver, copper, and iron, 
and lead, sulphur, alum, &c. also occur. The silver mines of Sala in 
Sweden are productive, but those of Kongsberg in Norway have ceased 
to be so. Excellent iron is worked in very large quantities in Swe¬ 
den ; the richest mines are at Dannemora in Upland. The copper 
mines of Fahlun yield abundance of that metal. The rich mines of 
Norway are now neglected. Sweden abounds in mineral springs, 
some of which are much visited. 

11. Divisions. The Swedish monarchy consist of the two distinct 
kingdoms of Sweden and Norway; the former is divided into 24 
governments; the latter into 17 bailiwicks. 

12. Canals. The Gotha canal is one of the principal in Europe; 
it connects the Cattegat, by means of the river Gotha, the lakes Wen- 
lier and Wetter, and the river Motala, with the Baltic at Soderkoping; 
the whole distance is 146 miles of navigation, 70 of which are by arti¬ 
ficial excavation. There are several other canals, and artificial improve¬ 
ments of river and lake navigation. 

13. Towns. Stockholm, the capital, is situated at the junction of the 
lake Malar with an inlet of the Baltic. It stands upon several small 
rocky islands and two peninsulas, and is built upon piles. A variety 
of picturesque views are formed by numberless rocks of granite rising 
boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly 
dotted with houses, or adorned with gardens and trees. The central 
island is bordered by a stately row of buildings,- the residences of the 
principal merchants. It contains the palace and other public build¬ 
ings; but the houses being high, and the streets narrow, its appearance 
is somewhat gloomy. Constantinople is perhaps the only city in Eu¬ 
rope that surpasses it in beauty of situation. The royal palace is 
hardly exceeded in splendor by any on the continent. The city has 
likewise an arsenal, a mint, an exchange, two theatres, the palace of 
the diet, numerous learned institutions, &c. The hangar , or great iron 
warehouse, is remarkable for the immense quantity of that article de¬ 
posited in it. The commerce and manufactures are extensive. The 
harbor is deep and capacious, though difficult of access; a thousand 
sail of shipping may lie here in safety, and the largest vessels can ap¬ 
proach close to the quay. Population 80,000. 

Upsala, formerly the metropolis of Sweden, is situated on an exten¬ 
sive plain, upon a small stream. In the centre is a square, from which 
the streets extend in straight lines. This town is famous for its beauti¬ 
ful cathedral and for its university, which has a library of 56,000 
volumes. Population 5,000. 

Gothenburg or Gottenburg, near the mouth of the river Gotha, has a 
circumference of three miles. It is regularly fortified, and in the upper 
part of the town, the streets rise above each other like H n amphitheatre. 
Some of the modern buildings are of brick, but the greaior number are 
of wood, and painted red. The harbor is spacious and the commerce 
considerable. Population 27,000. 

Carlscrona, on a bay of the Baltic, is the station of the Swedish navy, 
and has a harbor which is defended at its entrance by two stron«- forts! 
It is celebrated for its docks, which are separated from the town by a 

il g Hn Wa11 ’ and ° ne ° f which is cut out the soli(1 rock. Population 


SWEDISH MONARCHY. 


341 


Norrkoping, 10,000inhabitants, with extensive woollen manufactures; 
Lund, 3,500, containing a university, observatory, and other learned 
establishments; Wisby, on the island of Gothland, formerly one of the 
principal cities of the north of Europe, and still, though much declined, 
carrying on a brisk trade, 4,000 inhabitants ; Calmar, noted in Swedish 
history; and Gefle, 8,000, with an active commerce and an excellent 
port, are the principal Swedish towns, after those previously described. 

Christiania, the capital of Norway, stands in a fertile valley on the 
shore of a bay. It is built with regular streets which are kept very 
clean: there are many beautiful villas in the neighborhood, and the 
country around it has several productive mines. The town has a 
military hospital, a university, four churches, two theatres, a cathedral, 
and a palace, and enjoys a considerable trade in the exportation of deals, 
tar, and the product of the mines. Population 20,581. 

Bergen stands upon a small bay skirted by mountains. It is built 
mostly of wood, and has a theatre, and two printing offices. The com¬ 
merce and fisheries of the place are pretty active. The most noted 
buildings are the castle and cathedral. Population 20,844. 

Drontheim is a flourishing town, containing a cathedral in which the 
kings of Norway are crowned, and 12,000 inhabitants. 

Christiansand is chiefly important for its excellent port, into which 
ships often put for shelter or repairs. Population 4,000. 

Wardhuus, on the Arctic Ocean, is remarkable as the most northern 
fortress in the world, 70° 22' N. Lat. 

14. Colony. The isle of St. Bartholomew’s in the West Indies is the 
only foreign possession of Sweden. 

15. Agriculture. The poverty of the soil and the rigor of the climate 
are both unfavorable to agricultural operations. Corn is not raised in 
sufficient quantities to supply the consumption of the inhabitants, and 
in the north powdered pine-bark or moss is often mixed with flour to 
make bread. The pasturage is generally poor, and the cattle, swine, 
and sheep small. Potatoes, hemp and flax, and tobacco are raised in the 
southern parts; barley, oats, and rye, are the only cereal grains of the 
northern section. 

16. Commerce and Manufactures. Sweden has few manufactures 
and Norway even less, and the products of their manufacturing industry 
cannot sustain a competition with those of other countries. The work¬ 
ing of the mines, the manufacture of glass and hardware, ship building, 
and the felling and preparation of timber employ many laborers. The 
peasants in general make their own rude implements and materials of 
dress. The fisheries form an important branch of industry, particularly 
in Norway. The maritime commerce of this country is active and 
extensive ; and a brisk inland trade is carried on between Norway and 
Sweden, and between the latter and Russia. The imports are chiefly 
manufactured and colonial goods; the exports are iron,steel, lumber, 
dried and salted fish, iron wares, cordage, &c. 

17. Religion and Education. Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans, 
the number of Calvinists, Roman Catholics, Swedenborgians, <fcc., being 
very inconsiderable. Some of the Laplanders are pagans. There are 
three universities, at Upsal, Lund, and Christiania, and twenty-three 
gymnasiums or colleges, of which eighteen are in Sweden; excellent 
institutions for popular instruction also exist, particularly in Sweden; 
elementary schools are also numerous in Norway, and the peasantry in 
general are able to read ami write, 


342 SWEDISH MONARCHY. 

» 

18. Government. The govern ment is a constitutional monarchy, each 
kingdom having, however, a distinct constitution and national assembly. 
The Swedish diet is composed of the four orders of the kingdom, 
the nobility, the clergy, citizens, and peasantry, and is convened at least 
once in five years. The legislative body of Norway called the Storthing, 
is divided into two chambers called the Logthing and the Odelsthing. 
The executive power in Norway is administered by a viceroy or 
governor. 

19. Inhabitants. The inhabitants belong to two distinct races, the 
Uralian or Finnish race, comprising the Laplanders and Finns, who are 
found only in the northern sections, and the Teutonic or Germanic race, 
to which belong the Norwegians and Swedes; the two latter people, 
with the Danes, form the Scandinavian family of nations. The Swedish 
and Norwegian dialects differ but little from eaclvother, and are closely 
allied to the Danish. The habits, manners, and character of the two 
nations, with some minor points of difference, have a general family 
resemblance. The rigorous climate, pure air, and niggard soil render 
them hardy, vigorous, bold,- and independent, and particularly in Nor¬ 
way, where there are fewer restraints upon the expression of opinion, 
and where there is no order of nobility, frankness and independence of 
manner are characteristic traits. The usual food of the peasantry is 
milk, cheese, and fish ; flesh and rye-bread in some parts of the country 
are luxuries. Beer and spirits are much used. Furs or sheepskins 
almost universally form a part of the winter dress. The Swedes and 
Norwegians are lively and cheerful, polite, hospitable and faithful, brave 
and warlike, and strongly attached to their country. They are of a 
middling size, stout but not corpulent, with fair, ruddy complexions and 
light hair. In Sweden, the inhabitants are divided into four distinct 
classes, the nobility, the clergy, the citizens or burgers, and the peasants, 
but the two latter classes are on a better footing than in the neighbor¬ 
ing states. 

The Laplanders and Finns are of entirely different origin from the 
Scandinavians; they are few in number, that of the former not exceed¬ 
ing 10,000 and that of the latter being about 2,000. 

They are of a short stature, generally from four to five feet, dark 
complexion, mild and gentle in character, hardy and active, simple 
in their habits, and kind and hospitable to strangers. They dress and 
tan skins, make ropes of the sinews of the rein deer, construct canoes, 
and sledges, and weave cloth, but the higher mechanic arts are un¬ 
known to them. In summer they live in tents ; in winter in low huts, 
covered with sods of earth and bushes, having a hole at the top to let 
out the smoke. The dress is composed chiefly of skins of animals, and 
that of both sexes is nearly the same; it consists of a conical cap, coats 
of sheepskin, with the fur inward, trowsers and boots, into which are 
stuffed straw and rushes for stockings. Their food is chiefly fish, or 
the flesh and milk of the reindeer; bread is rarely to be had, but the 
bark of the fir tree, and some roots and leaves are eaten. Tobacco is 
much used, and ardent spirits are a favorite luxury, but are too scarce 
to be much indulged in. The wandering Laplanders rove from 
pasture to pasture with their large herds of reindeer, of which a wealthy 
individual sometimes possesses a thousand. This animal seems to have 
been provided for them to supply in itself all the wants to which their 
dreary country subjects them. Its flesh and milk furnish them with 


RUSSIA. 


343 


food, its skin with clothing, and its docility enables them to employ it 
to carry burdens, and drag their sledges. In summer this useful 
creature lives upon leaves and grass, and in winter upon moss. The 
stationary Laplanders live by fishing and hunting. 

20. History. The Scandinavians conquered this countiy at an early 
period, driving out the Finnic tribes who had previously inhabited it. 
The whole peninsula was subject to Denmark in the 14th century, but 
in the 16th Gustavus Vasa delivered Sweden from the Danish yoke, and 
was elected king by his countrymen. The reformation was soon after 
introduced into the country, and in the religious wars of the 17th cen¬ 
tury, the Swedes under their king Gustavus Adolphus, gained a brilliant 
military reputation. Charles XII in the beginning of the 18th century, 
after adding to this celebrity by a series of victories, which exhausted 
the blood and treasures of his subjects, was defeated at Pultowa by the 
Russians, and obliged to take refuge in the Ottoman dominions. Nor¬ 
way which had previously belonged to Denmark, was annexed to 
Sweden in 1814. 


CXV. REPUBLIC OF CRACOW. 

Boundaries , Government. This little state consists of a territory of 
490 square miles, with 140,000 inhabitants, surrounded by the Austrian, 
Prussian, and Russian dominions. The inhabitants are chiefly Poles, 
but there are some Germans and Jews. The chief production is corn ; 
there are some iron works at Kreszowice. The legislative body con¬ 
sists of the representatives of the corporations, the clergy, and the 
university; the executive authority is vested in a senate chosen by the 
assembly for life, and a president, chosen by the same body for two 
years. 

The city of Cracow is the capital, and was once the capital of 
Poland. It has a large dilapidated castle, and a cathedral remarkable 
for its 50 altars and 16 chapels. Here are 70 churches and several 
magnificent convents. The streets are irregular. The city contains a 
large square, but the buildings which surround it are mean. The 
university is a magnificent edifice and is the most ancient seminary in 
Poland. Population of the city 26,000. 


CXVI. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. This empire is bounded north by the 
Arctic Ocean, east by Asiatic Russia, from which it is separated by the 
Uralian Mountains and the river Ural, south by the Caspian Sea, the 
Caucasian Mountains, dividing it from Asiatic Russia, the Black Sea, 
and the Danube which separates it from Turkey, and west by Molda¬ 
via, from which the Pruth divides it, Austria, Prussia, the Baltic Sea, 
the gulf of Bothnia, and the Swedish monarchy, from which it is in part 
separated by the Tornea. It extends from N. Lat. 40° to 70°, and from 
E. Lon. 18° to 64°, having an area of more than two million square 
miles, with about 61 million inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The Ural Mountains form the boundary between 
Europe and Asia. They consist of a chain 1200 miles in length, ex- 


344 


RUSSIA. 


tending from the Frozen Ocean south nearly to the Caspian Sea. The 
Finnic Mountains are a continuation of the Scandinavian range, and 
extend some distance into Russia between the White Sea and the Gulf 
of Bothnia. The Alaunian or Waldaian Hilts are a series of gentle eleva¬ 
tions southeast of the Gulf of Finland. In the south are the mountains 
of the Crimea, which are branches from the Caucasian chain, in the 
southeast. Poland and the Polish provinces are traversed by ?ome 
spurs of the Carpathian chain of no great elevation. 

3. Rivers . Russia is watered by a great number of rivers, compris¬ 
ing the largest in Europe. The Ural rises on the eastern declivity of 
the Uralian Mountains separates Europe from Asia, and empties its 
waters, after a course of 1300 miles, into the Caspian Sea. The Volga, 
the largest river of Europe, rises in the government of Tver, and, pass¬ 
ing in an easterly and southerly direction by Tver, Iaroslav, Kazan, and 
Astrachan, it flows into the Caspian Sea by 70 mouths. Its principal 
tributaries are the Oka from the west, and the Kama, a full, deep stream 
from the east; its current is gentle and smooth, and it is navigated by 
more than 5,000 boats, while its valuable sturgeon fisheries employ even 
a greater number of fishing craft. Length of its course, 2,500 miles. 
The Terek and Kuma are considerable streams rising in the Caucasian 
Mountains and flowing into the Caspian Sea. 

The Don rises in the government of Tula, and receives a number of 
large tributaries ; it passes by Azoph, into the sea of that name, after a 
course of 850 miles. The Dnieper, one of the largest rivers in Europe, 
and a fine navigable stream, rises in the government of Smolensk, and 
has a course of nearly 1000 miles, passing by Smolensk, Kiev, below 
which the navigation is interrupted by falls, Cherson, and Oczacow into 
the Black Sea. The Dniester, rising in the Carpathian mountains of 
Galicia, also runs into the Black Sea. 

The Vistula passes through Poland into Prussia, and theNiemen also 
enters the Prussian territory. The Duna or Southern Dwina, rising 
near the sources of the Volga, flows north into the Gulf of Livonia. 
The Neva, the outlet of Lake Ladoga, is more remarkable for the 
volume of its waters, than the length of its course ; it is a broad, full, 
deep river, and sometimes does great mischief by its inundations. 

The Petchora, the Dwina, and the Onega are the principal streams, 
whose waters find their way into the Arctic Ocean. 

4. j Lakes. The country abounds in lakes. Lake Ladoga, the largest 
in Europe, is 120 miles long by 70 broad, and it receives the waters of 
Lake Onega, 150 miles long by 45 broad, of Lake Ilmen from the south, 
and of a series of lakes in Finland. That province is covered with 
lakes and marshes. Lake Peypus, or Tchudsko, between the govern¬ 
ments of Riga and Petersburg, is a considerable sheet of water. 

5. Seas and Gulfs. The White Sea in the north, communicating 
with the Arctic Ocean, is a long, narrow gulf, frozen over a great part 
of the year, and navigable only from the middle of May to October. 
The Gulf of Finland, and the Gulf of Livonia or Riga are arms of 
the Baltic Sea. The Sea of Azoph is a gulf of the Black Sea. 

6. Islands. Nova Zembla consists of two large islands in the Arctic 
Ocean, presenting a dreary and sterile appearance, and covered with 
snow and ice the greater part of the year. The soil produces some 
shrubs and moss; the islands are uninhabited by man, but they 
abound in reindeer, ermine, white bears, seals, and, fish, and are much 


RUSSIA. 


345 


resorted to by fishermen and hunters. To the northwest is the rocky 
and mountainous group of Spitzbergen, where an almost perpetual 
winter reigns. The white bear, whales, seals, &c. abound here; a 
company of Archangel merchants have attempted to establish a fishing 
and hunting post here, on the most northerly inhabited spot on the 
globe. In the Baltic, the Aland and CEsel isles belong to Russia. 

7. Climate. The White Sea and the ocean which washes the north¬ 
ern coast are covered with ice from September to June, and the rivers 
in this quarter are frozen for a still longer period. In the morasses 
and lakes the frost seldom disappears at all, and the sun’s heat does 
not penetrate a span into the marshy soil. During the brief and cheer¬ 
less summer the atmosphere is loaded with fogs. At Petersburg the 
temperature is milder, but the Neva is frozen from November till 
March. In the south the climate is delightful, and vegetation is flour¬ 
ishing. 

8. Surface. Russia forms a vast plain stretching from Prussia and 
Austria to the Ural Mountains. The central part of the country has 
an elevation of less than 1200 feet, and subsides gradually to the 
north and south. The country about the Caspian Sea is several hundred 
feet below the level of the ocean. 

9. Soil. The richest districts are in the south upon the Don and the 
Dnieper, but there is much fertile land upon the Volga. Between the 
Volga and the Don, in the Crimea, and between the Volga and Uralian 
Mountains there are extensive steppes or dry plains, which, however, 
furnish pasturage for the large herds of the wandering Tartars. In Po¬ 
land the soil is generally thin and sandy, and there are many marshy 
tracts. In the north there are barren steppes and morasses. Finland 
has much productive land. 

10. Minerals. Gold, silver, platina, diamonds, and iron are found in 
the Ural Mountains, but principally on the Asiatic side. Salt is obtained 
in great abundance from an immense number of salt lakes. 

11. Divisions. European Russia is divided into 45 governments and 
2 provinces, exclusive of the territory of the Cossacks of the Don, 
which forms a sort of military republic, the grand-duchy of Finland, 
which has a distinct administration, and the kingdom of Poland. The 
geographical sections are, the Baltic provinces, comprising 4 govern¬ 
ments, and Finland ; Great Russia, including 19 governments; Southern 
Russia containing three governments, and the province of Bessarabia; 
Western Russia, composed of seven governments and one province; 
and Eastern Russia, comprising 8 governments. The kingdom of 
Poland is divided into eight provinces. 

12. Canals. The system of canalisation, favored by numerous navi¬ 
gable rivers and lakes, and by the seas which border Russia on three 
sides, has been carried to a great extent. It was projected by Peter the 
Great, who, in founding St. Petersburg, designed to make it the com¬ 
mercial emporium of his vast empire. Several canals of no great length 
unite the waters of the Volga with Lake Ladoga, and thus connect the 
Baltic and the Caspian Sea. The Ladoga canal 66 miles, unites them 
with the Neva, and thus enables boats to avoid the dangerous navigation 
of the lake. Two canals unite the Northern Dwina with different 
branches of the Volga, and connect the White Sea with the Caspian. 
The Oginski canal, 36 miles long, connects the Dnieper with the Niemen, 
and affords navigation from the Baltic to the Black Sea. The canal of 


346 


RUSSIA, 


Peter I, connects the Don with the Volga, and is 100 miles in length J 
the Oka is also united with the upper part of the Don; these canals 
afford a double communication between the Black and Caspian seas. 
Another extensive system of canals connects the Vistula with the I^iernen 
and the Duna, and the latter with the Neva. 

13. Towns. St. Petersburg, the metropolis of the Russian empire, 
is situated at the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Finland, and is built 
partly upon the main land, and partly upon some small islands near the 
month of the Neva: one of its entrances is adorned with a magnifi¬ 
cent triumphal arch. The foundation of the city is extremely marshy, 
and so low as to subject the city to frequent inundations from the 
waters of the Gulf. It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great, the 
spot being then occupied only by a few fishermen’s huts. The streets 
of the city are from 70 to 150 feet wide, and are mostly intersected by 
spacious canals, embanked by parapets of hewn stone, and spanned at 
convenient distances by arched bridges of elegant construction. The 
quays along the Neva are remarkably magnificent. The city is one of 
the most beautiful and magnificent in the world. The imperial residence; 
the Hermitage, another imperial palace of a beautiful construction, 
containing a gallery of paintings, and a cabinet of gems, ranking among 
the richest known; the numerous sumptuous palaces of the imperial 
family ; the magnificent hotels of the nobles, and the great number of 
public edifices, built on a large scale, of rich materials and in a style of 
great elegance, render it a city of palaces. The houses are usually of 
brick covered with stucco, and present a white and dazzling appear¬ 
ance at a distance. The views upon the borders of the Neva are of an 
extremely grand and lively description: the river is deep, rapid, and as 
transparent as crystal; and its banks are lined on each side with a con¬ 
tinued range of noble buildings. 

One of the chief subjects worthy of attention here, is the colossal 
equestrian statue of Peter the Great, in bronze, erected by Catharine 
II. The Kazan church, built of marble, is a work of stupendous di¬ 
mensions ; but that of St. Isaac, now near its completion, perhaps sur¬ 
passes it in magnificence. The admiralty is a spacious and magnifi¬ 
cent edifice, and the spire being covered with gilding, is seen from all 
parts of the city. The Exchange is beautifully situated with a quay 
in front; it is surrounded with pillars, and decorated with marble 
statues. During the winter, no part of the city is more crowded than 
the Neva. Inclosed places are allotted to the skaters ; and sledge-races, 
480 OOo' iOUS ° tliei amusements are generally practised. Population 

The literary institutions and learned societies of St. Petersburg are 
numerous. The university, the cabinet of natural history, the imperial 
library of 300,000 volumes, those of the academy of sciences, of the 
university, &c., the magnificent botanical garden, &c., must not be pass¬ 
ed over in silence. Kronstadt, on an island in the Gulf of Finland, 
about 20 miles from Petersburg, is the port of the capital, and the chief 
naval station of the empire. It is remarkable for its vast works, fortifi¬ 
cations, docks, arsenals, barracks, &c. Population 40,000. 

Moscow, the former capital, stands on the river Moskva, 487 miles 
southeast of St. Petersburg. Before the French invasion it was the 
krgest city in Europe, being nearly 20 miles in circumference. The 
Kremlin is a superb structure, or rather a motley mass of gaudy build- 


RUSSIA. 


347 


ings, comprehending the imperial palace and chapel, the public offices, 
the cathedral and other churches, and the arsenal. At the French 
invasion in 1812, the city was set on fire, and two thirds of it destroy¬ 
ed. , It is now mostly rebuilt. The streets are, in general, broad, 
and some of them are paved; others, particularly those in the suburbs, 
are floored with trunks of trees, or boarded with planks. Wretched 
hovels are blended with large palaces; some parts of the city have 
the appearance of a sequestered desert, and others that of a populous 
town. One of the curiosities of this place is the great bell, which is 
said to be the largest in the world ; its circumference is 64 feet, and 
its height 19 feet. In the cathedral the Russian emperors are crowned. 
Moscow contains a university with a fine library, and many literary in¬ 
stitutions ; the anatomical museum here compi'ises 50,000 preparations. 
It is the residence of the oldest and wealthiest Russian families, and 
the operations of its merchants extend from London and Paris to the 
coast of North America and the capital of China. Population 250,000. 

Riga, on the Duna, near its mouth, is the capital of Livonia; it is 
one of the principal fortresses of the empire, and ranks among the 
principal commercial cities of Europe. Here is a bridge of boats over 
the Duna, remarkable for its length. The inhabitants are chiefly 
Germans, or of German origin. Population 42,000. Dorpat, 9000, in 
the neighborhood, contains a university, with a celebrated observatory. 

Helsingfors, capital of Finland, has an excellent harbor on the Gulf 
of Finland. Its commerce is flourishing, and it contains a university. 
Population 8,000. The celebrated fortress of Sveaborg is remarkable 
for its vast works, which render it impregnable. Abo, formerly the 
capital of Finland, is on the decline ; it contains 11,000 inhabitants. 

Tula is one of the principal manufacturing cities of the empire; 
more than 7000 workmen are employed in the manufacture of arms 
for the government, and philosophical instruments are also made here. 
The vast arsenal contains upward of 100,000 stand of arms. Population 
39,000. 

Kaluga, upon the Oka, has a great number of manufactories, and 
carries on an active trade. It is a large, but meanly built city, with 
26,000 inhabitants. 

Orel is a flourishing city, and is the great mart of the corn-trade for 
the interior of Russia. Population 30,000. 

Iaroslav, pleasantly situated upon the Volga, is one of the great 
workshops of Russia; table-linen, paper, and silk are the chief produc¬ 
tions of its industry. Here is a scientific school with a rich library, and 
one of the most important theological seminaries of the empire. Pop¬ 
ulation 24,000. 

Archangel, upon the Dwina, has a fine harbor, which however is 
closed nine months in the year by ice. Previously to the building of 
St. Petersburg, it was the chief commercial port of Russia, and, al¬ 
though it has since declined, its inhabitants still prosecute the fisheries 
with activity, and carry on an extensive commerce. Population 19,000. 

Tver, with 22,000 inhabitants, situated upon the Volga, at the jmr:- 
tion of one of the canals connecting that river with the New;, is me 
centre of the commercial relations between Moscow and St r'eters- 
burg. It is one of the handsomest towns in Russia, containing a 
magnificent imperial palace, a noble cathedral, town-house, &c., and 
adorned with superb quays along the Volga. 


348 


RUSSIA, 


Smolensk, 11,000 inhabitants, and Novogorod-Veliki or Great 
Novogorod, 8,000, are chiefly interesting for their historical impor¬ 
tance. Smolensk once contained 200,000 inhabitants, and Novogorod, 
formerly a member of the Hanseatic league, and the great mart of the 
commerce between Asia and the north of Europe, ruled over a great 
part of Russia, and is said to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. 
Who can stand against God and Novogorod, became a proverb. 

Nishni Novogorod, on the Volga, with 14,000 inhabitants, is cele¬ 
brated for its great fair, the largest in Europe; it is attended by from 
120,000 to 150,000 persons, who transact business to the amount of 
above 20 mill^n dollars; in its vast and beautiful bazars, meet the 
traders of the most distant parts of Europe and Asia. 

Kiev, pleasantly situated upon several hills on the Dnieper, is an 
ancient town, and was formerly one of the sacred cities of Russia. 
It contains a splendid cathedral, an imperial palace, a celebrated 
university, and a famous monastery, in the catacombs of which are 
preserved in a dried state the bodies of 110 martyrs; thousands of 
pilgrims visit these relics yearly, and the great fair of Kiev attracts 
annually 30,000 persons. Population 50,000. 

Odessa, one of the most flourishing cities of Europe, is the chief 
commercial mart upon the Black Sea, and the outlet of the exports of 
Southern Russia. It is handsomely built with regular and spacious 
streets, and handsome public squares and walks, and contains many 
elegant buildings, public and private. The dry and sterile soil of the 
neighborhood has been converted into a fertile garden, by the increase 
of the city. Population 40,000. Cherson, formerly the most impor¬ 
tant town in this section, is unhealthy, and has declined since the 
transfer of its commerce to Odessa, and the removal of its dock-yard. 
Population 12,000. 

Other important places in Southern Russia are Bender, 5,000 inhab¬ 
itants, and Ismail, 13,000, in Bessarabia, distinguished for their fortifica¬ 
tions, and Akerman, 13,000, in the same province, also a fortified town, 
with extensive salt-works; Nikolaiev, near Odessa, a small town, but 
important as the principal Russian naval station on the Black Sea ; and 
New Tcherkask, 11,000 inhabitants, capital of the Cossacks of the Don. 

AVilna is the principal city of Western Russia, and was the capital 
of the ancient duchy of Lithuania. It contains many remarkable 
edifices, among which are the cathedral, numerous churches, and the 
hotels of many Polish nobles. About half of the population, 56,000, 
are Jews, who carry on an extensive inland traffic. 

Mohilev, 21,000 inhabitants; Witepsk, 15,000; and Minsk, 15,000, 
capitals of governments of the same names, are the other most con¬ 
siderable towns of Western Russia. 

Kazan, on the Volga, a handsomely built and strongly fortified 
city, is the mart of the commerce between Siberia and European 
Russia, and the seat of extensive manufactures of cloths, leather, soap, 
and iron-ware. It was once the capital of a Tartar kingdom, and is 
the most important Tartar city of Russia. Its university, theological 
academy, observatory, library, botanical garden, &c., give it also a cer¬ 
tain literary importance. Population 48,000. 

Saratov, upon the Volga, is a flourishing town, which owes its 
rapid increase to its extensive trade and its manufacturing prosperity. 
Population 35,000. 


RUSSIA. 


349 


Astrachan, with 40,000 inhabitants, is built upon one of the islands in 
the mouth of the Volga, and is the most frequented port on the Caspian 
Sea. Its numerous churches, its pretty orchards and vineyards, its ex¬ 
tensive suburbs, and its Kremlin or citadel, give it an agreeable appear¬ 
ance at a distance, but the houses are chiefly of wood, and the streets are 
irregular, muddy, and badly paved. It is the chief Russian naval station 
on the Caspian Sea, and its central position, which affords it a ready 
communication with the most remote parts of the empire, and with the 
richest regions of Asia, renders it the emporium of Russian commerce 
with India, Bucharia, and Persia. Three bazars or khans in different 
parts of the city are appropriated respectively to the Russian, Hindoo, 
and other Asiatic merchants. 

Other considerable towns in Eastern Russia are Perm, 10,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, important for the rich mines of copper worked in its neighbor¬ 
hood ; Ekaterinburg, 11,000, the centre of a rich gold district, contain¬ 
ing large cannon founderies, and manufactories of cutlery and other 
iron ware ; and Uralsk, 12,000, capital city of the Cossacks of the Ural, 
with important fisheries. 

In Great Russia, beside the towns already described, are Kursk, a 
commercial town with 23,000 inhabitants, near which is a miraculous 
image of the Virgin, which attracts numerous pilgrims; Vologda, 13,000 
which its central position between St. Petersburg, Moscow, Archan¬ 
gel, and Kazan, and the canals and navigable rivers connected with it, 
render the great mart of the inland trade of Northern Russia and 
Siberia; Vorouege, 26,000, and Riazan, 19,000 inhabitants, flourishing 
commercial and manufacturing towns; Charkov, 13,000, noted for its 
literary institutions; and Pultava, 10,000, for the victory gained thereby 
Peter I over Charles XII of Sweden. 

Warsaw, the capital of Poland, is situated in a vast sandy plain, on 
the Vistula. The city is in general meanly built, but in the suburbs 
there are handsome streets and elegant buildings. Praga, one of the 
suburbs, is separated from the city by the Vistula. Previous to the in¬ 
surrection of 1830, Warsaw had a population of 150,000 souls, but the 
disastrous result of that noble effort for the restoration of Polish liberty 
has much diminished the number. The city contains a number of 
palaces, and government buildings, with a university and several con¬ 
vents and hospitals. Its population resembles a perpetual masquerade; 
long-bearded Jews; monks in the garb of every order; veiled and 
shrouded nuns, self secluded and apart: bevies of young Polish females 
in silk mantles of the brightest colors, promenading the squares: the 
venerable ancient Polish noble, with mustaches, caftan, girdle, sabre, 
and red or yellow boots; the new generation equipped to the highest 
pitch of Parisian dandyism, with Turks, Greeks, Russians, Italians, 
Germans, and Frenchmen, in an ever changing throng. Warsaw has a 
considerable commerce by the Vistula, and manufactures of cloth, 
linen, carpets, stockings, carriages, and harness. 

The other towns of Poland are small. Lublin with 12,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, and Kalisc with 15,000, are the principal. 

14. Agriculture. Russia raises much more corn than she consumes; 
fruits and wine are produced in abundance ; flax and hemp are staple 
productions. Mulberry trees have been planted to a great extent, and 
the raising of cattle, horses, sheep, bees, and silkworms occupies many of 
the inhabitants. Poland rears many cattle, and raises much corn, but 
the rich plains of the Vistula are blasted by Russian tyranny. 


350 


RUSSIA. 


15. Manufactures. Russia has for a long time possessed manufac¬ 
tures of leather, duck, cordage, cutlery, felt, candles, and soap. But 
during the last ten years great progress has been made in all branches 
of manufacturing industry, and the more delicate productions of the 
loom and the furnace are made in great perfection. In addition to the 
articles above mentioned, silks, fine broadcloths, glass, porcelain, paper, 
jewelry, and cotton, are among the principal. The governments of 
Moscow, Vladimir, Nishni-Novogorod, Tambov, Kaluga, and Olonetz 
are the chief manufacturing districts. The cotton manufacture in par¬ 
ticular has of late extended itself with great rapidity, owing principally 
to the substitution of free and well paid workmen for slaves ; in a single 
village in Vladimir there are 15,600 looms employing 24,300 laborers. 

16. Commerce. The inland commerce of Russia is not impeded by 
tolls nor staples, and is facilitated by navigable rivers, canals, and lakes, 
and by the snow in winter. Great fairs are held in different places. 
The foreign inland trade is with China, Persia, Bucharia, the Ottoman 
empire, Austria, and Prussia. The maritime commerce is chiefly in 
the hands of the English, the foreign inland trade is carried on by Ar¬ 
menians, Jews, and Bucharians. The American company, has factories 
at Kazan, Irkutsk, Kamtchatka, &c., and settlements in America. The 
Steam Navigation company has been formed with the design of intro¬ 
ducing steam vessels upon the Volga, the Caspian, and the Kama, and 
the Russian company to extend the navigation upon the Baltic and 
Black seas, and the great rivers of the interior. The foreign commerce 
of Russia has doubled within 25 years. 

17. Fisheries. The seal and sturgeon fisheries of the Ural, the Volga, 
and the Caspian and Black seas, are extensive and highly productive. 
Upward of 10,000 fishing boats are employed on the Volga, and isin¬ 
glass, caviare, and oil are made. Salted and smoked mackerel form an 
important article of the commerce of the Crimea. The Cossacks re¬ 
pair to the Ural to prosecute the sturgeon fishery, in great numbers. 
Thousands appear on the ice in sledges, armed with spears, poles, and 
other instruments. As soon as the leader sets forward, the fishers, who 
have been drawn up in regular ranks, dash after him; the ice is cut, the 
spears, cast the ice covered with fish, which the fishmongers, assembled 
from all parts of the empire, carry off in all .directions, in a frozen 
state. 

18. Religion. No distinction is made in favor of any religious sect 
in Russia. The great majority of the inhabitants belong to the Greek 
church. In the Polish provinces the inhabitants are Catholic or United 
Greeks. In the kingdom of Poland chiefly Roman Catholics. There 
are many Lutherans in Finland and Esthonia. The Calmucs are Ma¬ 
hometans. The government of the Greek church is administered by 
the Holy Synod, or college of bishops and secular clergy; under the 
Synod are the four metropolitans of Moscow', Petersburg, Kazan, and 
Kiev, the archbishops, &c., and 560 convents. The service consists 
chiefly in outward forms; preaching and catechising being little regard¬ 
ed. The clergy are generally little more enlightened than those whom 
they aspire to instruct. Every house has a painting of a saint, or of the 
Virgin, before which the inmates offer prayers, and perform many 
ceremonies. Most of the clergy are permitted to marry once. There 
are many fasts,and festivals are kept with great rejoicings: many pagan 
superstitions are still cherished. 


RUSSIA. 


351 


19. Education. For all branches of education, Russia has numerous 
and excellent institutions. There are seven universities at Moscow, St. 
Petersburg, Helsingfors, Dorpat, Cliarkov, Kazan, and Warsaw; there 
are also gymnasia, provincial schools, and Lancasterian schools for the 
lower classes. But this provision is for that smaller part of the popu¬ 
lation which is free. 

20. Government. The government is an unlimited monarchy ; all 
power emanates from the emperor, who is considered to derive his 
authority from God. His title is samoderjetz or autocrat of all the 
Russias; he is at once the supreme head of the state and of the church. 
There are, however, some differences in the administration of different 
parts of the empire ; thus the kingdom of Poland, and the grand-duchy 
of Finland, have distinct constitutions ; the Cossacks of the Don, and 
those of the Black Sea, form a sort of military republics, &c. 

21. Army and JVavy. The army of Russia is estimated to amount 
to about 080,000 men, exclusive of the military colonists. The mili¬ 
tary colonies are a peculiar institution of this country; in these the 
peasants or boors, who belong to the crown, are subjected to a military 
government and educated as soldiers. The navy consists of 40 ships 
of the line, 35 frigates, and 204 smaller vessels, and 25 floating batteries. 

22. Inhabitants. The population of Russia is composed of a great 
variety of different people, who have nothing in common, but the gov¬ 
ernment. The Slavonic race comprises the greatest part of the inhabi¬ 
tants, including the Russians, the Cossacks, and the Poles. The latter 
form the majority of the population of the western governments, con¬ 
quered from Poland, and of the kingdom of Poland. The Cossacks 
occupy the southern provinces on the Don and the Black Sea. The 
Finnic race comprises the Finns, Esthonians, Laplanders, and other 
tribes scattered over the country, from the Tornea to the Ural Moun¬ 
tains. The Tartars or Turkish race are spread over the plains from the 
Dniester to the Caucasus, comprising' the inhabitants of tbe former king¬ 
doms of Kazan r Astrachan, and various tribes mostly under their 
own government, without agriculture or fire-arms, and often preserving 
their nomadic habits. To the Mongol race belong the Calmucks, in 
the southeastern governments. The Samoiedes compose numerous 
small tribes, wandering through the vast wilderness on the northeastern 
coast. Beside these there is a great number of German colonists, 
Swedes in Finland, Jews, Armenians, Gypsies, &c. In the whole em¬ 
pire there are no less than eighty tribes differing in language, religion, 
and manners, from the lowest state of barbarism to the highest degree 
of European civilization. The population of European Russia is divid¬ 
ed into four classes; the nobility, clergy, common people or freemen, 
and boors or serfs. The boors are the property of the crown or of 
individuals, and are in a state of abject poverty and ignorance. The 
laws, however, afford them some protection against the caprice of their 
owners, and they are sometimes emancipated or permitted to purchase 
their freedom. This servile class comprises the bulk of the population, 
amounting to about 30,000,000. The freemen, not nobles or clergy, are 
the inhabitants of cities, composed of several distinct orders, as the 
members of the guilds, or capitalists with a certain income, artisans, 
notables (artists, bankers, and learned men), &c. The noble families 
comprise about 750,000 individuals, enjoying certain exemptions and 
privileges. 


352 


RUSSIA. 


23. Manners and Customs. The great mass of the nation has not 
yet been penetrated by the light of civilization that has risen upon some 
portions of the population. In the two capitals and some of the prin¬ 
cipal ports are found indications of great progress in refinement, in 
science, and in the arts, but even in these most favored spots the num¬ 
ber of those who can be said to be within the pale of improvement is 
very limited. In Russia, property, liberty, and life are held at the will 
of the autocrat, and the nobles have nearly the same delegated power 
over their serfs. This state of government has an unfavorable influence 
on the character of the monarch, the noble, and the peasant, though it 
most degrades the latter. The nobles are often sensual, capricious, and 
indolent, and the peasants degraded and brutal; but the advance towards 
a better state of society has of late years been rapid, and the change has 
been nowhere so apparent as in the nobility. It must doubtless be 
communicated also to the peasantry. Intemperance, which used to be 
characteristic of a Russian nobleman, is now the vice only of his slaves. 

In describing the Russians we must describe the two great classes, the 
nobility and the peasants, though many traits of character run through . 
all. All are cheerful, social, and luxurious, fond of novelty, and quick 
in apprehension. The higher classes are animated and fond of amuse¬ 
ment, but in a great degree inaccessible to the high motives of principle 
or honor. They stand on the brink of barbarism, and have quitted the 
virtues of that state too lately, to have acquired those of refinement. 
Their life is one of pomp and show, rather than one devoted to 
knowledge and the pleasures of a refined state of society. They retain 
vast households of domestic serfs: five hundred of these, are often the 
attendant on one palace, in the capacity of servants, cooks, butchers, 
tailors, shoemakers, artists, comedians, &c. They may be seen when 
not employed sleeping like the domestic animals in the anti-rooms, or 
on staircases, and generally they have no other bed. 

No profession is honorable but that of arms, and to this only the 
nobility devote themselves. The peasantry have the national facility 
of imitation, and though degraded by their situation, many of them have 
been found capable of imitating the best works of art. They are ad¬ 
dicted to intoxication, and their morals are in a most depraved state. 

The lower classes of Russiaus are covered with filth and infested 
with vermin; and the latter it is said have no respect for rank, pertain¬ 
ing both to nobles and serfs. The women are the drudges, which they 
always are among barbarians, and are as much subjected to the blows 
of their husbands, as these are to the cudgels of their masters. All the 
operations and implements of agriculture denote an age far behind the 
present; the harrows are but the lateral branches of the fir tree, sharp¬ 
ened and dragged over the ground, and many other implements are 
equally rude. 

The house of a boor is a receptacle of filth: the door is closed in 
winter, and the air heated by stoves and tainted by respiration becomes 
excessively offensive and noxious. Almost all Russia preseuts a picture 
of the same state of society ; for the cities of Moscow and St. Peters¬ 
burg form but inconsiderable parts of the whole. The Cossacks live 
in neat villages, in a not uncultivated state. They are to a great de¬ 
gree neat in their houses, persons, and dress. They have books and 
musical instruments, and are the most cheerful, kind, and honest of all 
the inhabitants of Russia. The ladies are handsome and intelligent; 


RUSSIA. 053 

many of them in the higher classes possess the usual European accom¬ 
plishments. 

The Russians make good soldiers, and yet they have not a military 
spirit. But their political situation makes them passive instruments in 
the hands of their rulers. A serf gains his freedom, and improves his 
situation by entering the army. Besides this, he is strong, hardy, and 
constitutionally brave. 

The nobles dress chiefly after the English or French fashions; but 
the burghers, merchants, and peasants wear the national dress of the 
Asiatic form. In winter all classes are wrapped in sheep-skins or furs. 
The common dress of the peasants is a hat or cap with a high crown, 
a coarse robe reaching to the knee, and girded with a sash, in which 
the wearer carries his purse and often his hatchet; a woollen cloth 
wrapped round the leg instead of stockings, and sandals of pliant bark. 
The higher ranks wear in winter pelisses of fur, and boots of the same. 
The dress of the ladies is nearly in the English fashion. The women 
of the more numerous class wear a saraphan , or long vest without 
sleeves, tight round the chest, but flowing over the hips, and having a 
close row of buttons on the facing in front. 

The Poles are distinguished for bravery, military spirit, and impa¬ 
tience of control. They are honorable, hospitable, courteous, and lively, 
butmot without licentiousness. The rich nobles live in much state, and 
entertain their friends and strangers in a princely manner. The ladies 
are celebrated for their attractions. The peasants are poor, ignorant, 
and fanatical. They are stupid from the effects of servitude, and they 
have little conception of cleanliness. The Jews are the general traders, 
and the political freedom they enjoy in Poland, has developed better 
traits in their character as well as physiognomy than are found in 
countries where they are much oppressed. They have however a 
tendency towards extortion, and like the peasants they are offensively 
filthy. 

The Calmucs still retain their nomadic habits, wandering from place 
to place with their herds of cattle. 

The Samoiedes somewhat resemble the Finns in appearance and 
mode of life, but they are of a distinct origin. They are a rude race 
of hunters, destitute of the arts of civilization. 

24. Possessions. Beside the European territories, the Russian em¬ 
pire comprises vast tracts of Asia, including the whole of the northern 
part of the continent, and the country to the west of the Caspian Sea. 
The northwestern part of America also belongs to this power. The 
whole empire has an area of nearly eight million square miles, or one 
seventh of the habitable globe, with a population of about 65 million 
inhabitants. 

25. History. Russia did not acquire importance as an independent 
state, till the 15th century. Before this period its sovereigns were often 
in a state of vassalage to the Tartar Khans. Peter the Great laid the 
first permanent foundation of the Russian power, and introduced civili¬ 
zation and military discipline early in the 18th century. Catharine 
augmented the empire by the partition of Poland, and the acquisition 
of territory from the Turks. The limits of the empire were farther ex¬ 
tended at the close of the 18th century, and Russia became one of the 
chief military powers of Europe. She joined the coalition against 
revolutionary France, but the victories of Napoleon for awhile check- 

23 . 


354 


WALACHIA. 


ed her power. The sovereignty of the continent was divided between 
France and Russia. Napoleon attempted to crush his rival, and the 
disastrous issue of the Russian campaign shook the foundation of his 
own empire. The decline of the French power brought the armies 
of Russia into the west of Europe, extended her territorial limits, and 
developed her military strength. Russia is at the present day one of 
the most powerful empires of the world. 

Poland long formed an independent kingdom, but was conquered by 
the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and subjected to three 
partitions in 1772, 1793, and 1795. At the last partition the king was 
deposed, the country blotted from the list of nations, and the whole 
territory divided between the three powers above mentioned. Napo¬ 
leon wrested a portion of this country from the conquerors, and erected 
it into a state with the title of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, in 1807, 
but this government was overthrown at his downfall. The Prussian 
and Austrian divisions of Poland were attached as provinces to those 
monarchies, and the Russian division was formed into a separate king¬ 
dom. 

In 1830 the Poles rose to recover their liberties; but the insurrection 
was crushed by the hordes of Russia, and the kingdom has now been 
incorporated with the rest of the empire. 


CXVII. PRINCIPALITY OF MOLDAVIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Moldavia is bounded north and west by 
Austria; east by Russia and south by Walachia. Its area is 15,000 
square miles; population 450,000. It pays an annual tribute to the 
Porte, but the latter is not allowed to station troops within its limits, 
and Turks are prohibited from settling in the country. 

2. Toivns. Jassy, an irregularly and meanly built town, with 27,000 
inhabitants, is the capital. It was almost destroyed by the Janissaries 
in 1821, and it suffered much again from the conflagrations of 1827. 
Its trade is active, but is carried on chiefly by Greeks and Armenians, 
and the mechanic arts are chiefly exercised by Germans. 

Galash, with 7,000 inhabitants, is situated upon the Danube, and is 
much frequented by Austrian and Russian vessels. 

3. Inhabitants , Government. The inhabitants belong to the Latin 
race, and speak a corrupt Latin mixed with Sclavonic. They are of 
the Greek church, and are described as indolent, treacherous, and vin¬ 
dictive. The greater part of the country is devoted to pasturage. For 
three centuries the Turks have been in possession of it, but the inhabi¬ 
tants were allowed to retain their laws and religion. The government 
was administered by a governor or hospodar, appointed and removed 
at pleasure by the Porte, who practised ail sorts of extortion upon the 
people. But in 1829 it was agreed that the hospodar should be appoint¬ 
ed for life. 

CXVIII. PRINCIPALITY OF WALACHIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Walachia is bounded north by Austria 
and Moldavia; east and south by the Ottoman empire, and west by 
Servia. It has an area of 28,800 square miles, with 970,000 inhabitants. 

o 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


355 


The government, religion, and population are similar to those of Mol¬ 
davia. 

2. Towns. Bucharest, the capital, is a large and dirty town, situated 
in a marshy plain, on a confluent of the Danube. The streets, like 
those of Jassy, are not paved, but covered with planks. It contains 60 
churches, several convents, &c., and has a population of 80,000. 

Tergovist, fornierly a large city and the residence of the hospodar, 
is now on the decline, and has but 5000 inhabitants. 

Brailow, on the Danube, was formerly remarkable for its fortifications, 
which have been demolished. Crajova is a place of considerable trade 
with 8,000 inhabitants. 


CXIX. PRINCIPALITY OF SERYIA. 

1. Boundaries. Servia is bounded on the north by the Austrian 
empire, on the east by Walachia and the Ottoman empire, and on the 
south and west by the latter country ; area 12,000 square miles ; popu¬ 
lation 380,000. The government is a hereditary monarchy, tributary 
to the Porte, which has the right of keeping garrisons in certain places, 
but having its own laws and an independent administration; the 
sovereign is styled prince. 

2. Towns. The capital, Smedreno, or Semendria, is a small town 
with about 12,000 inhabitants, situated on the Danube. 

Belgrade, the principal city of Servia, is one of the strongest fort¬ 
resses of Europe, and is held by a Turkish garrison. It has manufac¬ 
tures of silk, cotton, leather, carpets, and arms, and considerable trade. 
Population 30,000. 

3. Inhabitants. The Servians are of the Sclavonic race, and are 
principally occupied in raising cattle. The soil is fertile, but large 
tracts of country are covered with forests; like Moldavia and Walachia, 
Servia has been oppressed by the lawless extortions of its rulers, 
and has too often been the unhappy theatre of desolating wars. 


CXX. TURKISH OR OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 

1. Boundaries. Turkey in Europe is bounded on the north by the 

Austrian empire, the three principalities, and Russia, from all which it 
is chiefly separated by the Save and the Danube; east by the Black Sea, 
the Strait of Constantinople, the Sea of Marmora, the Dardanelles, 
and the Archipelago; south by Greece, and west by the Ionian Sea, the 
Gulf of Venice, and the Austrian empire. It extends from 39° to 45° 
N.-Lat., and from 16° to 30° E. Lon., comprising an area of 150,000 
square miles, and a population of 7,000,000. . 

2. Mountains. A chain of mountains, forming a continuation of the 
great Alpine system, extends from west to east, through the noithern 
part of Turkey, from Dalmatia to the Black Sea. The western part of 
the chain, known as the Dinaric Alps, has an elevation of from 4,000 
to 7,000 feet. The eastern part, called the Balkan or Hsenuts, is com¬ 
posed of loftier summits, rising to above.10,000 feet. On the southern 
frontier of Servia, a branch of this chain shoots off to the south, separat¬ 
ing Albania and Rurnelia, and stretching under various names through 


356 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


Greece. This range, called Mount Pindus, nowhere rises above 9,000 
feet, but embraces numerous celebrated summits, among which are Par¬ 
nassus, Helicon, Olympus, Pelion, Ossa, &c. Further east a second 
branch leaves the main chain of the Balkan, and traverses Bulgaria and 
Rumeiia, terminating in numerous spurs upon the Archipelago, the 
straits of the Dardanelles, and the sea of Marmora. It is called Mount 
Rhodope or the Despoto-Dag, and reaches an elevation of from 5,000 
to 6,500 feet. 

3. Rivers. The Maritza, which was the Hebrus of ancient geogra¬ 
phers, rises in the mountains of Hsernus, and enters the Archipelago, 
after a course of nearly 250 miles. The Albanian Drino discharges 
itself into the basin of the Adriatic, and the southern branch of that 
river, or the Black Drino, receives the waters of the lake Ochrida. The 
Axius, or Vardar of the moderns, flows through a space of about 200 
miles into the Gulf of Salonica. The Achelous, now the Aspropota- 
mos, rises in the mountains of Pindus, and flowing towards the south, 
enters the Gulf of Corinth. The Peneus has its source near that of the 
Achelous, and traversing the plain of Thessaly, pursues its course to 
the Archipelago. 

4. Seas and Gulfs. The iEgean Sea or Grecian Archipelago is 
remarkable for the numerous peninsulas which project into its waters 
from the neighboring continent, and form many bays and gulfs, and 
for the innumerable isles which are scattered throughout its whole ex¬ 
tent, and which impede the navigation. The Hellespont or Strait of 
the Dardanelles, connects the iEgean Sea with the Sea of Marmora. 
The mouth of the strait is 5£ miles wide, and is defended by castles. 
The Sea of Marmora, is about 140 miles long, and in some places 50 
broad. The Thracian Bosphorus, or Strait of Constantinople, the 
Euxine or Black Sea, the Ionian, and the Adriatic seas, wash different 
parts of the coast. The gulf of Salonica makes a deep opening into 
ancient Macedonia. 

5. Climate and Soil. The climate is superior to that of almost every 
other European region, being generally salubrious and delightful. 
The infectious diseases which prevail in the large cities, are rather 
attributable to the negligence and habits of the Turk, than to the un¬ 
healthiness of the atmosphere. The soil is extremely fertile, and is capa¬ 
ble of yielding all the vegetable productions of the south in profusion. 
Many of the valleys are composed of fine alluvial earth, the deposit of 
successive ages. 

6. JYatural Productions. Besides herbs and plants of almost every 
kind, this country produces, in great perfection, oranges, lemons, citrons, 
pomegranates, grapes, figs, almonds, olives, and other fruits. In addi¬ 
tion to these, many drugs, not common in other parts of Europe, are 
produced here. Lofty forests of oak, ash, elm, &c., grow on the sides 
of the mountains, whose summits are crowned with larches, firs, and 
yews. 

7. Minerals. Mines of iron, lead, and copper are found in several 
parts, but are neglected through the ignorance and indolence of the 
people. Alum and sulphur are met with; and quarries of beautiful 
marble are abundant. 

8. Face of the Country. Many districts are covered with rich pastures 
or extensive forests, but the general character of the country is moun¬ 
tainous. Long ranges intersect it in various directions, and their lateral 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


357 


branches, with several detached hills and groups, extend over many of 
the other districts. The northern provinces are the most level, and the 
southern the most hilly and diversified. 

9. Divisions. The country is often described by geographers under 
the divisions Bulgaria, Bosnia, Albania, Romelia, Macedonia, and Liva- 
dia. But by the Turks it is divided into four eyaltts or principalities, 
which are subdivided into sangiacs or banners. The eyalets are 1. 
Silistria, comprising Bulgaria; 2. Romelia or Rumeli, comprising 
Romelia, Macedonia, and Albania; 3. Bosnia; and 4. Dshazair, com¬ 
posed chiefly of the islands and Asiatic possessions. 

10. Towns. Constantinople, the metropolis of this extensive empire, 
is situated at the confluence of the Bosphorus with the sea of Marmora, 
and stands on the site of the ancient Byzantium. Constantine, sensible 
of the immense advantages of its position, fixed his residence here in 
330, in preference to Rome. The seven hills on which it is built, as¬ 
cend as they recede from the shore, and a beautiful green hill forms the 
back ground. An arm of the Bosphorus affords it an excellent harbor, 
with an open navigation to the Black Sea on the north, and the Medi¬ 
terranean on the south. The whole circuit of the city is about 12 miles. 
A wall from 14 to 20 feet high, flanked with towers, and having six 
gates, runs along the side next the sea, while the ancient wall encloses 
the land side. 

The external appearance of Constantinople is magnificent. Palaces, 
mosques, seraglios, baths, bazars, domes, turrets, and spires tower one 
above another. But the magic of the prospect disappears on entering 
the city. Here is seen nothing but narrow; crooked, dirty streets, and 
houses of wood, of brick, and of mud covered with cement. The 
number of mosques has been stated at more than 340, most of which 
are built of marble and covered with lead. The grand mosque of St. 
Sophia is the most renowned of the public buildings ; it was formerly a 
Greek church, dedicated to the Holy Wisdom, or Sancta Sophia, and 
was built by the emperor Justinian. Its length is 270 feet, and its 
breadth 240. The cupola, which is lined with mosaic work, rests on 
pillars of marble. Many of the other mosques of more recent erection, 
though of less magnitude, are handsome, and display considerable 
taste. v 

The Seraglio of the Sultan is one of the peculiarities of Constantino¬ 
ple. It includes the Harem, or apartment of the women, the buildings 
inhabited by the Sultan and his court, and the public offices, which are 
separated from the city by a vast wall, and entered by several gates, two 
of which are of magnificent architecture. It presents a confused assem¬ 
blage of objects, houses, domes, trees, and pavilions. Connected with 
many of the mosques are madrasses or schools for the higher branches 
of education ; imarets or hospitals for the sick ; places for the preparation 
and distribution of food for the poor; courts, with fountains for ablution, 
&c. There are also numerous monasteries for the dervishes, sophis, and 
other monastic orders of Mahometans. The public places are called 
meidans or plains; the most remarkable of these is the Atmeidan, or 
ancient hippodrome, in which the young Turks perform equestrian exer¬ 
cises. The baths, of which there are above 300; the khans or ware¬ 
houses of the merchants; the caravan series, in which are lodged the 
traders belonging to the caravans, &c., are also worthy of note. The 
principal suburbs are the Tophana, or cannon foundery, containing the 


358 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


arsenal, Galata, the residence of the Christian merchants, and Pera, 
which contained the houses of the European diplomatic agents, until 
its destruction by fire in 1831. The Fanar is a quarter of the city 
inhabited by old and wealthy Greek families, hence called Fanariots. 
Population of the city about 600,000. 

The strait or Bosphorus is thronged with light caiks or boats, and is 
remarkable for the picturesque beauty of its shores, covered with 
smiling villages, palaces, kiosks, and groves ; among the villages Buy- 
ukdere, in which the European ambassadors pass the summer, and 
Belgrade are the most remarkable. 

Adrianople, which was long the residence of the sultans, and is con¬ 
sidered the second capital of the empire, is situated upon a small stream, 
near its confluence with the Maritza. The mosque of Selim, the im¬ 
mense dome of which is supported by pillars of porphyry ; the bazar, / 
with its gallery a quarter of a mile in length, and the ancient palace of 
the sultans, a magnificent edifice, are its principal buildings. It has a 
flourishing trade and extensive manufactures, with 100,000 inhabitants. 

The other principal towns of Rumelia are Philippopoli with 30,000 
inhabitants, who carry on a brisk trade and manufactures of silk, wool¬ 
len, and cotton; Gallipoli, a large commercial city upon the Strait of 
the Dardanelles, with 80,000 inhabitants; and Selimnia, near the Bal¬ 
kan, noted for its fairs, its rose-water, and its manufacture of arms, 
with 20,000 inhabitants. The fortresses of Sestos and Abydos, the 
latter in Asia, upon the Hellespont, have acquired celebrity in poetry. 

Salonica, in the southern part of Macedonia, upon a gulf of the 
same name, is the second city of European Turkey in commercial im¬ 
portance. It also has extensive manufactures of cotton, silks, carpets, 
morocco, &c. It contains a great number of mosques, whose domes 
and minarets give it a fine appearance from the sea. The Jews and 
Greeks are numerous here. Population 70,000. To the southeast of 
Salonica is Mount Athos, called by the modern Greeks the holy mount, 
celebrated for its 22 convents, its 500 chapels and grottoes, inhabited 
by above 4,000 monks ; they export wax, images of saints, &c. 

Seres, with 30,000 inhabitants, is situated in an unhealthy spot, and 
is chiefly remarkable for its cotton trade. 

Larissa, with 30,000 inhabitants, is the most important town of 
Livadia. Its manufactures of cotton, silk, morocco, and tobacco, and 
its extensive dye-works, contribute to render its commerce flourishing. 
In the neighborhood are the Meteora or heights, a series of monas¬ 
teries hewn out of the precipitous rocks, to which the only access is 
by means of baskets drawn up by ropes. 

Sophia, a large but meanly built city, has 46,000 inhabitants. 

Shumla, one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, has important 
manufactures of copper, leather, silk, and iron. Silistria, upon the 
Danube, with 20,000 inhabitants; Rustshuk, 30,000, an important 
manufacturing and commercial town; Varna, upon the Black Sea, 
remarkable for its fortifications and fine harbor, with 16,000 inhabit¬ 
ants ; Widin also a strong fortress, and a commercial town with 
25,000 inhabitants; Nicopolis, 10,000, and Sistova, with 21,000, are the 
chief places in Bulgaria. 

Yanina, capital of Albania, previous to the recent wars in that dis¬ 
trict, had a population of 40,000 souls. But the rebellion of Ali Pacha 
in 1822, involved this city in ruin. Suli, capital of a rugged region of 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


359 


Albania, is chiefly remarkable for the heroic resistance of its inhabi¬ 
tants the Suliots to the attacks of Ali. Arta, 9000 inhabitants, upon the 
gulf of the same name, and Prevesa, 8,000, upon the same gulf, are 
important commercial towns. 

Scutari, upon the lake of the same name, contains 20,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, who are engaged in the fisheries, shipbuilding, and the manu¬ 
facturing of arms, and woollen and cotton goods. It is strongly 
fortified, and is one of the principal fortresses on the western frontier. 

Cettina is remarkable as the chief place of the district inhabited by 
the Montenegrins, a warlike tribe of mountaineers, who have main¬ 
tained their independence of the Turks. 

Bosna-Serai, in Bosnia, is a large city with strong military works, 
numerous mosques and baths, and an imperial palace. Its manufac¬ 
tures of arms, hardware, woollen and cotton goods, and leather, are 
important, and it is the centre of a brisk transit trade. Population 
70,000. 

11. Agriculture. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, agricul¬ 
ture is little known and less practised. In the northern provinces 
the pasture is luxuriant, and wheat might be raised in almost any 
quantity. In the southern parts rice is common. Barley and a kind 
of’ grain called durra are likewise cultivated. Excellent grapes are 
produced, with abundance of dates and olives. 

12. Commerce. No country possesses greater commercial advan¬ 
tages than European Turkey; but they are neglected through the 
despotism of the government and the inactivity of the people. The 
internal trade is almost entirely in the hands of Greeks and foreigners. 
The principal exports are carpets, cotton, wool, silk, tobacco, currants, 
raisins, wine, hides, wax, &c. The imports are chiefly cloths, coffee, 
sugar, spices, glass, hardware, jewelry, paper, and slaves from Geor¬ 
gia and the Caucasus. 

13. Manufactures. Few articles are made in sufficient quantities 
to supply the home consumption, and scarcely any for exportation, 
except carpets. Silks are manufactured in several places, but not to 
any great extent. 

14. Education. The inhabitants are generally ignorant, and the 
higher education is of a very imperfect nature. There are, however, 
many schools in which children are taught to read and write, and 
in the madrasses or colleges some attempts are made at instruction in 
science. But in general the Koran or sacred book of the Mahom¬ 
etans is the whole field of Turkish learning. There are some libra¬ 
ries of 6,000 or 10,000 volumes, and several printing establishments. 

15. Religion. The religion of the Turks is Islamism or Mahome¬ 
tanism, but other religious sects are allowed the profession and prac¬ 
tice of their own rites and doctrines. The Greeks, Bosnians, and 
Bulgarians, are chiefly of the Greek church ; many of the Albanians, 
Bosnians, and Armenians are Roman Catholics, but the majority of 
the Armenians belong to the Armenian Church. The Turks are 
Mahometans of the sect of the Sunnites. The sultan as caliph is the 
head of the church, and under him the mufti is at once the chief priest 
and the interpreter of the laws. The priests are divided into secular 
and monastic. The former (imaums, damishmends and talismans), 
perform the religious ceremonies in the mosques and dshamis, or 
chapels. 


360 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


16. Government. The power of the sovereign is absolute; the 
supreme civil and spiritual authority being united in his person. He 
is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or Padishah (lord), and by Euro¬ 
peans is often called Grand Signior, from the Italian, signifying great 
lord. The Turkish court is generally styled the Sublime Porte, from 
one of the gates of the seraglio bearing that name. The Sultan is not 
crowned like European monarchs, but girded with the sword of 
Mahomet. 

The Koran, or sacred book of the Mussulmans, is at once the civil, 
political, and religious code, and the sultan, being the successor of 
the former caliphs, or spiritual heads of the Mahometan world, unites 
in himself all authority. It has long been usual, however, to exercise 
his powers indirectly through two lieutenants or vicegerents ; the one, 
styled the mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion, called 
the ulemas, i. e. the learned; the other directs the civil and military 
affairs of the government, and is styled the grand vizier. All the 
officers of the empire are therefore subordinate to one of these two 
dignitaries. Pacha is a Turkish word signifying chief; the command¬ 
er in chief of the navy is styled the capitan-pacha, and each governor 
of a province is styled a pacha. The pachas of the highest rank bear a 
banner of three horse tails; those of the second, of two, and those of 
the third, of one; hence they are called pachas of three tails, of two 
tails, also styled sangiacs, or one tail. 

The supreme council of the nation is called the divan , an Arabic 
word signifying assembly, and is composed of the grand vizier, the 
mufti, the capitan-pacha, and the other heads of the administration. 

As the empire has been formed by successive conquests, and the 
conquered provinces made their submission under different conditions, 
there is a great diversity in the governments of the respective pro¬ 
vinces. Some have merely received a governor named by the sultan, 
and paid a certain yearly tribute, and in many instances the pachas 
have rendered themselves entirely independent of the Porte, and suc¬ 
cessfully resisted its arms. 

17. Inhabitants . The Turks, or, as they call themselves, Osmanlis, 
are the dominant people, but they form less than half the population. 
They are of Asiatic origin, but have now been encamped upon the 
European soil for four centuries. The Greeks are numerous in Thes¬ 
saly, Macedonia, Romelia, and Albania. The Skipetars, called by the 
Turks Arnaouts, and by Europeans Albanians, are originally of the 
same stock as the Greeks. They not only form most of the popula¬ 
tion of Albania, but they are numerous in Romelia, Bulgaria, and 
Macedonia. To the Sclavonic race belong the Bulgarians, the Bos¬ 
nians, the Montenegrins and the Servians, in Turkish Dalmatia. The 
Armenians and Jews are found in all the commercial towns, and the 
Gypsies wander from spot to spot, as in other countries of Europe. 

There is no hereditary nobility among the Turks, the only distinc¬ 
tion being that of office, and therefore personal. The Emirs, i. e. 
noble, however, or descendants of Mahomet, have the exclusive right 
of wearing the green turban and some other inconsiderable privileges. 
The government recognises two distinct classes of subjects, founded 
upon a religious distinction, the Mussulmans or believers, and thenon- 
mussulmans or infidels. The latter are called rayahs, i. e. the flock, 
and until recently have been subjected to various hardships and burdens. 


TURKISH EMPIRE. 


361 


But a late edict of the sultan declares all the subjects, without distinc¬ 
tion, equal in the eye of the law. Europeans residing in the empire 
are known by the general name of Franks. Slavery also exists in the 
empire, but it is an established principle that no freeborn Mussulman 
can become a slave, and a slave who embraces Mahometanism, gen¬ 
erally receives his freedom. The slaves are either so by birth, or by 
purchase ; many of the neighboring tribes, particularly the Georgians 
and Circassians, having been long accustomed to sell their children of 
both sexes into slavery. 

In regard to the habits and manners, in general, it may be observed 
that a great change has taken place within the present century, and 
particularly within the last few years; the sultan being desirous of 
organizing the government and military, upon the model of other 
European nations, and imitating their institutions and manners. 

18. Character and Manners. The Turks are in general ignorant, 
indifferent, and indolent; often fanatical and sensual, they are brave, 
honest, and faithful. 

Polygamy is allowed by their laws, and is common with the rich. 
The women of the higher classes are generally kept separate from 
male society, having their own part of the house from which the men 
are excluded. They are uneducated and ignorant, and pass their 
time chiefly in the seclusion of the harem, or in enjoying the pleasures 
of the bath. It is an error to suppose that they are excluded from the 
Mahometan paradise, or that the Koran denies them to have souls. 

The Turks are too grave and indolent to have many active amuse¬ 
ments. Throwing the jereed or lance, while riding at full speed, is, 
however, a favorite exercise. Smoking the pipe, lounging for hours 
cross-legged upon a cushion or sofa, and bathing, are occupations which 
consume much heavy time. Frequent ablutions are required by their 
religion, and as they do not use linen, the frequent use of the bath is 
necessary for the preservation of personal cleanliness. 

The Turks despise agriculture and the mechanic arts, and every thing 
connected with these is in a very backward state. Their houses are 
little more than shells, made of boards rudely put together. Their 
physicians rely as much upon charms, as upon medicines, and know 
little of the virtues of the latter, or the nature of diseases. In food the 
Turks are temperate; rice is much used, and boiled with mutton or 
fowls forms the favorite dish called pilau. Pork and wine are prohib¬ 
ited by the Koran; coffee is the general beverage; ardent spirits are 
considerably used. For travelling there are few facilities, but the only 
obstacles are poor roads, and the absence of inns; the caravansenes 
are merely places of shelter, being seldom provided with food or 

The Turks have a great respect for all things connected with 
Mahomet; and their reverence for the Koran is extreme. Ihey 
will pick up a piece of paper in the street, to see if it be not a frag¬ 
ment of the Koran. , , 

The Koran prescribes the attitudes of prayer, and the time, which 
the Muezzin calls from the minaret of the mosque, for there> arei no 
bells. ‘Come to prayer,’ cries he in the morning, ‘there is no God 
but God. Come to prayers, prayer is better than sleep. At noonJ 
adds, ‘prayer is better than food.’ The Mussulmans, when they pray, 
turn towards Mecca; and they are much absorbed in their prayers, 


362 HELLAS OR GREEGE. 

praying with great fervor and awe. The fasts are strictly kept, and in 
that of Ramazan, it is not lawful to taste so much as a drop of water 
during the day, from one new moon to another. During this fast, it is 
no time to solicit a favor from the devout. After the fast comes the 
feast of Bairam, which is carried to great excess. The mosques are 
generally supported by bequests of money given for religious purposes, 
and this is one of the few safe dispositions of it in Turkey. Wells, 
fountains, inns, hospitals, &c., are founded in the same way. The 
Turks are strict in rendering alms. 

Even the dress of the nation, which had so long remained unchanged, 
has been recently altered so as to approach more nearly to the European 
costume. The turban has been supplanted by a cap, and the long, 
loose robe and full drawers have given way to a short tight jacket and 
pantaloons. The female dress is much like that formerly worn by the 
males, except that the turban is not used by the women, and the face 
is generally covered with a veil. 

The administration of justice is simple, prompt, and energetic. The 
common punishments are the bastinado, hanging, drowning, strangling, 
and impaling. 

19. Army and JYavy. The land forces were till recently organized 
upon an imperfect system, and were composed of Janissaries, topgees 
or artillery, and spahis or cavalry, beside a number of mercenary troops. 
But the corps of Janissaries was dissolved in 1826, and its members 
exterminated; and the army is now formed on the model of the Euro¬ 
pean military; it amounts nominally to about 300,000 men, but many 
are badly armed and undisciplined. The naval force consists of 8 ships 
of the line, 8 frigates, and 10 smaller vessels. 

20. History. In the thirteenth century a horde of Turks under their 
leader Osman laid the foundations of the Ottoman empire in Asia 
Minor. After reducing the neighboring countries, his successors, in the 
14th century, crossed over into Europe, conquered extensive tracts 
belonging to the Greek empire, and in the middle of the next century 
captured Constantinople, the capital, and thus completed the overthrow 
of the Greek power. The sultans now extended their arms over Egypt, 
Syria, and Northern Africa. But from the middle of the 16th century 
the empire began to decline, and has been successively deprived by the 
Russians, Austrians, Greeks, Egyptians, and French — foreign foes or 
rebellious subjects—of large and valuable portions of its territory. 


CXXI. HELLAS OR GREECE. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Greece, or, as it is called by the natives, 
Hellas, is bounded north by Turkey, and on the other three sides by 
the sea. It is composed of the part of the continent lying south of a 
line drawn from the Gulf of Volo to the Gulf of Arta, and of a number 
of islands in the Archipelago. Its area is estimated at about 18,000 
square miles, with a population of 750,000 souls. 

2. Mountains. The whole country is covered with numerous moun¬ 
tainous ridges of considerable elevation, shooting off as spurs from the 
Pindus chain. Many of the summits are renowned in history. Mt 
5 s *® 5 ’VS feet, terminating at the Gulf of Zeitun, forms the celebrated 
defile of Thermopylae, a narrow pass between the mountain and the 


HELLAS OR GREECE. 363 


sea. Parnassus, now called Liakoura, 5,750 feet, Helicon 4,500 feet, 
Pentelicus, Hymettus, and Cithseron on the mainland, and Tavfretus in 
the peninsula of the Morea, are all famous in history. 

3. Rivers. The rivers are all small; the Aspropotamus or ancient 

Achelous, the Cephissus, the Alpheus, and the Eurotas are amon«- the 
principal. ° 

4. Bays and Straits. The Gulf of AEgina on the east, and the Gulf 
ot Lepantoor Corinth on the west, are separated only by the narrow 
isthmus of Corinth, and form the peninsula of the Morea, or Pelopon- 
ncsus. The Strait of Egripo, anciently Euripus, separates the island 
of Negropont from the mainland. The Gulf of Volo on the northeast, 
and that of Arta on the northwest, form part of the boundary of the 
kingdom. The gulfs of Nauplia, Coron, and Colokythia are in the 
south. 


5. Capes. Cape Matapan (anciently Taenarium) forms the southern 
extremity of the Morea, and is usually considered the most southerly 
point of Europe. Cape Colonna (anciently Sunium) is the southeast¬ 
ern extremity of Eastern Hellas, or the ancient Attica. 

6. Islands. Negropont is separated from the mainland by the Egripo, 
which in some places is only a few hundred feet wide, and is crossed 
by bridges. The island is fertile, abounding in corn, wine, oil, and honey. 
It is about 100 miles in length, by from six to twenty broad. 

The isles of Angina, and Coulouri or Salamis, in the Gulf of AEgina; 
of Hydra and Spetzia, famous naval stations, on the eastern coast of the 
Morea; Paros, rioted for its marble, and Antiparos for its beautiful grotto, 
glittering with stalactites, are among the other islands. The group to 
the northeast of Negropont are called the Northern Sporades; that 
which lies along the eastern coast of the Morea the Western Sporades, 
and the islands scattered along the southern entrance of the Archipelago, 
the Cyclades. 

7. Climate and Soil. The climate is agreeable and healthy, but 
severe or mild, according to the prevalence of mountain, valley, or 
plain. In the mountains of Arcadia, and the high plains of Thessaly, 
the winter is long and cold, and the higher mountains are covered with 
Alpine plants, while the finest tropical fruits flourish in the valleys. 
The islands enjoy a gentle sea breeze at night which tempers the heat 
of the day. The soil is in general fertile, often affording a rich pastur¬ 
age, where it is not suitable for tillage. 

8. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into ten districts or nomoi, 
which are subdivided into 48 eparchies.* 

9. Productions and Industry. The vine and olive have always been 
the most important articles of cultivation. The mulberry trees have 
long been carefully cultivated for the breeding of silk-worms. The rich 


* Nomoi. 

Argolis (Corinth, Hydra, Spetzia, Poros), 
Achaia and Elis, 

Messenia, 

Arcadia, 

Laconia, 

Acarnania and vEtoIia, 

Phocis and Locris, 

Attica (Bueotia, Angina), 

Euboea (with Northern Sporades), 
Cyclades, 


Capitals. 

Napoli or Nauplia. 
Patras. 

Cyparissa or Arcadia. 
Tripolitza. 

Misitras. 

Vrachori. 

Salona or Amphissa. 
Athens. 

Chalcis. 

Hermopolis in Syra. 


364 


HELLAS OR GREECE. 


aromatic herbs, with which the country abounds, supply food for innu¬ 
merable bees, whose honey and wax afford a considerable source of 
trade. The long ravages of the late revolutionary war have desolated 
a great part of the country, but wine, oil, silk, raisins, cunents, figs, 
oranges, maize, sugar, drugs, &c., are exported, and the commercial 
activity of the natives, combined with the central position of thecountiy 
and its numerous harbors, is gradually restoring its ancient prosperity. 

10. Towns. Athens, the capital, about five miles from the Gulf of 
Angina, is one of the most celebrated cities in the world; long the seat 
of ancient learning and art, and decorated with innumerable master¬ 
pieces of architecture and sculpture, it still retains in its ruins some 
traces of its past splendor; but it has suffered much during the late war 
of the revolution, having been several times attacked by the contending 
parties. The modern city occupies only the northern and central parts 
of the ancient Athens. Some vestiges of the ancient walls are visible; 
the Acropolis or citadel stands upon a high rock, and is still susceptible 
of defence, but its walls have often been renewed; within is the Parthe¬ 
non, the temple of Athene or Minerva, now in ruins; to the west is the 
Areiopagus or Mars’ Hill; below to the east stand the remains of the 
once splendid temple of Jupiter Olympius, which was one of the largest 
in Greece, combining Attic elegance with Oriental magnificence; it 
contained a famous colossal statue of Jupiter, made of gold and ivory. 
The temple of Theseus; the octagonal tower of the winds; the choragic 
monument of Lysicrates, called also the Lantern of Demosthenes; 
Adrian’s Gate, and some other edifices are in a more or less complete 
state of preservation. The population of Athens before the late war 
was about 15,000, but is now much reduced. 

In the neighborhood are Lepsina, the ancient Eleusis ; Marathon, a 
small village upon the plains of which the Persians were defeated by 
the Athenians, under Miltiades, B. C. 490; and Megaris, before the late 
war a flourishing town with 12,000 inhabitants, but now deserted. 

Livadia, near the lake Copais, has also been completely ruined by the 
war, previous to which it was a busy place, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
In its vicinity are the ruins of the ancient Thebes, once one of the most 
important cities of Greece. 

Salona in Phocis situated near Parnassus, has some manufacturing 
industry with from 5,000 to 8,000 inhabitants. In the neighborhood at 
the foot of Parnassus is Castri, the ancient Delphi, which contained the 
oracle of Apollo, resorted to in ancient times from all parts of the world. 
Here is the fountain of Castalia. 

Lepanto, Missolonghi, and Anatolico are in Acarnania and iEtolia, 
of which the capital is Vrachori. 

Nauplia or Napoli di Romania, the capital of Argolis, is the most im¬ 
portant town of the Morea, but its situation is unhealthy. It is the 
strongest fortress in Greece; its vast citadel is called the Gibraltar of the 
Archipelago. The town is meanly built and dirty. Population 12,000. 
In the neighborhood are the ruins of Argos, Mycenee, Tyrinthus, and 
Troezene. The Cyclopean walls, found in the vicinity of these places, 
composed of large blocks of stone, are of a remote, but unknown anti¬ 
quity. 

Tripolitza, capital of Arcadia, was the residence of the Turkish 
authorities, and the capital of the Morea, previous to the revolution; 
but its mosques, its seraglio, and castle have been destroyed, and its 


HELLAS OR GREECE. 


365 


population reduced to 2,000 or 1,500 souls. In the vicinity are the ruins 
of Tegsea and Megalopolis, ancient capitals of Arcadia, and of Mantinea, 
celebrated for the victory gained by Epaminondas over the Spartans. 

Mistra or Misitras, the capital of Laconia, was reduced to a heap of 
ruins by the Egyptian forces during the revolution. It is picturesquely 
situated at the foot of Mount Taygetus, and its citadel is still 'standing. 
The population does not exceed‘2,000 souls. The ruins of Sparta are 
in its vicinity. Monembasia or Napoli di Malvasia, important for its 
port and its fortifications, is noted for its excellent wines, called Malmsey. 

Modon, in the nomos of Messenia, is a small town, but has a good 
harbor, and is strongly fortified. Near it is the village of Navarino, 
in whose harbor the Turco-Egyptian fleet was destroyed by the com¬ 
bined Russian, English, and French fleet, in 1827. 

Calamata, in the same province, has hardly risen from its ruins, 
since the desolating campaign of the Egyptians in the Morea. Coron, 
which is also situated in Messenia, has a good harbor, and is stronfflv 
fortified. ° J 

Pyrgos, like Calamata, is beginning to recover from its late desola¬ 
tion. Near it are the ruins of Olympia in which the Olympic games 
were celebrated ; here was the magnificent temple of Jupiter Olympius, 
containing the colossal statue of the god, 60 feet high, made of gold and 
ivory by Phidias. 

Patras, the capital of Achaia, stands upon the shore of a gulf which 
bears its name. It is the centre of the commercial relations of the 
Morea with the rest of Europe, and contains 8,000 inhabitants. The 
monastery of Megaspilseon in the neighborhood is celebrated for its 
riches, its fortifications, and vast vaults; it contains 200 monks. Calav- 
rita, to the southeast, is a small town. 

Corinth, situated upon the isthmus of the same name, between two 
seas, once proverbial for its wealth and luxury, is now an inconsiderable 
place, but is rapidly recovering from the disasters of the war. Its cita¬ 
del, or Acrocorinth, is a fortress of great strength. In the neighboring 
district stand the ruins of the ancient Nemsea and Sicyon. 

Negropont or Egripo, situated on the straits of the same name, is 
united to the continent by a bridge. It is an important commercial 
town, with 10,000 inhabitants. 

Syra, on the island of the same name, is the capital of the Cyclades, 
and the principal commercial place in Greece. The commerce of 
Turkey, Europe, and Egypt with the whole kingdom centres here; 
the almonds of Scio, the wines of Naxos, the grapes of Patras, the 
oil and silk of the Morea, the wool of Rornelia, the rice of Alexandria, 
&c. are collected in its harbor, thronged with vessels. Here also the 
pirates, that long infested these seas, disposed of their ill got but rich 
merchandise. Population 25,000. 

Naxia, a small town on the island of Naxos, Milos, and Tinos are 
the other principal towns of the Cyclades. 

Hydra, on the island of the same name, is a well built town, with 
handsome houses and quays and clean streets, and 20,000 inhabitants. 
It formerly carried on an extensive commerce, which though injured 
by the war, is still considerable. The island, a barren rock without 
water, was settled by a number of fugitive Albanians, who became 
remarkable for their commercial enterprise and naval skill. The island 
of *3petzia, of a similar character and settled by the same nation, ac« 


366 IONIAN REPUBLIC AND MALTA. 

quired similar commercial importance, and the Hydriots and Spetziotd 
formed the chief naval force of the Greeks during the revolution. 

11. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are chiefly Greeks, with some 
Albanians, Jews, and Armenians. The Greeks are distinguished for 
their personal beauty; their complexion is dark, and clear, and their 
eyes large and dark. Their religion is that of the Greek church; their 
language, called the Romaic, is derived from that noblest of idioms, the 
ancient Greek. In character the Greeks have shown the influences 
of political circumstances. All of them retain the ingenuity, the intel¬ 
ligence, and the versatile temperament of their ancestors; some have 
kept alive their indomitable spirit of liberty in the mountains, and 
are fierce, warlike, and independent; while others in the plains or the 
cities, have been oppressed by barbarian conquerors, and have become 
artful, obsequious, mean, and treacherous. The great body of them are 
ignorant, and too often immoral. The long oppression of Turkish des¬ 
potism, and the sanguinary and desolating war of the revolution have 
at length been succeeded by a gleam of peace and freedom, but the - 
wounds of this unhappy country can be healed only by a permanent 
enjoyment of those blessings. Order is now restored, commerce 
revived, industry protected, institutions of education established, and 
the religion of Christ again become that of the government; in their 
train will follow peace, virtue, wealth, arts, and civilization. 

IS. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy, 
hereditary in the descendants of the Bavarian prince Otho, first king of 
Greece. 

13. History. Ancient Greece, the source of modern civilization, 
was divided into a number of petty republics, which were finally con¬ 
quered by the Romans. On the division of the Roman empire into 
two parts, Greece belonged to the eastern, or as it was afterward called 
the Greek empire; and on the overthrow of that state by the Turks, 
became a Turkish province. In 1821 the inhabitants revolted against 
their masters, and after a bloody struggle of eight years, achieved then' 
independence, with the aid of some of the Christian powers. 


CXXII. IONIAN REPUBLIC AND MALTA. 

1. Extent. The Republic of the United Ionian Isles consists of 
seven islands, and some islets or dependencies, lying between 36° and 
40° N. Lat., near the southern and western coast of Greece. They 
contain 1,000 square miles, and 180,000 inhabitants, chiefly Greeks, with 
some Italians and Jews. The state was erected in 1815, and placed 
under the protection of Great Britain. The lord high commissioner 
appointed by the British king is at the head of the administration, and 
the islands are garrisoned by British troops. There is a legislative as¬ 
sembly, composed of representatives, chosen by the landholders for the 
term of two years, and a senate, chosen by the assembly, forms an 
executive council. 

2. Divisions. The islands are Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca, 
Cephalonia, Zante, and Cerigo. 

Corfu, separated from Albania by a narrow strait, has an area of 220 
square miles, with 50,000 inhabitants. The town of Corfu, the capital 
of the republic, has a good harbor, and an active commerce, with 16,000 
inhabitants. 


367 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 

the lar S est of the S rou P> has an area of 350 square miles 
and 50,000 inhabitants. Its principal town, Argostoli, has 5000 inhabi¬ 
tants. A ridge of mountains crosses the island, the highest summit of 
which has an elevation of 5,400 feet. Ithaca is a small island between 
Cephalonia and the continent, with 8,000 inhabitants. 

Zante lies near the Morea, 17 miles southeast of Cephalonia. It has 
an area of 110 square miles and 40,000 inhabitants. The city of Zante, 
a handsomely built town, with a population of 20,000 souls, is the prin¬ 
cipal place in the republic. 

Cerigo, lies on the southern coast of the Morea; it is rather smaller 
than Zante, and is mountainous. The population is but 8,000. 

Santa Maura, which contains 17,000 inhabitants, is separated from 
the continent by a narrow channel. 

3. Productions. These islands produce wine, oil, currants, honey, 
and cotton. 

4. Malta. Malta lies about 60 miles south of Sicily, and is 20 miles 
long by 12 broad, having an area of 160 square miles. It was originally 
a barren rock, but much soil has been carried to it from Africa and 
Sicily, and it is now well cultivated, producing cotton, oranges, melous, 
and figs. The population is 80,000. The Maltese are of African origin, 
mixed with Greeks and Italians; they are frugal and industrious, but 
ignorant and vindictive. They speak a patois composed of Arabic, 
Greek, Italian, and other languages. The religion is Catholic. 

The capital Valletta, is remarkable for the magnificence of its build¬ 
ings, and the strength of its fortifications. The church of St. John, and 
the palace of the grand-master of the knights of St. John are noble 
buildings ; the latter contains a magnificent armory. The hotels of the 
knights, the great hospital, with its accommodations for 2,000 patients, 
who were attended by the knights, and its vessels of solid silver, and 
the immense granaries, cut out of the rock, and capable of containing 
corn enough to maintain the garrison for 20 years, are among the re- 
markable objects. Population 40,000. 

Gozzo is a small island separated from Malta by a narrow strait, and 
belongs also to the British. Population 14,000. 

These islands formerly belonged to the knights of St. John, a rich 
and powerful military order. They were taken from them by Napo¬ 
leon, on his way to Egypt, and were captured by the British, in J800. 


CXXIII. GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 

1. Boundanes and Extent. Europe is bounded north by the Arctic 
Ocean; east by the Ural Mountains, the river Ural, the Caspian Sea, 
the Black Sea, and the Archipelago; south by the Caucasus and the 
Mediterranean Sea, and west by tbe Atlantic Ocean. It lies between 
34° and 71° N. Lat., and between 10° W. and 64° E. Lon., exclusive of 
the islands; its greatest length from east to west is 3,300 miles ; its great¬ 
est breadth 2,500 miles; area 3,725,000 square miles; pop. 230,000,000. 

2. Seas and Gulfs. On the northern coast is the White Sea, a large 
and deep bay, but frozen over a considerable part of the year. 

Between Great Britain and the continent is the German Ocean, or 
North Sea, an arm bf which between Jutland and Norway is called 
the Scagerac; and another between Jutland and Sweden, takes the 


368 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 

name of the Cattegat. The German Ocean covers an extent of 200,000 
square miles, and is divided into two parts by the Dogger Bank. The 
navigation of this sea is dangerous, being exposed to violent and vari¬ 
able winds. Its encroachments upon its southern coast have formed 
the Gulf of Dollart and the Zuyder See. 

The Baltic Sea extends between Sweden and Russia, and Germany. 
It is 600 miles long, and has an area of 120,000 square miles. In many 
places it is shallow, and it is exposed to sudden changes of the wind 
and violent storms; its tides are inconsiderable, and it discharges its 
waters through the Sound and the two Belts into the ocean. The gulfs 
of Bothnia and Finland are its principal arms. 

The Bay of Biscay is an open bay on the western coast. The Med¬ 
iterranean Sea is a large inland body of water, about 2,000 miles in 
length and varying from 200 to 800 in breadth, covering an area of 
1,000,000 square miles. The tides in this sea are slight, nowhere ex¬ 
ceeding two feet. A strong current through the Dardanelles, brings 
the waters of the Black Sea into this basin, and while a central current 
sets into it through the Straits of Gibraltar from the Atlantic Ocean, 
two lateral currents pour its waters through that channel into the 
ocean. The Adriatic Sea or the Gulf of Venice, and the Archipelago 
are its principal arms. 

The Black Sea is a sort of large lake between Europe and Asia, which 
discharges its waters by the Bosphorus, through the sea of Marmora 
and the Dardanelles into the Mediterranean. Including the sea of 
Asoph, which is properly a gulf of the Black Sea, the latter covers an 
area of 300,000 square miles. It is so tempestuous and boisterous as 
to be difficult of navigation. 

3. Mountains. Fosr great systems of mountains spread their nu¬ 
merous branches over this continent. The Pyrenees separate France 
and Spain, and extend in several parallel chains through the peninsula; 
their greatest elevations are from 10,000 to 11,400 feet. The Alps are 
the principal trunk of the second great European system of mountains, 
whose branches stretch into France, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Tur¬ 
key, and Greece. The Vosges, the Jura, and the Cevennes in France 
are its western spurs. The Alps, which extend between France and 
Italy, and the latter and Switzerland, send off a long southern chain 
through Italy, under the name of the Apennines, and stretching easter¬ 
ly through the country to the south of the Danube, reach the Black 
Sea under the name of the Balkan, and the Morea under the name of 
the Pindus. The highest summits are in Switzerland and Savoy, and 
attain an elevation of from 14,000 to 15,730 feet. A third mountainous 
system is the Carpathian, which nearly surrounds Hungary, and ex¬ 
tends along the frontiers of Moldavia, sending off several low ranges 
into Germany. Its highest summit is not quite 10,000 feet high. The 
fourth system of mountains is the Scandinavian, which traverses the 
peninsula of Scandinavia, and nowhere exceeds an elevation of 8,500 
feet. 

4. Capes. The most northerly extremity of the mainland is North 
Kyn in Finmark; Cape North is the extreme point of Mageroe, an 
island of Norway. Cape Skagen or the Skaw, the northern extremity 
of Jutland, gives name to the Scagerac. Cape Lindesnaes or the Naze is 
the southern point of Sweden. Cape Wrath on the northern coast of 
Scotland, Cape Clear in Ireland, and Lands End in England are the 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 


369 


most noted capes of the British Isles. Cape La Hogue on the north¬ 
west coast of France, Cape Finisterre in Spain, capes Roea and St. 
Vincent in Portugal, project into the Atlantic Ocean. Cape Spartiven- 
to in Italy, and Cape Matapan in Greece, are the principal points in 
the Mediterranean. 

5. Peninsulas. Europe is much indented by arms of the sea, 
which form numerous peninsulas. The Scandinavian peninsula com¬ 
prising Norway, Sweden, and Lapland is the largest; the isthmus, 
between the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea, is less than 200 miles 
across. The peninsula of Jutland is much smaller. In the south, 
Spain and Portugal form a large peninsula, with an isthmus of about 
220 miles across. Italy, the Morea, joined to the continent by the nar¬ 
row isthmus of Corinth, and the Crimea projecting into the Black Sea, 
are the other most remarkable projections of this nature. 

6. Islands. The principal islands are the groups of Nova Zembla 
and Spitzbergen in the Arctic Ocean ; the British Archipelago, compris¬ 
ing Great Britain, Ireland, and the adjoining isles, on the western coast; 
and Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily'', and Candia in the Mediterranean. Most 
of these have already been described. 

Candia, anciently Crete, belongs politically to Africa, as it now forms 
a part of the Egyptian state. It is 160 miles long and from 15 to 50 
broad, with an area of 4,000 square miles, and 275,000 inhabitants. 
Enjoying a fine climate, excellent harbors, and a favorable position, 
Candia has been deprived of the benefit of its natural advantages, by 
Turkish tyranny. The chief town is Candia with 15,000 inhabitants, 
much declined from its former prosperity and splendor. Canea is at 
present the most commercial place in the island ; it has 12,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. Sphakia is remarkable as the chief place of a district inhabited 
by a warlike people, called Sphakiots, who have preserved their inde¬ 
pendence. 

The Azores in the Atlantic, midway between Europe and America, 
are by some geographers, considered as belonging to Europe, to which 
they are politically attached, being a Portuguese colony. The group 
consists of nine small islands, with about 200,000 inhabitants. The 
principal are St. Michael’s, Terceira, Pico, and Fayal. Angra, on Ter- 
ceira, is the capital, and has a population of 16,000. Ponta Delgada on 
St. Michaels, has about 18,000 inhabitants. 

7. Rivers. The principal river of Europe is the Volga, the only 
stream whose course exceeds 2,000 miles in length. The Danube was 
long considered the largest European river, but it has a course of less 
than 1,600 miles. The Danube rises in the Black Forest in Baden, 
becomes navigable at Ulm in Bavaria, passes through the Austrian em¬ 
pire, and separates Austria, Walachia, and Russia from the Ottoman 
empire; after receiving 30 navigable streams, it enters the Black Sea by 
five principal mouths. The Dniester, the Don, the Vistula, the Niem- 
en, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine, the Loire, and the Rhone are the 
next most considerable rivers of Europe. 

8. Face of the Counti'y. The central part of this continent is in gen¬ 
eral mountainous. The whole northern part extending from London 
and Paris to Kazan, and comprising the northern part of France and 
Germany, the Dutch and Belgian Netherlands, Prussia, Poland, and a 
great part of Russia is a vast plain, little elevated above the level of the 
sea, and scarcely broken by any considerable elevations. There are 

24 <** 


370 


GENERAL VIEW OP EUROPE, 

several elevated plains or plateaus in Europe, but of no great extent. 
The Swiss plateau, lying between the Jura and the Alps, has an eleva¬ 
tion of from 1,800 to‘4,000 feet. Central Spain forms an elevated table 
land, 2,200 feet high, and the central part of Russia forms a similar 
plateau about 1200 feet high. 

9. Climate. In generafthe climate of southern Europe may be des¬ 
cribed as mild, and that of the north, severe, with long and cold win¬ 
ters, and hot but short summers. The climate of the western coast is, 
however, tempered by the vicinity of the ocean, and the same cause 
renders it liable to sudden and violent changes. That of the eastern 
part of the continent is rendered much colder, in corresponding lati¬ 
tudes, by its exposure to the icy winds of northern and central Asia. 
The heat brought by the burning winds of the African deserts to the 
southern countries, is in general tempered by their great exposure to 
the sea, occasioned by their peninsular formation. The mountains of 
Switzerland, Spain, and Hungary also modify the character of the 
climate in the extensive districts, which they cover. 

10. Minerals. Europe is less rich in the precious minerals than the 
other quarters of the globe, but it produces great quantities of coal, 
iron, lead, tin, copper, and salt. Gold, silver, platina (in the Ural Moun¬ 
tains), and mercury or quicksilver, which is of great importance in 
working gold and silver mines, and diamonds (Ural Mountains) and 
some other precious stones are also found in considerable quantities. 

11. Animals. The wild hull is chiefly met with in the extensive 
forests of Lithuania. It is black and of great size; the eyes are red 
and fiery; the horns thick and short, and the forehead covered with a 
quantity of curled hair. This animal resembles the tame kind. 

The moufflon is considered as a link between the sheep and goat, 
resembling both of them. It is found in Greece, Sardinia, and Cor¬ 
sica. It is strong and muscular, and runs with great agility over the 
most dangerous precipices. It is timid and seldom taken alive. 

The ibex inhabits the highest Alps, and is found also in Candia, it 
is very wild and the chase of it is attended with great danger. 

The chamois is very abundant in the mountainous parts of Europe, 
where it is found in flocks among the rocks. The hunting of this 
animal is very laborious and difficult, but followed with great ardor by 
the hunters, who frequently lose their lives in the pursuit. 

The elk is the largest of the deer kind of Europe. It inhabits the 
northern parts. It is seven or eight feet high, and its horns are of a 
large size. It is timid and inoffensive, and runs with great swiftness 
in a high shambling kind of trot. 

The reindeer inhabits the northern regions of Europe, and is of 
the greatest importance to the inhabitants, particularly to the Lapland¬ 
ers, who derive from it all the necessaries of life. 

The stag or red deer is found in the forests and mountains of the 
north of Europe; it is not as numerous in its wild state as formerly 
in England, but many of them are kept in parks. The hunting of the 
stag has always been a favorite diversion. 

The fallow-deer differs from the stag in the size and form of its 
horns, but in other respects these two animals are nearly the same. 
The fallow-deer is found in nearly all the countries of Europe, with 
a slight variation of color. 

The roe-buck was formerly common in England and Wales, but 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 371 

it is now only found in the Highlands of Scotland, and other north¬ 
ern parts of Europe. It. is the smallest of the European deer, elegant 
m its form, and light and easy in its movements. It runs with great 
swiftness, and shows great artifice in eluding its pursuers. 

The wild boar is the original stock of the varieties of the hog. 
He is nearly black, and armed with formidable tusks in each jaw. 
He will not attack an animal if unprovoked. The hunting of the 
wild boar is a dangerous but common amusement, in the countries 
where he is found. 

The lynx is very common in the north of Europe, and its fur is 
valuable for its softness and warmth. It is a long-lived, destructive 
animal, lives by hunting, and pursues its prey to the tops of the highest 
trees. Its sight is remarkably acute, and it sees its prey at a great 
distance. 

The wild-cat exists with little variety in every climate of Europe, 
where it frequents the mountainous and woody regions, living in trees 
and hunting small birds and animals. It is fierce, and defends itself 
with great spirit from any attack. It is larger and stronger than the 
tame cat, and its fur is much longer. 

The weasel is common. 

The stoat is often met with in the northern part3 of Europe, and 
is of a yellowish brown color in the summer, and nearly white in 
winter, when it is called ermine. It is then much sought after for its 
valuable fur, which makes a considerable article of commerce. It 
resembles the weasel in its habits and manners. 

The pine weasel is found in the north of Europe, living in large 
forests, and feeding on the tops and seeds of pine trees. The skins of 
these animals form an article of commerce. 

The marten is common, and lives wholly in the woods and feed on 
small animals and birds. 

The sable is highly esteemed for its fur, and is a native of the cold 
regions of the north. It lives in holes in the earth by the banks of 
rivers, and is very lively and active in pursuit of its prey. Immense 
numbers of them are taken in Russia. 

The polecat resembles the marten in appearance, but differs from 
it in having a most offensive smell. 

The genet is met with in Turkey and Spain, where it is found to 
be useful in destroying rats, mice, and other vermin. It yields an 
agreeable perfume. 

The badger is a native of the temperate climates of Europe, but 
does not exist in warm countries. It is an indolent animal and sleeps 
much, and feeds only in the night. It lives in holes in the ground, and 
subsists on roots, fruits, grass, and insects. Its skin and hair are used 
for various purposes. _ 

The glutton or wolverene is found in the northern countries ot 
Europe. It is famous for its gluttony and strength. It attacks large 
animals by fastening itself on their necks; it then sucks their blood 
and devours the flesh. It is hunted for its skin, which is very va - 

uable. . 

The brown bear is found in almost every climate, and is a savage 
and solitary animal, living in inaccessible precipices and unfrequented 
places. This animal will climb trees and devour fruit in great quan¬ 
tities. It climbs these trees with surprising agility, keeps itself firm 


372 GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 

on the branches with one paw, and with the other, collects the fruiu 
It is remarkably fond of honey, which it will encounter great difficul¬ 
ties to obtain. Its voice is a deep and surly growl, and it is easily irri¬ 
tated. It is often tamed and taught to perform various tricks. 

The black bear and the white bear are found in the northern parts 
of Europe. 

The fox is spread over Europe, and every where displays the same 
activity and cunning. The chase of the fox is a very favorite diver¬ 
sion in Great Britain, where it is pursued with great ardor. The 
grey-hound fox is found in the mountainous parts of England and 
Scotland. He is very bold and wild in his appearance. The cur 
fox is-the most common and the smallest species. It lurks about the 
houses, and steals every thing within its reach. It is very playful and 
familiar when tamed. The black fox is found in Russia and its skin 
is esteemed superior to the finest sable. The cross fox is found in 
the coldest parts of Europe, where its fur is very valuable. The 
Arctic fox is found in the frozen regions of the north, and is of a 
whitish color. It burrows in the ground, and sometimes lives in clefts 
of rocks. 

The wolf is common in Europe. Its appetite for every kind of 
animal food is excessive, and when hungry it will attack all sorts of 
animals; even man himself has sometimes fallen a victim to its ra¬ 
pacity. 

The jackal is found in Greece. It goes in packs and hunts like a 
hound in full cry. It destroys poultry and flocks, and carries off all 
it can find. It also seeks for "dead bodies and devours them. It hides 
in holes during the day, but hunts its prey in the night. 

The hare is a harmless and inoffensive animal, fearful of every 
danger, but provided with means of eluding its pursuers by its great 
swiftness. It is much hunted by man and by beasts of prey, and is 
seldom permitted to enjoy a long life. It is found in all parts of 
Europe. The Alpine hare changes in winter from gray to white. 
It lives in the mountains of the north of Europe. It is easily tamed, 
and is very playful and frolicsome. 

The rabbit, though it resembles the hare in appearance, differs 
from it in its habits and propensities. It is common in various parts 
of Europe, and abounds in Great Britain, where its skin is used in the 
manufacture of hats. 

Squirrels. The gray squirrel is common in the northern countries 
of Europe, and changes its color in the winter. Its tail is long and 
bushy. It makes its nest in hollow trees, and lays up stores of pro¬ 
visions for winter use. Its fur is valuable. The fat squirrel is 
found in France and the southern parts of Europe. It is of an ash 
color and its fur is very soft. The greater dormouse is common in 
the south of Europe, where it infests gardens, and lodges in holes in 
walls. It is destructive to fruit. The lesser dormouse lives in 
woody or thick hedges, and makes its nest with grass or dried leaves. 
The flying squirrel is found in the northern regions of Europe ; it 
sleeps in the day, but is extremely active at night. It takes leaps of 
twenty or thirty yards. 

Marmots. The marmot inhabits the highest regions of the Alps, 
and is likewise found in Poland. It lives in holes formed in the side 
of a mountain. There are two entrances to each, and the chambers 










MOUNTAINS OP EUROPE 



British Island* — 1 . Cheviot Hills, England,3,000 feet.— 2. Snowdon Wales 3 557 
do.— 3. Ben Nevis,Scotland, 4,380do. — 4. Carran Tual Ireland 3 ,55? 

-5. Auvergne, 6,230 do.-6. Vosges, 4680.- S,a 

Range, 11,660 feet. — 8. La Maladetta, highest of Andalusian 11 4 5 do ’ N»pi 
9. Mt. Corno, or Cavallo, 9,520 do.-10. Vesuvius, (volcaniiTri 450 do l7 
or Mongihello, (volcanic,) 10,870 do.- Sardinia — 12. Mt. Olan 13 819 feet M 
erland — 13. Finsteraarhorn, 14,111 feet. - 14. Mt Blanc *1 5 730 df m 

-18’ OrUer ]3 ’ 718 ?n°'7 17 * ? hetian A1 ^> S do!-A ustria 

8,120* do -’GERMANv-ii Ha£z YesS* fee^ - 20 ; Sneehmtan, 

Chain, 10,000 do. ’ ’ 22 ' H, S hest Summit, of Carpathian 













































































ANIMALS OF EUROPE. 



1. Wild Bull. 

2. Stag. 

3 Wild Boar, 

4. Fallow Deer. 
5„ Rein Deer 

6. Brown Bear. 


7. Ibex. 

8. Chamois. 

9. Lynx. 

10. Wild Cat. 

11. Roe Buck. 

12. Mouflon. 


13. Great Bustard. 

14. Stork. 

15. Lammergeyer. 

16. Falcon. 

17. Nightingale. 

18. Marmot. 

































































































































































































































373 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 

to which they lead are deep and spacious. In winter they shut up the 
entrance to their holes, roll themselves up in hay, and lie torpid till the 
warm season. The lapland marmot or leming is found in the north¬ 
ern parts of Europe in immense numbers; in their march from one 
place to another, they go straight forwards, swim lakes and rivers, and 
overcome every obstacle, or die in the attempt. Their march is mostly 
in the night. They rest during the day and devour all the herbage 
that they meet with. 

The hamster is found in various parts of Germany and Poland. It 
is of the size of a large water rat. It lives in the ground, where it lays 
up a great store of provisions for the winter. 

The souslik is about the size of a large rat; it is found on the banks 
of the Volga, and burrows in the ground. The rat is of two kinds, the 
black and the brown ; the last is known by the name of the Norway 
rat. The water rat frequents the sides of rivers, ponds, and ditches, 
where it burrows arid forms its nest. The Muscovy musk rat is a na¬ 
tive of Lapland and Russia, where it frequents the banks of rivers and 
feeds on small fish. It has a strong flavor of musk. 

The beaver is found in the northern parts of Europe. The mouse 
is well known over all parts of the world. It is sometimes of a pure 
white color. The long and short tailed field mouse is found only 
in fields and gardens, where it feeds on nuts, corn, and acorns. The 
mole is found in wet and soft soil, where it burrows with remarkable 
quickness with its broad and strong paws. It is very injurious to mea¬ 
dows and cultivated grounds. 

The hedgehog resides in thickets and hedges, and lives on fruit, 
worms, beetles, and insects; it conceals itself in the day and feeds dur¬ 
ing the night. It is provided by nature with a spinous armor, which 
secures it from the attacks of all the smaller beasts of prey. 

The otter is found in most parts of the world. The sea otter is 
found in the northern parts of Europe. Its skin is of great value, and 
is of a beautiful, shining, black color. 

Birds in general are less restricted to particular regions than quadru¬ 
peds, and most of those of Europe are, therefore, common to the other 
continents of the eastern hemisphere, and some even to the western hem¬ 
isphere. Many species of eagles, vultures, hawks, owls, and other noc¬ 
turnal and diurnal birds of prey abound, but chiefly in mountainous or 
wooded regions. The laminergeyer is a large species of vulture found 
in the Alps. The falcon, a species of hawk, is trained to pursue game. 
The raven, crow, rook, jackdaw, magpie, starling, &c., belong to kindred 
tribes. The various species of lark, thrush, and warbler are distinguish¬ 
ed for their song; to the latter, belongs the nightingale. The cuckoo, 
wryneck, and woodpecker are numerous. Of the gallinaceous birds 
there are several valuable species; such as the grouse, including the 
blackcock, the moor-lien, and the ptarmigan, the pheasant, the partridge, 
quail, &.c. The great bustard is the largest of the European land birds, 
being about four feet in length ; it runs with rapidity, but flies with 
difficulty. The crane and the stork are common ; the latter breeds 
chiefly in cities, where its presence is considered desirable; it may be 
seen unmolested in the streets and upon the houses, and is serviceable 
as a scavenger. The ortolan is a little bird, highly esteemed as a luxury. 
The water fowl are various and numerous. The domestic fowls are 
the same as in this country. 


374 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 


The reptiles and insects of Europe are not very numerous. 

12. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Europe belong to twenty dif¬ 
ferent races, but five of these comprise the great bulk of the population. 
1. The German or Teutonic race comprises the Germans, Dutch, Danes, 
Swedes, Norwegians, English, and a part of the Swiss; these people 
speak Teutonic dialects. 2. The Greco-Latin race comprises the 
Greeks, Albanians, Walachians, Italians, French, Spaniards, and Por¬ 
tuguese, with a part of the Swiss. 3. The Sclavonic race embraces 
the Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Bohemians, Servians, Bosnians, 
Dalmatians, Bulgarians, with the Wends of Prussia, the Sorbians of 
Prussia and Saxony, the Lettes of Russia, &c. These three races are 
the most numerous. 4. To the Uralian or Finnic race belong the Finns, 
Laplanders, Esthonians, Magyars or Hungarians, and some smaller 
tribes in Russia. 5. The Turkish race comprises the Ottoman Turks 
or ruling people of Turkey, the Turcomans of the same empire, and 
several tribes often called Tartars in Russia. 

Beside these principal races are the Biscayans of Spain; the Celts, 
comprising the Highlanders of Scotland, the native Irish, the Welsh, and 
the Bretons of western France ; the Samoiedes; the Monguls, of whom 
the only tribe are the Cal mucks of Russia ; Jews ; Armenians; Gypsies, 
&c. The Gypsies, called Bohemians in France, Gitanos in Spain, and 
Zigeuner in Germany, area roving tribe supposed to be originally from 
Hindostan; they are scattered all over Europe, and their number is 
estimated at 600,000 or 800,000. They live sometimes in tents, often in 
caves, or in huts half under ground, and covered with sods. They 
rarely pursue any regular trade, but are often jugglers, fortune-tellers, 
&c. They have a peculiar language, but no religion. 

13. Religion. There are three great monotheistical systems of reli¬ 
gious belief predominant in Europe, viz: 

i. Christianity, of which the principal seat and centre, though not 
its birth-place, is Europe. The Christian nations in Europe, are divid¬ 
ed into three leading sects, viz. 1st. The Greek Catholic, or Eastern 
Church, which prevails in Greece, part of Albania and Bulgaria, in 
Servia, Sclavonia, Croatia, Walachia, Moldavia, Russia, &c. 2d. The 

Latin or Roman Catholic Church, of which the Pope, one of the sove¬ 
reign powers of Europe, is the head. This creed is predominant in 
Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Austria, the half of Germany and of 
Switzerland, Belgium, Poland, and Ireland, and numbers some adherents 
in Great Britain, Holland and Turkey. 3d. The Protestant Church, 
which predominates, under different creeds, in Denmark, Sweden, 
Norway, Great Britain, Prussia, a part of Germany and of Switzerland. 
This faith has also numerous professbrs in Hungary, Transylvania, and 
France. Its principal branches are the Lutheran, the Presbyterian or 
Reformed, and the Episcopalian Churches, ii. Mahometanism, or 
Islamism, is professed by the Turks, in. The Mosaic or Jewish reli¬ 
gion. There are about 2,500,000 Jews scattered throughout Europe. 
They are not tolerated in Spain, Portugal, and Norway. In the Aus¬ 
trian States they have few privileges. In Great Britain their situation 
is not quite satisfactory. In Russia the laws relating to them have re¬ 
cently become very intolerant. In the States of the German confedera¬ 
tion, in France, Prussia, and the Low Countries, they enjoy the rights 
of citizens, and, in Poland, they are eligible to public employments. 
The Cal mucks, and many of the Samoiedes are Pagans. 


GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 


375 


14. Classes of Society. In almost every European State, we find the 
citizens divided into four distinct classes. The first is that of the nobility, 
which exists in nearly every State, with the exception of Norway and 
the Turkish empire. Nobility is, in most cases, viewed in Europe as 
n hereditary rank ; but it can be acquired by the will of the sovereign, 
and in some instances, purchased by money. The clergy form the 
second class of the community. The third is that of the citizens, or 
inhabitants of towns, which in most countries enjoys peculiar rights 
and privileges. The fourth and lowest class includes the peasants, and 
forms the mass of the population in every country. 

15. Industry and Commerce. With the exception of the Calmucks, 
Nogays, Lapponians, and Samoiedes, in Russia, who yet lead the life 
of herdsmen or hunters, all the nations of Europe have been permanent¬ 
ly settled for many centuries. The cultivation of the soil has therefore 
been carried to great perfection in this part of the earth. Husbandry 
is pursued with the greatest industry in the British empire, the Nether¬ 
lands, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, some parts of Italy, Denmark, 
and Sweden. The agriculture of the east of England and Scotland, 
the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and the northern parts of France 
and Italy, is most distinguished ; although Russia, Hungary, and Poland, 
whose agriculture is not nearly so advanced, are the granaries of Eu¬ 
rope. The raising of cattle is in some countries pursued only in con¬ 
nection with agriculture; in the mountainous districts alone it forms 
the principal branch of rural industry. 

The cultivation of fruits belongs to the temperate districts, particularly 
France and Germany; but the finer fruits can only be extensively reared 
in the southern parts of Europe. The manufacture of wine is most 
considerable in France, the south of Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portu¬ 
gal, Italy, and the Turkish empire. The finest kinds arc produced in 
Hungary near Tokay, in Champagne, and Burgundy, upon the banks 
of the Rhine, Rhone, Moselle, and Garonne,'in Spain, the two Sicilies, 
the banks of the Upper Douro, and .some islands of the ^Egean Sea. 
The olive belongs to the warmer regions, particularly Naples, Greece, 
and Spain; the other vegetable oils are produced in the temperate parts 
of Europe. The breeding of silk-worms is also peculiar to warmer 
climates, and is chiefly carried on in Lombardy. The cultivation of 
forests has been greatly neglected in most countries, and in many a 
want of wood begins to be felt, although Europe is on the whole well- 
stocked with wood. 

The fisheries are important to the coast-nations of Europe, who take 
herrings, tunnies, anchovies, mackerels, and other fish, from the sur¬ 
rounding seas. Hunting forms a principal occupation only of a few 
small tribes in Russia. Mining is conducted with great skill in England, 
Germany, Hungary, and Sweden. The river fisheries are also important. 

European industry is rivaled by no other part of the world, either in 
the diversity or the extent of its productions, although the Japanese and 
Chinese have cultivated some branches of art for many thousand years. 
Europe not only manufactures its own raw produce, but also that of 
almost every other region of the earth. The principal seats of European 
industry are Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, 
and Switzerland. The best woollen fabrics are made in England and 
France; cotton in England, Saxony, and France; linen in Germany; 
lace in Brabant; silks in France; paper in Holland and Switzerland; 


376 


ASIATIC RUSSIA. 


leather in Turkey and Russia; china in Germany; earthen-ware in 
England and France; glass in Bohemia and England ; hard-wares in 
England ; straw-hats in Italy ; and jewelry-work in France, Germany, 
and England. 

The internal commerce of Europe is carried on in all countries with 
considerable animation, and is facilitated by well constructed high-roads 
and canals, which are particularly good in the British empire, the Neth¬ 
erlands, Belgium, France, Lombardy, Prussia, and Russia. The British, 
French, Danes, Dutch,and Swedes, are most distinguished in commercial 
navigation. But no nation can in this respect be compared with Great 
Britain, whose fleets are in every sea, and colonies in almost every re¬ 
gion of the earth. As a medium of exchange, all European states 
coin money. Many states likewise support a paper-currency, the 
value of which is maintained by public credit. 

16. Political Divisions. Europe comprises three empires; Austria, 
Russia, and the Ottoman empire: one elective ecclesiastical monarchy, 
the Papal State: 16 kingdoms; Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden, 
Denmark, Prussia, Hanover, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Wur- 
temberg, Bavaria, Saxony, Sardinia, Naples, Greece, Spain, and Portu¬ 
gal: seven grand-duchies, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Saxe-Weimar, 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Tusca¬ 
ny: one electorate, Hesse-Cassel, the sovereign of which though styled 
grand-duke by the congress of Vienna, retains his former title of elec¬ 
tor: 11 duchies; 15 principalities: one landgraviate, Hesse-Homburg; 
lordship, one Kniphausen: and nine republics. The last mentioned 
are mostly based on aristocratical principles. Of the other states it may 
be observed, that in regard to government they are monarchies, bearing 
different designations merely in reference to the titles of the respective 
sovereigns. There are several provinces or countries which are also 
styled kingdoms, but do not form independent states ; as the kingdom 
of Norway, forming part of the Swedish monarchy; that of Poland, 
in the Russian empire ; of Hungary, in the Austrian empire, &c. 


CXXIV. ASIATIC RUSSIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. The Asiatic dominions of Russia are 
bounded' on the north by the Arctic Ocean: east by Behring’s Strait, 
the sea of Okotsk, and the Pacific Ocean ; south by the Chinese empire, 
Turkistan, Persia, the Caspian Sea, and Ottoman Asia; and west, by 
the Black Sea, and the Ural River and Mountains, which separate it 
from European Russia. They extend from Lat. 38° to 78° N., and 
from Lon. 36° E., to 171 W., having an area of 5,350,000 square miles, 
with a population of about four mill ion inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The Ural Mountains on the western frontier, stretch 
from north to south for a great distance, but nowhere attain a very 
great elevation, the highest summits not exceeding 5,200 feet in height. 
The Altai Mountains stretch from east to west along the southern fron¬ 
tier, forming in part the boundary between the Russian and Chinese 
empires. This chain surrounds the sources of the Irtish and the Yen- 
issey under the name of the Sayanian mountains; further east it ex¬ 
tends in a northeasterly direction along the western coast of the sea of 
Okotsk under the name of the Stanovoy mountains, and traverses the 


ASIATIC RUSSIA. 


377 


peninsula of Kamschatka, where it presents a series of active volcanoes. 
The highest summits of this great mass of mountains are from 10,000 
to 12,000 feet high. Between the Caspian and Black seas are the Cau¬ 
casian Mountains rising to an elevation of from 15,000 to 18,000 feet. 

3. Rivers and Lakes. The Ob or Oby rises in the Altai Mountains, 
becomes navigable in the government of Tomsk, receives the Irtish, a 
large navigable river 1,600 miles in length, and enters the Arctic Ocean 
after a course of 2,400 miles. The Yenissey, the largest river of the 
eastern hemisphere, also rises in the Altaian chain, in the Chinese em¬ 
pire, passes through Lake Baikal, and taking a northerly direction 
flows into the Arctic Ocean ; it is about 2,700 miles in leugth. The 
Lena also rises in the same mountains, and empties itself into the same 
sea, after receiving numerous large tributaries, during a course of up¬ 
wards of 2,000 miles. The Kolyma, the Anadyr, and the Kamskatka 
are also large rivers. The Kur, which receives the Araxes, flows into 
the Caspian Sea. The Ural, which also flows into the Caspian Sea, 
rises on the eastern declivity of the mountains of the same name, and 
has a course of about 1,500 miles. 

Of the lakes the principal is Lake Baikal, which is, the largest in Asia, 
being upwards of 400 miles long and from 15 to 50 broad; it is of, 
great depth, but contains numerous shoals. 

4. Steppes. The whole of the northern part of the country from the 
Ural to the ocean is a vast steppe, or level desert, interspersed with ex¬ 
tensive marshy tracts, and some productive districts. Similar levels 
are found in the southwestern part, but of inferior extent. 

5. Minerals. Gold, silver, platina, diamonds, and other precious 
stones, with iron, lead, and copper are found in the Ural and Altai 
Mountains. Salt is found in abundance in the steppes. 

6. Climate and Soil. The whole of northern Asia from the Altaian 
Mountains to the Arctic Ocean is exposed to all the rigors of the polar 
winds, and contains vast tracts of sterile land. In the Caucasian prov¬ 
inces the temperature is mild, and the air dry and serene. 

7. Divisions. The country between the Caspian and Black seas, 
called by geographers the Caucasian region, is politically divided into 
12 provinces, and several districts which are only nominally dependent 
upon the Russian government. The vast region to the east of the 
Ural Mountains is known geographically under the name of Siberia, 
but is politically divided into the four governments of Tobolsk, Yenis- 
seisk, Tomsk, and Irkoutsk, the two provinces of Omsk and Yakoutsk, 
the two districts of Okotsk, and Kamschatka, the land of the Kirghises, 
and the land of the Tchuktchi. 

8. Towns. Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, is a handsome town with 
spacious streets and squares, large barracks and caravanseries, and 
some elegant public buildings. It has 20,000 inhabitants. Erivan is 
the capital of Armenia, a Persian province lately conquered by Russia. 
It suffered much during the war, but has 12,000 inhabitants, and is the 
residence of the Armenian patriarch. 

Chamaki, the capital of Shirvan, and formerly a great commercial 
emporium of this part of Asia, has about 15,000 inhabitants. 

Tobolsk, on the Irtish, is, like the other towns of Siberia, built chiefly 
of wood, and is liable to be inundated by the river. The streets are 
covered with thick planks. The population is about 25,000, engaged 
in carrying on an extensive trade, and manufactures of leather, soap, 


378 


ASIATIC RUSSIA. 


and surgical instruments. In the spring the Russian traders arrive 
here on their way to the remote regions of Siberia, and in the autumn 
return hither to wait till the weather enables them to transport their 
goods on sledges into Europe. Caravans of Calmucks and Bucharians 
also spend the winter here. 

Irkoutsk is the chief place of Eastern Siberia, and is a large town 
with 25,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures, its learned institutions, and 
its active commerce give it a European appearance. 

Kiakta, upon the Russian frontier, is a place of much trade and 
great wealth. 

Yakoutsk, with 3,000 inhabitants, carries on the fur trade to a great 
extent, and has several important fairs. 

Tomsk, capital of the government of the same.name, is situated upon 
the great route to China, and has an active trade, with some manu¬ 
factures. Population 10,000. Kolyvan, a small town in the same 
government, is the centre of a rich silver mine district. 

Okotsk, capital of the district of the same name, and Petropvlosk, 
capital of Kamschatka, are small towns with about 1,000 inhabitants. 

9. Industry. The whole country is thinly peopled, and in many parts 
inhabited only by rude tribes of hunters or fishermen, or occupied by 
wandering shepherds. The manufactures are few and inconsiderable, 
and agriculture is little attended to, but the trade with China, Turkis- 
tan, Persia, Turkey, and European Russia is active and important. 

10. Inhabitants. This vast country contains more than 100 tribes, 
differing in manners, language, and religion. The Russians and other 
settlers from Europe are chiefly in the towns and military stations. 
There are many Tartars, and colonies of them north of the Caspian 
and the Caucasus. The Calmucks are perhaps the most peculiar race 
in the empire. They are of a dark color and athletic form. They 
have high cheek bones, small eyes distant from each other, and enor¬ 
mous ears. The Tungooses occupy the central parts of Siberia. In 
the northern regions there are Finns and Samoiedes; the latter are 
short in stature, seldom exceeding five feet, and often but four. They 
have short legs, large flat heads, wide mouths, large ears, small angu¬ 
larly placed eyes, and black and bristly hair. Their complexion is an 
olive. The Yakouts are a large tribe on the river Lena. The Georg¬ 
ians and Circassians are a well formed race of men, and the females 
are renowned for beauty. They have fair complexions, regular fea¬ 
tures, and commanding forms. The Circassians have slender waists, 
and these in the men are rendered more so by alight sword belt, which 
they constantly wear. Besides these tribes or peoples, there are many 
foreigners, as Germans, Poles, Swedes, Armenians, together with a 
few Hindoos, Gypsies, and Jews. 

11. Rdigion. Most of the inhabitants are Christians of the Gredk 
church ; but there are many Mahometans among the Tartar tribes; and 
the Samoiedes, Yakouts, Tungooses, and some others are idolaters. 
The Calmucks^re Buddhists. 

12. Character , Manners. Among a people so various as the inhabi¬ 
tants of Asiatic Russia, there must be a great diversity of manners and 
customs. In some of the towns of Siberia there is considerable intel¬ 
ligence. There is in all great hospitality and much social intercourse, 
and the provinces are better residences than Central Russia; many of 
the exiles in Siberia are banished only for their virtues. The gayety 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


379 


of the Siberians is somewhat rude; but their hospitality is deserving 
all commendation. The Tungooses occupy nearly a third of Siberia. 
They are hospitable, improvident, honest, and faithful to their word. 
They bear privation with wonderful endurance, and when they are 
forced to kill a reindeer for want of food, they refrain till they have 
fasted a week or more. They are filthy in the extreme. They smoke, 
and drink spirits whenever they can obtain them. The Yakouts are 
quick and observing. Many of the Tartars and Calmucks are nomades. 
They are cheerful and much given to equestrian exercises, and the 
women ride better than the men. The Samoiedes live without rulers. 
The Kamschadales are in a great degree independent, honest, and vera¬ 
cious. The Georgians and Circassians are a rude people, addicted to 
violence. The latter live in a feudal state in which the princes are 
paramount, the nobles next in authority, and the main body of the peo¬ 
ple are serfs. The princes give their children to the nobles to be edu¬ 
cated, and seldom see them till they are of age. The Circassians carry 
the principal of revenge to an unlimited extent. Blood for blood is so 
far the practice, that the innocent are involved with the guilty, and the 
duty of redressing an injury is hereditary. 

The form of dress is nearly as various as the people. In the northern 
countries, it consists for a great part of the year in furs, while the Cal¬ 
mucks have scarcely any clothing but a strip of cloth about the waist. 
The dress of the Tartars is chiefly a striped silk and cotton shirt, a 
short tunic, and over this a caflan or eastern robe, girded with a sash. 
Short boots and loose drawers are worn. In summer the head is 
covered with a turban, in winter, with a helmet of wood. The dwel¬ 
lings are of almost every form. In the Siberian towns, the Russian 
mode of building is somewhat followed. The Tartars have neat cot¬ 
tages, whitewashed, and with gardens attached. The Tungooses dwell 
in tents. The Kamschadales live in villages, built like those of Russia. 
Many Georgians dwell in huts half sunk in the earth, and the Circas¬ 
sians, in cottages of wood and plaited osiers. The food is different in 
various parts. In Siberia fish forms the chief article of food. The 
Tartars eat the flesh of horses, or whatever they can the most easily 
obtain. All of the Tartar race make use of koumiss, a spirit drawn 
from mare’s milk. 


CXXY. OTTOMAN ASIA OR TURKEY IN ASIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Asiatic Turkey is bounded north by the 
Black Sea and Russia; east by Russia and Persia; south by Arabia, 
Egyptian Asia, and the Mediterranean, and west by the Archipelago. 
It extends from 30° to 42° N. Lat., and from 26° to 49° E. Long., com¬ 
prising about 400,009 square miles, with 8,000,000 inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. Asia Minor and Armenia are mountainous countries. 
In Armenia is Mount Ararat, 17,300 feet above the sea, and believed by 
the inhabitants to be the eminence on which Noah’s Ark rested. The 
chain of Mount Taurus extends westerly from Armenia, and intersects 
by numerous branches the greatest part of Asia Minor. Its highest 
summits have an elevation of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet. 

3. Rivers and Lakes. The largest river of this country is the 
Euphrates. It rises in two broad streams in the mountains of Armenia, 


380 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


and breaking through the chain of Mount Taurus, flows southeasterly 
into the Persian Gulf, after a course of 1,300 miles. The Tigris is a 
branch of the Euphrates, rising in the same quarter, and flowing mostly 
in a parallel direction, till it joins the Euphrates after a course of 800 
miles. The Kizil Irmak, or ancient Halys, flows through the central 
part of Asia Minor northerly into the Black Sea. The Sakaria or 
Sangarias, the Mendres or Meander, and the Sarabat are the other 
most remarkable rivers of Asia Minor. Lake Van, in Armenia, is about 
200 miles in circuit. 

4. Islands. On the coast of Asia Minor, are many islands celebrated 
in ancient history. In the north are Tenedos, famous in the war of 
Troy, Lemnos, and Samothrace. Lesbos or Meteliuo is a beautiful island, 
with mountains covered with vines and olives, exhibiting a perpetual 
verdure. It has a population of 30,000. Scio, the ancient Chios, for¬ 
merly renowned for its beauty and fertility, has obtained a mournful 
celebrity in our own days. The island was devastated by the Turks, and 
its inhabitants butchered in 1822. Samos is productive in grain and 
fruit. Patinos and Rhodes are famous in sacred and profane history. 

Cyprus, the largest of the islands, lies the farthest south; it is 140 
miles long and 60 in breadth. It is traversed by two lofty mountainous 
ridges ; and the whole face of the island is so verdant as to resemble an 
immense flower garden. It produces vines, olives, lemons, oranges, 
apricots, and numerous other fruits. Corn and silk are raised, and 
carpets manufactured. The population is about 80,000. 

5. Climate. In the mountainous parts, especially in Armenia, the 
climate is temperate and healthy. In Mesopotamia it is hot and un¬ 
healthy. The Simoom, a poisonous wind of the desert, is common here. 
This country contains the most fertile provinces of Asia, and produces 
all the luxuries of life in abundance. Raw silk, corn, wine, oil, honey, 
fruit of every species, coffee, myrrh, frankincense, and odoriferous plants 
and drugs, flourish here almost without culture, which is practised 
chiefly by the Greeks and Armenians. The olives, citrons, lemons, 
oranges, figs, and dates produced in these provinces, are highly delicious, 
and in great plenty. 

6. Minerals. Silver, copper, and lead are found in Asia Minor and 
Armenia, iron in Mesopotamia, and salt in various places. 

7. Jlnimals. The Caucasian goat, which is larger than the common 
goat inhabits the Caucasian Mountains and the Taurus. The Angora 
goat is remarkable for its hair, which curls in long ringlets of eight or 
nine inches in length, and is of a silky texture, and glossy silvery white¬ 
ness. Much yarn, spun from it, is exported. The camel is much used 
here as a beast of burden, and its hair is valuable. 

8. Divisions. Asiatic Turkey is politically divided into 16 eyalets 
or pachalics, which are subdivided into sangiacats. But many of the 
mountaineers and nomadic tribes are only tributaries, others are merely 
vassals, that is, they recognise the superiority of the Porte, and some 
are entirely independent. It is not rare for the pachas also to refuse 
obedience to the orders of the sultan, and to resist his forces. The 
common geographical divisions, generally used by writers, are Asia 
Minor or Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, Curdistan, and Mesopotamia or 
Aljesira with Irak-Arabi. Only a part of Georgia, Armenia, and Cur¬ 
distan belong to the Ottoman empire. 

9. Towns. Bagdad, built upon both banks of the river Tigris, was 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


381 


for some centuries the brilliant metropolis of the caliphate under 
the Saracens. This city retains few marks of its ancient grandeur. 
It is in the form of an irregular square, ill-built, and rudely fortified; 
but the convenience of its situation renders it one of the seats of the 
Turkish government, and it has still a considerable trade, being annu¬ 
ally visited by the caravans from Smyrna and Aleppo, and supplied 
also with the produce of Persia and India. Most of the houses have 
a court-yard, in the middle of which is a plantation of orange-trees. 
The bazars are handsome and spacious, and filled with shops for all 
kinds of merchandise. These were erected by the Persians, when they 
were in possession of the place, as were also the bagnios. The castle, 
which is of stone, commands the river. Below the castle, by the water 
side, is the palace of the Turkish governor: and there are many sum¬ 
mer-houses on the river, which make a fine appearance. Population 
100,000. 

Bassora or Basra, which is situated below the junction of the Tigris 
and the Euphrates, is considered as the second city of the pachalic of 
Bagdad ; but it has greatly declined from its former wealth and impor¬ 
tance, though it still has a population of 60,000, who carry on an ex¬ 
tensive trade. The houses are meanly built; the bazars are miserable 
structures; and of forty mosques only one is worthy of the name. 
The Arabs form the most numerous class of the inhabitants ; but the 
Armenians are the chief managers of the foreign trade. For the mer¬ 
chandise of British India, they chiefly exchange bullion, pearls, copper, 
silk, dates, and gall-nuts; and their horses, which are strong and beau¬ 
tiful, are also articles of exportation. 

Mosul, which is situated on a plain near the Tigris, was once a flour¬ 
ishing town; but it is now declining, though it still has about 60,000 
inhabitants; among whom, beside Turks, are many Curds, Arabs, Jews, 
and Armenians. 

Diarbekir, the ancient Amida, formerly the capital of an independent 
state, is now the seat of a powerful pacha. It is surrounded by a wall, 
supposed to be a Roman work, famous for its height and solidity. 
Many of the houses are handsome, one mosque is magnificent, and 
the castle is an ornament to the town. Manufactures and commerce 
are prosecuted with some degree of spirit; and the inhabitants amount 
to 60,000. 

Orfa, in Mesopotamia, is one of the finest cities in this country. It 
is the ancient Edessa, and is 3 or 4 miles in compass. The streets are 
narrow, but well paved and clean. The houses are of stone and well 
built, and the city has numerous excellent bazars or markets. A small 
lake at one extremity of the city supplies it with excellent water. Popu¬ 
lation 50,000. 

The country upon the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, was for 
centuries the seat of powerful empires, and the centre of the commer¬ 
cial transactions between China, India, Persia, Egypt, and eastern Eu¬ 
rope. Here are still seen the ruins, or rather vestiges of the ruins, of 
the ancient Nineveh, once the largest city of Asia, and the capital of 
the Assyrian empire; of the magnificent and luxurious Babylon, the 
capital of the Babylonian monarchy and the wonder of the world; of 
the splendid and sumptuous capitals of the once powerful Syrian, and 
Parthian empires, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon. As the soil furnished clay, 
those cities were built of bricks baked in the sun, and of a perishable 
nature. 


382 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


Erzerum, in Turkish Armenia, is situated at the foot of a high moun¬ 
tain, in a large plain near the Euphrates. It has a flourishing com¬ 
merce aud extensive manufactures, with about 100,000 inhabitants. 
The side arms made here are in high repute in the east; its vast mosque, 
capable of containing 8,000 persons, its bazars, and caravanseries are 
the most remarkable edifices. 

Van, upon the lake of the same name, a strongly fortified and indus¬ 
trious city, is the next most important place in Armenia. It is of great 
antiquity, and in a neighboring hill are shown vast subterranean apart¬ 
ments, attributed by the Armenians to Semiramis. 

Kutaieh, the residence of the beglerbeg or governor general of Ana¬ 
tolia, is a large city with 50,000 inhabitants. Karahissar in the neigh¬ 
borhood, noted for its opium and its woollen manufactures, has a popu¬ 
lation of 60,000 souls. 

Broussa or Bursa is one of the most flourishing cities of the empire ; 
it contains an ancient castle, a number of magnificent mosques, hand¬ 
some caravanseries of stone, and fine fountains, and has 100,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, actively employed in manufactures and commerce. It was once 
the capital of the empire, and at an earlier period was the residence of 
the Bithynian kings. In its vicinity is Isnik or Nice, now a miserable 
village, once a splendid city, and famous for having been the seat of 
the first general council of all Christendom, in 325. To the northwest 
on the Bosphorus opposite Constantinople, stands Scutari, with 35,000 
inhabitants. It is the rendezvous of the caravans trading between 
Constantinople and the east, and contains many handsome buildings; 
its cemeteries are remarkable for their extent and elegance, the rich 
Turks of the European shore still preferring to be buried in Asia out of 
love to the ancient land of their fathers. 

Smyrna, pleasantly situated upon a gulf of the Archipelago, but with 
narrow and dirty streets, is the principal commercial place of Western 
Asia. Its spacious and safe harbor, its central position, and its facilities 
of communication with the most remote provinces of the interior, ren¬ 
der it the great mart of trade in this quarter of the world. The quarter 
inhabited by Franks or Europeans, enjoys the privilege of exemption 
from Turkish jurisdiction, the consuls of the respective nations ex¬ 
ercising the necessary civil and judicial authority. Population 130,000. 

Manissa, a flourishing commercial town, noted for its extensive planta¬ 
tions of saffron, with 40,000 inhabitants; Scalanova, 20,000, and Guzel 
Hissar, 30,000, are other considerable places in this part of the em¬ 
pire. 

Konieh, in a rich and well watered plain, is now much declined from 
its former importance, but it has still a population of 30,000 souls, and 
contains numerous madrasses or colleges and manufactories. 

Tocat, upon the Kizil Irmak, is a large commercial city with 100,000 
inhabitants. Kaisarieh, to the southwest, has 25,000 inhabitants. 

Trebisond, situated upon the Black Sea, with a fine harbor, and sur¬ 
rounded by a rich territory remarkable for its delicious climate, was 
once the capital of an independent Grecian state, and is still important 
for its commerce, its manufactures, and its population, amounting to 
50,000. Copper and slaves are its principal exports. 

Boli, upon the great caravan route to Constantinople, with 50,000 in¬ 
habitants; Angora, 40,000, noted for its camlets; and Tarsus, once a 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 383 

rich, populous, and learned city, and still an active commercial town 
with 30,000 inhabitants, are also important towns. 

10. Industry. Agriculture is in general in a most miserable condition, 
and, with few exceptions, manufacturing industry is not in a much 
better state. In the dyeing of silk, cotton, woollen, and leather fabrics, 
however, the inhabitants are noway inferior in skill to the Europeans. 
Western Asia has for centuries been the theatre of vast commercial 
operations, and although, owing to the dangers of the roads, and the 
want of facilities of intercommunication, the commerce of this fine 
country is only a shadow of what it has been, still its central position 
between Europe, Asia, and Africa, the rich productions of its soil, and 
the manufactures of the great cities, sustain an active and profitable 
trade. 

11. Religion. The Mahometan is the prevailing religion ; it is that 
of the Ottoman Turks, the dominant race, the Turcomans, Arabs, 
Curds, &c. Some of the Curds, however, belong to the Armenian 
and Nestorian churches, while the Greek and Armenian races chiefly 
profess the doctrines of the churches bearing their respective names. 

12. Inhabitants. The population is composed of a great number of 
distinct nations, comprising Ottoman Turks, Turcomans, Curds, Arabs, 
Armenians, Jews, Greeks, and several other tribes. The languages 
spoken by this mixture of nations, are equally numerous. In commer¬ 
cial places, a jargon compounded of several languages, called the lin¬ 
gua franca is much used. 

The character of the population is various and discordant. The Turk 
is everywhere the same haughty, indolent being. The Armenian is 
timid, obsequious, frugal, industrious, and avaricious. He traverses all 
countries for gain, and generally the factors of the Turks, the merchants, 
and mechanics, are Armenians. They are a very ancient people; pliant 
to circumstances, bending to authority, and living by peaceful pursuits. 
They have an animated physiognomy and good features. They live in 
large families, closely united. The Jews do not essentially differ from 
them. The Greek is, as elsewhere, subtle, cheerful, and adroit. The 
Turcomans are boisterous, ignorant, brave, and hospitable. They will 
shed their blood in defence of those with whom they have eaten. The 
Curds are robbers and thieves, and one tribe is often at war with 
another. The amusements of the various people that inhabit Asiatic 
Turkey, are not of an intellectual or refined character. Tricks of 
jugglers, exhibitions of dancing females, feats of horsemanship, and 
recitals of stories are common. The arts are in a low state, and edu¬ 
cation is little more than learning to read and write, with the elements 
of some of the sciences. 

In Asia Minor there are numerous tribes of Turcomans, who are 
merely vassals of the Porte; most of the Curds in Armenia and Cur- 
distan are really independent, and often at war with the Turkish gover¬ 
nors, as well as with each other; the Lazians, who occupy the country 
on the southeast of the Black Sea, are entirely independent of the 
Turkish authority. In Mesopotamia are numerous Arabs and Curds, 
whose dependence upon the Porte is merely nominal. 


384 


SYRIA, 


CXXYI. SYRIA OR EGYPTIAN ASIA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. This region, which has lately been ced¬ 
ed by the Porte to Egypt, is bounded on the north and east by the 
Ottoman dominions; on the south by Arabia, and on the west by that 
part of the Mediterranean often called the Levant. It extends from 
Lat. 31° to 37° N., and from Lon. 35° to 41° E., having an area of about 
50,000 square miles, with 1,500,000 inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The Libanus traverses the country from north to 
south in two distinct chains; the principal chain near the coast forms 
the Lebanon Mountains; the highest summit, near Balbec, has an 
elevation of upwards of' 11,000 feet. The Anti-Libanus or interior 
chain rises to a greater height, some of its summits being upwards of 
16,000 feet high. Mount Carmel and Mount Tabor are of historical 
celebrity. 

3. Rivers and Lakes. The Orontes is the principal river of this 
region; it rises in the Anti-Libanus, and reaches the sea after a course 
of 250 miles. The other rivers are small. The Jordan, or Arden, 
rises in Mount Hermon in the chain of the Anti-Libanus, and flows 
through the small lake of Genesareth, into the lake called by writers 
the Dead Sea. The latter is a small body of water, about 60 miles 
long, and from 10 to 15 wide; its waters are salt and bitterish, and 
remarkable for their great weight; they abound in asphaltuin, a sort 
of bituminous substance, whence the lake is also called Lake Asphaltites. 
It is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient cities of Sodom and 
Gomorrah. 

4. Divisions. Syria, or Sham, comprising Palestine in the south¬ 
west, was divided, while it formed a part of the Ottoman empire into 
four pachalics or eyalets; Aleppo, Damascus, Acre, and Tripoli, bear¬ 
ing the names of their respective capitals. 

5. Towns. Aleppo, not long since second only to Constantinople, 
in population, extent, and wealth, and the centre of an extensive com¬ 
merce, was almost entirely destroyed by two earthquakes in 1822; 
previously to that disaster, its inhabitants were estimated to amount 
to 200,000. In the vicinity are Hamah, on the Orontes, situated in a 
fertile district, esteemed the granary of Syria, with extensive manu¬ 
factures and a thriving commerce, giving employment to 60,000 inhab¬ 
itants ; Antakieh, on the site of the ancient Antioch, with about 12,000 
inhabitants; and Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, a small town in an 
unhealthy situation, but the centre of an active trade. 

Tripoli, a well built city in a delightful district, carries on a con¬ 
siderable commerce. It has 16,000 inhabitants. Acre or Ptolemais is 
one of the principal commercial towns of Syria; population 20,000. 
In its vicinity are Mount Carmel, celebrated in sacred history; Tyre 
and Sidon, once queens of the sea; and Jaffa or Joppa, the nearest 
port to Jerusalem. 

Damascus, one of the most ancient cities in the world, since it is 
mentioned in the history of Abraham, is one of the handsomest and 
most flourishing cities of Asia. It stands in a valley celebrated for its 
beauty and fertility, and ranked by the Arabians as one of their four 
terrestrial paradises. The houses, though simple externally, are in- 


SYRIA. 


385 


ternally finished in a style of great splendor, and most of them are 
furnished with fountains. The coffee-houses, many of which are built 
upon piles in the river, where an artificial cascade has been made, are 
distinguished for their luxury and magnificence. From 30, to 50,000 
pilgrims on their way from all parts of the Ottoman empire, and from 
Persia and Turkistan, annually assemble at Damascus, to join the 
caravan for Mecca; three other caravans leave each thrice a year foi 
Bagdad, and one for Aleppo two or three times a month. Population 
140,000. 

Jerusalem, the most celebrated city of the world, the cradle of 
Judaism and Christianity, and the second sanctuary of Mahometan¬ 
ism, is built at the foot of Mount Sion, upon Mounts Acre, Moriah, and 
Calvary. It is surrounded with high walls of hewn stone, flanked 
with towers, and the brook Kedron runs near it. Several of the 
mosques are magnificent edifices, of great size and adorned with 
numerous columns and domes. One of them called the Rock is an 
octagon of 160 feet in diameter, rising from a platform, 460 feet long 
by 339 broad, paved with marble, and raised 16 feet; its interior is 
adorned with great splendor, and is always illuminated by thousands 
of lamps; it contains a stone, said to be that upon which Jacob pil¬ 
lowed his head, and which according to the popular tradition, bears 
the imprint of the foot of Mahomet, who ascended from it to heaven, 
and entrusted it to the care of 70,000 angels. Of Christian edifices 
are the church of the holy sepulchre, said to be built upon the spot 
where the body of Jesus was entombed, the Catholic convent of St. 
Savior, in the church of which are silver and gold vessels and orna¬ 
ments, valued at nearly two million dollars; and the Armenian con¬ 
vent, with upwards of 800 cells for the accommodation of pilgrims, 
many thousands of whom annually visit this sacred spot. Population 
30,000. 

In the vicinity is the Mount of Olives, so called from the grove of 
olive trees which still in part cover it, from which Christ ascended to 
heaven ; at its foot, was the village of Gethsemane, containing a garden 
to which the Savior often retired to pray, and where he was betrayed 
by Judas to his murderers; a little to the east is Bethany, where the 
house and tomb of Lazarus, and the houses of Mary Magdalen and 
Martha are pointed out; and between the Mount of Olives and Jeru¬ 
salem, is the valley of Jehoshaphat, still as in ancient times a Jewish 
cemetery. At a greater distance from the city lies Bethlehem, a little 
village where Christ was born, and containing a vast grotto hewn out 
of a rock, called the chapel of the Nativity, supposed to be upon the 
spot of his birth; near Bethlehem are three reservoirs of great size 
and solidity called the pools of Solomon. 

To the north of Jerusalem near Acre, are Nazareth, where, in the 
splendid church of the Annunciation, is shown the supposed residence 
of the Virgin Mary ; Cana, celebrated as the scene of one of Christs 
miracles; and Mount Tabor, upon which his transfiguration is said to 
have taken place; the field of corn, the Mount upon which was delivered 
the sermon of the blessings, and the scene of the miracle of the loaves 
and fishes, are also in this neighborhood. Capernaum, where Christ 
performed many miracles, and spent much of the last years of his me, 
is likewise in this direction. 

The ruins of the ancient Tadmor or Palmyra, once the great com- 
25 R 


386 


ARABIA. 


mercial emporium of this part of the world, and the luxurious and 
splendid capital of a powerful monarchy, are still visible in a fertile 
oasis in the Syrian desert. Colossal columns forming long colon¬ 
nades, and vast and imposing fragments of various edifices attest its 
former magnificence. 

Not far from Tripoli, are the ruins of Heliopolis, upon the site of 
which is the village of Balbec ; gigantic blocks of stone, supposed to 
be the heaviest ever moved by human art, porticoes covered with 
beautiful sculpture, huge columns, &c., are all that remain of this once 
brilliant city. 

6. Industry. The eastern part of the country extending to the Eu¬ 
phrates is a vast desert, interspersed with some oases, or fertile and 
well watered spots. But although the rest of the country abounds in 
fertile valleys, and enjoys a mild and delightful climate, the tyranny 
and lawless violence of man have blasted it, and ignorance, supersti¬ 
tion, and barbarism now cover the land long the abode of industry, 
arts, wealth, learning, and refinement. Agriculture, manufactures, and 
commerce, discouraged by difficulties of communication, and inse¬ 
curity of property, are in a languishing condition. 

7. Inhabitants. The population is composed of as various elements as 
that of Asiatic Turkey. Ottoman Turks, and Greeks are the principal 
inhabitants of the cities ; Arabs and Turcomans are numerous ; in the 
mountainous regions there are several peculiar tribes, the Druses, the 
Ismaelians, and the Nosairians, of rude manners, and warlike and pre¬ 
datory habits. The Ismaelians have become celebrated under the name 
of Assassins, and their prince was known in the Middle Ages underthe 
name of the Old Man of the Mountains; from his mountain fastness he 
sent his fierce hashishim or warriors forth upon expeditions of robbery 
and murder, whence the origin of the word assassin. 

8. Religion. The tribes last mentioned have adopted peculiar 
forms of Mahometanism, and in some instances, mixed it with other 
rites, and are looked upon as heretics by their brethren. The Mar- 
onites, a people of mountaineers near Tripoli, are Roman Catholic 
Christians. The other inhabitants are of the same religious sects as 
those of Asiatic Turkey. 


CXXVII. ARABIA. 

1. Boundaries. This vast peninsula, which comprises several in¬ 
dependent states, is bounded north by Syria ; east by the Persian Gulf 
and the Gulf of Ormuz; south by the Indian Ocean ; and west by the 
Red Sea and Egypt. It extends from Lat. 12° to 34° N., and from 
Lon. 32° to 59° E.; its area is estimated at about 990,000 square miles, 
and its population at 10,000,000. 

2. Divisiojis. Arabia was divided by the ancients into three parts; 
Arabia Felix, or Happy Arabia, comprising the southwestern part of 
the country, bordering on the Indian Ocean, and on the southern part 
of the Red Sea; Arabia Petraea, lying on the Red Sea north of Arabia 
Felix; and Arabia Deserta, much the largest division, embracing all 
the eastern and northern part of the country. These names are still 
in common use among European writers, who also divide the country 
into five parts, as follows, 1. Yemen; 2. Hedshas; 3. Oman; 4. Lachsa; 




ARABIA, 


387 

5. Nedshed. The first of these corresponds nearly with Arabia Felix; 
the second with Arabia Petrsea, and the three last with Arabia Deserta. 

3. Mountains, Deserts, fyc. Arabia is an arid desert, interspersed 
with a few fertile spots, which appear like islands in a desolate ocean. 
Stony mountains and sandy plains form the prominent features in the 
surface of this vast peninsula. To the north it stretches out into an 
extensive desert. The whole coast of Arabia, from Suez to the head 
of the Persian Gulf, is formed of a plain called the Tehama, which pre¬ 
sents a picture of complete desolation. The interior is diversified by 
extensive ranges of mountains, but there is no river of any conse¬ 
quence in all Arabia, almost every stream either losing itself in the 
sandy plains or expanding into moors and fens. 

4. Climate. In the mountainous parts the climate is temperate, but 
in the plains intolerable heat prevails. A hot and pestiferous wind, 
called the Simoom, frequently blows over the desert, and instantly 
destroys the unwary traveller; and whole caravans are sometimes 
suffocated by moving clouds of sand raised by the wind. Almost 
every part of the country suffers from want of water. 

5. Soil and Productions. The soil, wherever it is well watered, 
exhibits an uncommon fertility, but where this is not the case it de¬ 
generates into a waste, affording barely a scanty support to a few wild 
animals and the camels of the wandering Arabs. The most fertile 
district is Yemen or Arabia Felix, which in many parts is cultivated 
like a garden. The principal productions are coffee, myrrh, aloes, 
frankincense, pepper, and tropical fruits. 

6. Towns. The western part of Arabia, fonning the sherifht of Mec¬ 
ca belongs to Egypt; the chief town is Mecca, celebrated as the birth¬ 
place of Mahomet, situated in a dry, barren, and rocky country, 40 
miles from the Red Sea. It is supported by the concourse of pilgrims 
from every part of the Mahometan world. The chief ornament of 
Mecca is the famous mosque, in the interior of which is the Kaaba, 
an ancient temple said to have been built by Abraham ; it is a plain 
square building of stone. The most sacred relic 4n the Kaaba is the 
black stone said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel. The 
grand ceremony through which pilgrims pass is that of going seven 
times round the Kaaba, reciting verses and psalms in honor of God 
and the prophet, and kissing each time the sacred stone. They are 
then conducted to the well of Zemzem, situated in the same temple, 
where they take large draughts, and undergo a thorough ablution in 
its holy waters. Another ceremony, considered as of equal virtue, is 
the pilgrimage to Mount Arafat, situated about 30 miles to the south 
of the city. The population of Mecca, formerly estimated at 100,000, 
is now reduced to 60,000, the resort of pilgrims within a few years 
having been greatly interrupted. Jidda on the Red Sea serves as the 
port of Mecca. It is the principal place on that sea, and is strongly 
fortified and occupied by an Egyptian garrison. Population 40,000. 

Medina is also a sacred city of the Mahometans. One of the 
mosques contains the tomb of the prophet, and another is venerated as 
having been erected by him. The inhabitants live by the gifts sent 
from pious Mussulmans in all quarters, to obtain their prayers, and by 
the concourse of pilgrims. Population 8,000. 

On the northern part of the Red Sea, stands Akaba, a little village, 
near the site of which is the port of Esiongeber, from which the ships 


388 


ARABIA. 


of Solomon sailed to Ophir, and by which the Phoenicians carried on 
their commerce with India. To the west are Mount Horeb, upon 
which God appeared to Moses, and commanded him to deliver his 
countrymen; and Mount Sinai, upon which he gave the law. Here is 
a monastery, armed with cannon, and accessible only by means of a 
rope. 

The imamat of Yemen is a powerful state in the southwest. The 
capital and residence of the Imam is Sana, built in the midst of a fertile 
plain, and surrounded with high brick walls and towers. Population 
about 30,000. 

The imamat of Mascat on the eastern coast is likewise an important 
state. The imam resides at Mascat, a large city, surrounded with gar¬ 
dens and groves of date trees. It is the centre of an active commerce 
with India, and a great market for pearls. 

The kingdom of the Wahabites, who a few years since had reduced 
a great part of the peninsula, but were overthrown by the arms of the 
Egyptians, is in the region of Nedshed. The capital Derriah was 
destroyed in 1818. 

There are many other petty states in Arabia, and a great number 
of the inhabitants, living in small tribes, lead a wandering life; acknow¬ 
ledging no superiors, but their own chiefs. 

7. j Religion. Arabia is the birth-place of Mahometanism, and the 
inhabitants chiefly profess that faith. In the interior of Hedshaz there 
is a tribe of Jews, called Rechabites, who have preserved the rites and 
sacred books of Judaism. They retain the pastoral manners of their 
ancestors, and have adopted the predatory habits of the Arabians. The 
Wahabites are a Mahometan sect, which arose during the last century, 
who acknowledge the Koran as their religious guide, but deny the 
lawfulness of paying divine honors to Mahomet, whom they consider 
as a mere man. 

8. Government. In general the authority of the rulers is limited. 
The government of the pastoral tribes is patriarchal; the chiefs are 
styled sheiks, sherifs, or imams. 

9. Inhabitants. The inhabitants are chiefly Arabians, with a few 
Jews, and Banians or Hindoo merchants. The people of the cities are 
often ingenious,industrious, and acquainted with the arts; but the great 
body of the inhabitants are rude and indolent; the Bedouin or wander¬ 
ing tribes live in tents, and wander from place to place with their herds, 
or subsist by plunder. The inhabitants of the coast are frequently 
piratical. So little progress is made in the arts, that articles of dress 
are imported from India, those of luxury from Europe, and arms from 
Persia or the Ottoman empire. Coffee, which is a native of Arabia and 
here grows upon a tree, pearls, dates, horses, hides, senna leaves, indigo, 
myrrh, gum benzoin, and frankincense are exported; the three latter 
articles, however, are obtained from Africa. The Arabians are ex¬ 
tremely temperate, and content themselves with a few dates, or other 
fruit, or a meal of hard bread, with milk, oil, &c. Little animal food is 
eaten ; coffee is much used, and smoking tobacco, or a species of hemp 
is common. The Arabs are courteous and polite, and extremely hos¬ 
pitable. They go armed, and are revengeful, like other rude nations. 

The only safe way of travelling in Arabia, as in many other countries 
of Asia and Africa, is in caravans. A caravan is a large association of 
merchants or pilgrims, who unite for mutual aid and protection to 


PERSIA. 


389 


themselves and their camels and goods. The transportation of goods 
in these countries though slow is cheap, compared with European 
prices. The average weight which camels are made to carry is (300 lbs. 
The Egyptian caravans travel with a wide front, many others travel in 
a line. The halt of the pilgrim caravans to Mecca is by day, and they 
travel only bv night. There are many of these even from Persia and 
Morocco. The predatory tribes on the route sometimes plunder the 
whole caravan, and at others cut off parts of it. Caravans, however, 
since the extension of navigation, have been much curtailed both in 
magnitude and show. The pace of the camel when travelling is three 
miles an hour; this is so uniform that distances are computed by time; a 
march of six hours being equivalent to 18 miles. 


CXXVIII. PERSIA OR IRAN. 

1. Boundaries. The present kingdom of Persia, which includes 
but a part of the extensive country of the Persians, is bounded north by 
Turkistan, the Caspian Sea and the Russian empire; east by the king¬ 
doms of Herat and Cabul, and by Beloochistan ; south by the Gulf of 
Ormuz and the Persian Gulf; and west by the Ottoman territories. It 
extends from Lat. 26° to 39° N., and from Lon. 44° to 61° E., having 
an area of 450,000 square miles, and a population of 9,000,0000 inhabi¬ 
tants. 

2. Surface. Two mountainous chains, belonging to the great Tauro- 
Caucasian system, traverse the country in different directions; the one 
stretching east and west to the south of Mazanderan, under the name 
of the Elburz mountains, has an elevation of above 12,000 feet; the vol¬ 
canic peak of Demavend in this chain is nearly 13,000 feet high ; the 
other chain stretches from northwest to southeast, under the name of 
the mountains of Curdistan and Luristan. A great part of the country 
to the south and east of these chains is composed of immense deserts 
and salt plains. The northwestern part forms a portion of the great 
table-land, upon which are situated all Armenia, Ajerbijan, Curdistan, 
&c.; this plateau is from 4,000 to 8,000 feet high. The rivers of Persia 
are small, and many of them lose themselves in the sands. The princi- 
cipal lakes are Ourmiah in Ajerbijan, and Bakhtegan in Farsistan, both 
salt. 

3. Productions and lndusti~y. Although a great part of the country 
consists of naked mountains or barren hills and plains, yet there are 
fertile tracts, and in many places artificial irrigation is practised with 
skill and success. Industry has long been discouraged by the exactions 
of government, and civil wars, and the want of navigable rivers, good 
routes, or canals. The Persians are distinguished for their skill in 
dyeing, the fabrication of sword-blades, the preparation of leather, 
shagreen, and perfumery, and the manufacture of silks, carpets, and 
felt, and they work gold and silver in great perfection. They carry on 
an extensive commerce by caravans with Turkey, Turkistan, Russia, 
China, and India, but the commercial navigation of the Caspian Sea and 
the Persian Gulf is in the hands of the Russians, Arabs, and English. 
Silk, rice, wines, gums, sugar, cassia, mastic, with lead, iron, salt, cop¬ 
per, turquoises, pearls, &e., are among the productions of the country. 

4. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into eleven provinces, at the 


390 


PERSIA. 


head of each of which is a beglerbeg , or governor in chief, and sub¬ 
divided into districts, administered by hakims , or governors. It must 
be observed that many of the tribes of Curds and Luris, and several 
Turkoman tribes in Khorasan are entirely independent. Provinces; 
Irak-Ajemi, Thabaristan, Mazanderan, Ghilan, Ajerbijan, Curdistan, 
Khusistan, Farsistan, Kerman, Khuhistan, and Khorasan. 

5. Towns. Teheran, in the northwestern part of the province of Irak, 
is the capital of Persia. It is about four miles in circumference, situated 
in a dreary plain, which is only partially cultivated. It is furnished with 
a citadel, and surrounded by a strong wall; but it is not a handsome or 
well built town. Within the fortress is the palace, which displays no 
external magnificence. So excessive is the heat of the summer in this 
neighborhood, that the king and the greater part of the inhabitants 
annually leave it for two or three months. The population, during the 
rest of the year, amounts to 130,000. It has some manufactures of 
carpets, and articles of iron ware. 

Ispahan, once the capital of Persia with a population of 700,000 
souls, is now but the shadow of its former splendor. It stands in a 
beautiful and highly cultivated plain, and still has about 200,000 inhab¬ 
itants, who carry on manufactures of silk, cotton, leather, fire-arms, &c., 
and maintain an extensive and flourishing commerce. The vast royal 
palace, comprising within its precincts several palaces and pavilions, 
with their paintings, statuary, and beautiful gardens, presents a splendid 
scene ; one of the buildings called the palace of the 40 columns displays 
a profusion of the richest and most brilliant decorations. The New 
Palace is also a fine edifice. One of the bazars, presents a long cover¬ 
ed walk of two miles in length, lighted by domes, and lined with shops, 
but no longer exhibits the bustle and life of former days. Some of 
the mosques, and the bridges over the Zendeh-Roud are also remarka¬ 
ble structures, and there are several colleges or madrasses here. The 
Jews and Armenians are numerous in Ispahan. 

The other principal towns of this province are, Cashan, noted for its 
manufactures of cotton, silk, and copper ware, with 30,000 inhabitants; 
Koom, celebrated as the burial place of several Mahometan saints, 
whose tombs, remarkable for the splendor and richness of their decora¬ 
tions, are visited by thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the kingdom; 
Hamadan, a flourishing and industrious town with 30,000 inhabitants, 
and Casween, a large town, with extensive manufactures and a thriving 
trade, and containing 60,000 inhabitants. 

Near Hamadan are the ruins of Ecbatana, once the magnificent 
capital of the Medes; the remains of the palace, which was nearly a 
mile in circuit, and of which the woodwork was of cedar and cypress, 
overlaid with silver and gold, and the tiles of silver, are still visible. 

Balfrouch in Mazanderan, is a large town with 100,000 inhabitants, 
mostly engaged in trade and manufactures; its bazars are of vast ex¬ 
tent. Asterabad, on the Caspian sea, with 40,000 inhabitants; Sari, 
30,000; and Recht, 60,000, with extensive silk manufactures, are the 
other principal places in this quarter. 

Tauris or Tabriz stands on a plain bounded by mountains, which, 
though barren, recede into a well-cultivated vale. In the seventeenth 
century it was considered as the second city in Persia; and has of late 
become the principal residence of the heir apparent of the Persian 
crown. He has improved the fortifications, formed a great arsenal, and 


PERSIA. 


391 


built a palace for himself; he encourages the industry of the inhabit¬ 
ants, and introduces the European arts and inventions. The popula¬ 
tion of the town is about 100,000. 

Ardebil, formerly a large and flourishing town, has now only 4,000 
inhabitants; it possesses a great object of Moslem veneration, in the 
magnificent mausoleum of the sanctified sheik who was the founder 
of the Sophis. 

Kermanshaw in Curdistan, stands in the midst of a delightful district, 
and is surrounded by walls. Its prosperity is due to its commerce and 
manufactures. Population 40,000. Shuster, the capital of Khusistan, 
has 20,000 inhabitants. In its neighborhood, are the ruins which mark 
the site of the ancient Susa. It was the winter residence of the ancient 
Persian kings, and was 15 miles in circuit; here is shown the tomb of 
the prophet Daniel, to which the Jews make pilgrimages. 

Shiraz, in a delightful valley of Farsistan, is meanly built, but con¬ 
tained some magnificent edifices previously to 1824, when most of its 
principal buildings were destroyed by an earthquake. The environs 
of Shiraz have been celebrated by the Persian poets for their fine 
wines and beautiful scenery, and the city is styled by the Persians, the 
seat of science, on account of the literary taste of its inhabitants. Pop¬ 
ulation 30,000. Yezd, in the interior, on the great caravan routes, the 
centre of a great inland trade, and the seat of extensive manufactures, 
with 60,000 inhabitants; and Busheer, the principal port ou the Per¬ 
sian Gul£ with 15,000 inhabitants, are the other principal places of this 
province. 

To the northeast of Shiraz are the celebrated ruins of Persepolis, 
covering a great extent of country ; those called by the Persians Chil- 
minar (i. e. the Forty Columns), are thought to be the remnants of the 
ancient palace of the Persian kings; they consist of columns, and walls 
constructed of vast blocks of marble, and covered with reliefs and in¬ 
scriptions; tombs cut in the rock, and covered with inscriptions and 
sculptures are also found in different directions. 

Meshed, the capital of Persian Khorasan, though much declined, is 
still important for its manufactures aud commerce; population 32,000. 
The tomb of Ali, the patron saint of Persia, in the construction of 
which the genius of the Persian artists and the superstition of the devo¬ 
tees have lavished every thing that talents and wealth could contribute 
to render it magnificent, is much visited by pilgrims. 

6. Inhabitants , Government , Religion. Beside the Tadshiks or Per¬ 
sians proper, there are many Parsees, Curds, and Luris, who also be¬ 
long to the same family. Turkomans in the northeast, Arabs in the 
southwest, Armenians, Jews, &c., are also numerous, and the Turko¬ 
mans are now the dominant nation, although the mass of the population 
is Persian. The Turkish is the common language of the country, the 
Parsees only speaking the Persian, which is however the language of 
the literature of an earlier period. The government is an absolute des¬ 
potism, without any restrictions; the sovereign or shah is the master 
of the life and property of his subjects, who are looked upon merely as 
his slaves, and his only law is his will. The wandering tribes are 
governed by their own khans or princes, whose power is limited. 

The prevailing religion is Mahometanism of the Shiite sect; but the 
Turkomans, Arabs, and Curds are Sunnites. The Parsees or Guebres 
are called Fire Worshippers, because they venerate fire as the emblem 


392 


AFGHANISTAN. 


of the Supreme Being; their sacred book is called the Zendevesta; it 
teaches that from the Supreme Being or the Eternal One, have ema¬ 
nated Ariman, the genius of evil, and Oromaz, the genius of good. 
There are also Armenian and Greek Christians, Jews, &c. 

The Persians are gay, lively, and active, and differ from the Turks 
no less in dress than in character; they are fond of ornaments, and 
cultivate and dress the beard with great care. They are considered 
the most polite nation in the east, but they are accused of dissimulation 
and insincerity. They have many superstitions, reposing great con¬ 
fidence in charms, talismans, scraps of the Koran, &c. They are 
warmly attached to poetry and the sciences, but the latter are by no 
means in a flourishing condition; grammar, theology or the study of 
the Koran, astrology, medicine, divination, and ethics are the favorite 
studies. Sculpture is unknown, the style of architecture simple, and 
their music execrable. 

7. History. Persia or Iran long played a prominent part in the his¬ 
tory of the world. The ancient empire of Cyrus was overthrown by 
the Macedonians; and that of the Parthians, which succeeded the Mac¬ 
edonian empire, was conquered by the Saracens and Turks in ihe 7th 
century. Six centuries later Persia was overrun by the Mongols, who 
retained possession of the country for two hundred years, when it fell 
into the hands of the Turcomans. The empire has during the last 
century suffered much from foreign and civil wars. 


CXXIX. CABUL OR AFGHANISTAN. 

1. Boundaries. Afghanistan or the kingdom of Cabul is bounded 
on the north by Herat and Turkistan; on the east by the land of the 
Seiks in Hindostan; on the south by Beloochistan, and on the west by 
Persia. It extends from Lat. 28° to 36° N., and from Lon. 59° to 72° 
E., having an area of 146,000 square miles, and a population of 4,200,000 
souls. 

2. Mountains , Rivers. The country is an elevated table-land from 
4,000 to 6,000 feet high ; above this rise the summits of the Hindoo-Koo 
Mountains, which traverse the kingdom from east to west, reaching an 
elevation of above 20,000 feet; a chain branches off to the south near 
Cabul, and is known under the name of the Soliman Mountains, ex¬ 
tending in two parallel ranges into Beloochistan. The principal river is 
the Heltnend, which runs into lake Zerrah. 

3. Productions. Although much of the country consists of high, 
bleak hills unfitted for tillage, and the southwestern part is avast desert, 
there are many fertile valleys and warm plains, which are populous, 
productive, and well cultivated. The inhabitants are chiefly wandering 
shepherds. Fruits and corn are produced in the eastern part, and in 
the low, hot districts of the east sugar, ginger, cotton, dates, &c., are 
raised. Lead, iron, and salt are abundant. 

4. Divisions. The kingdom is composed of two great regions, Afghan¬ 
istan, which is divided into seven provinces, and Sistan or Segistan. 

5. Toums. Cabul, the capital, is situated in a fertile and well water¬ 
ed plain, celebrated for its fine climate. The town is well built, but 
the houses are mostly of wood. Here is a citadel built upon a low hill, 
and containing a magnificent royal palace; the bazars are also vast 


HERAT. 


393 


buildings, and the commerce, till the recent civil wars, was extensive. 
The population, which was 80,000, is probably likewise diminished by 
the troubles which have distracted the country. 

Ghizneh or Gazna, once the capital of an empire reaching from the 
Tigris to the Ganges, is now fallen into decline, and its magnificent 
baths, rich palaces, suberb mosques, and numerous bazars have dis¬ 
appeared. It now contains about 8,000 inhabitants. 

Candahar, a fortified place in a fertile and highly cultivated plain, 
is a large and populous city with about 100,000 inhabitants. It is regu¬ 
larly laid out and well built, and is the centre of an active trade. It 
contains a royal palace, and in the centre of the city is the sharshee, a 
vast rotunda, surrounded with shops, to which all the principal streets 
converge. 

Segistan contains only small towns, and consists principally of a 
great desert. 

6. Inhabitants. The population consists chiefly of Afghans, a race 
nearly allied to the Persians. In the towns are many Persians and 
Indians, the Afghans never exercising a trade. The latter occupy 
themselves with war, robbery, hunting, and raising herds. They con¬ 
sist of numerous tribes, each of which is governed by its own khan, 
who owes a sort of homage to the head of the nation. They are rude, 
vindictive, and rapacious, but faithful, hospitable, laborious, open, and 
brave. Their religion is Mahometanism, but they are not bigoted. 
The language nearly resembles the Persian, and the educated Afghans 
are familiar with Persian literature. Education is carefully provided 
for among them, every village having its school, which is attended by 
almost every boy. 

The usual dress is a sort of frock, reaching below the knee, and 
loose, dark cotton trowsers. The head is covered with a low flat cap 
of black silk, and the feet with half boots laced in front. The houses 
of the rich are surrounded by high walls, inclosing courts and gardens, 
and they are provided with carpets, some glass windows, &c. Those 
of the lower class consist of a single room, without chairs or tables, 
their place being supplied by carpets and felt cushions. The pastoral 
tribes live in coarse woollen tents. 


CXXX. HERAT. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. The kingdom of Herat is bounded 
north by Turkistan; south and east by Cabul, and west by Persia. It 
lies between 33° and 36° N. Lat., and 60° and 67° E. Lon., having an 
area of66,000 square miles, and a population of 1,500,000. It is an 
elevated table land, intersected by lofty mountains, and inhabited by 
Afghans, and some tribes of Turcomans. 

2. Towns. Herat, the capital, is a large and strongly fortified town, 
situated in a populous and highly cultivated valley. It is the centre 
of a great commerce, and its manufactures are numerous and flourish¬ 
ing; the celebrated Khorasan sabres are made here. Population 
100,000. 

Bamiam, a small city, is chiefly remarkable for the immense num¬ 
ber of excavations in the rocks in its vicinity ; they are said to amount 
to 12,000; here are also two colossal statues, 50 cubits high. 

R* 


394 


INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 


CXXXI. BELOOCHISTAN. 

1. Boundaries , &c. This country, which is occupied by confederat¬ 
ed tribes of Beloochis, is bounded north by Cabul; east by the country 
of the Seiks; south by the Arabian Sea, and west by Persia. It lies 
between Lat. 25° and 30° N., and between Lon. 60° and 69° E., having 
an area of 140,000 square miles, and 2,000,000 inhabitants. It is tra¬ 
versed by the Soliman Mountains, and a considerable part of the coun¬ 
try is a vast desert. The rivers are small, and mostly dry up in the 
hot season. 

2. Divisions and Toivns. The Beloochis resemble the Afghans in 
their mode of life, and there are few considerable towns. The several 
tribes of the confederacy are governed by their own chiefs or serdars, 
but they recognise the supremacy of the serdar of Kelat. 

Kelat, a town of about 20,000 inhabitants, is situated upon a high 
table-land, in a well cultivated district; the climate owing to the eleva¬ 
tion is cold. It has some commerce, and its bazars are large. 

Gundava is the residence of the serdar in summer; it has about 
16,000 inhabitants, and is well built. 


CXXXII. TURKISTAN OR INDEPENDENT 
TARTARY. 

1. Boundaries. This extensive region, which is about 900 miles from 
north to south, and 700 from east to west, is bounded north by the Rus¬ 
sian empire; east by the Chinese empire; south by Cabul and Persia, 
and west by the Caspian Sea. It lies between Lat. 36° and 51° N., and 
between Lon. 50° and 72° E. 

2. Surface and Soil. In the southeast rises the lofty plateau of 
Pamer, the elevation of which is estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000 
feet. All the northern and western part of the country forms a portion 
of the great concavity or depression in which lie the Caspian and Aral 
seas, being from 200 to 300 feet lower than the level of the ocean. A 
considerable part of Turkistan consists of vast deserts, among which 
that of the Kirghises in the north, and that of Charasm, in the south, 
are the most extensive. 

3. Rivers and Lakes. The rivers of this region all find their way 
into inland lakes or seas. The Gihon or Amou, the largest river of the 
country, rises in the Beloor Mountains, and flows through a fertile tract 
into the Aral Sea. The Sir or Sihon rises in the mountains of the 
Chinese empire, and empties itself into the same sea. The Kuwan, 
which traverses Bucharia, and the Sarasu, which runs through the 
land of the Kirghises, also empty their waters into lakes. There is 
a great number of lakes, among which the Aral, usually termed a sea, 
is the principal. It is, after the Caspian Sea, the largest inland body of 
water in Asia, being about 250 miles in length, and covering an area of 
about 10,000 square miles. Its waters are salt, and its shores low and 
sandy or marshy. It is inhabited by numerous fish and seals. 

4. Divisions. This region is occupied by a great number of Turkish 
tribes, forming many independent states; its great geographical divi¬ 
sions are the land of the Kirghises in the north; Turcomania or the 


INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 395 

country of Turkmans, in the southwest; Turkistan Proper, or the land 
of the Turcomans in the east, and Uzbekistan or the land of the Usbeks 
in the south ; but these and other tribes are scattered about in various 
parts of the country. The chief states are the khanats of Bucharia, 
Khiva, and Khokand, after which rank those of Hissar, Balk, &c. 

5. Bucharia . This country comprises the richest and most populous 
region of Turkistan, and has an area ol 80,000 square miles, with 
2,500,000 inhabitants. The ruling people are the Usbeks, a Turkish 
tribe, but the natives or Bucharians are of Persian origin, and are found 
all over Asia from Russia and Turkey to China, in the capacity of 
traders. 

Buchara, the capital, stands in a pleasant plain, but it is meanly built, 
with crooked, narrow, and dirty streets, upon which the houses present 
only a blind wall, their windows being upon interior courts. The popu¬ 
lation is about 80,000, of which three quarters are Persians, and the 
remainder Usbeks, Afghans, Jews, Arabs, &c. The Ark or palace of 
the khan, the 360 mosques and 60 madrasses or colleges, the vast cara- 
vansery, &c., are the principal public edifices; its manufactures and 
commerce attract merchants from all parts of Asia, and its seminaries, 
which render it one of the chief seats of Mahometan learning, are esti¬ 
mated to be attended by 10,000 scholars. 

Samarcand, once the capital of the great empire of Tamerlane, 
although declined from its ancient splendor, still contains 50,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, numerous manufactories of silk, cotton, silk paper, and many 
learned institutions or madrasses. Here is also the tomb of Tamer¬ 
lane, built of jasper. 

Naksheb is a large town with 40,000 inhabitants. 

The Bucharians are distinguished for their industry, commercial en¬ 
terprise, and frugality. They traverse all parts of the continent in their 
trading expeditions, and have even formed numerous colonies in China, 
Russia, and other parts of Turkistan. Their trade with Russia by 
Orenburg, with China by Cashgar, Cabul, and Balk, and with India by 
Cashmere constitutes the most important part of their commercial 
operations. They also excel in the manufacture of cotton, silk, caps, 
paper, &c. 

The Usbeks, who have conquered this and the neighboring regions, 
are a rude and warlike people, who consider war and robbery as the 
only honorable occupations. They hold the public offices, are the 
soldiers, &c., and often invade the Persian and Russian territories, car¬ 
rying off slaves and plunder. 

6. Khiva. The khanat of Khiva is the most extensive state of Tur¬ 
kistan, but much of its territory consists of deserts. It has an area of 
150,000 square miles with only 800,000 inhabitants. The dominant 
people are the Usbeks, who have extended their conquests over the 
Karakalpaks on the Sir, the Aralians on the Amou, and a part of Tur- 
comania. 

Khiva, the capital, in a fertile territory near the Amou, has about 
15,000 inhabitants; it is the greatest slave market of Turkistan. 

7. Khokand. The khanat of Khokand is inferior to that of Khiva 
in extent of territory, but is more densely peopled; its area amounts 
to 75,000 square miles, with a population oi 1,000,000 souls. It com¬ 
prises the country, lying upon the upper part of the Sir. 

Its capital Khokan, upon a tributary of the Sir, is a place of much 


396 


INDIA. 


trade, and contains three stone bazars, several mosques, the castle of the 
Khan, &c., with 60,000 inhabitants. 

8. Balk, the capital of an independent khanat, is an old city, formerly 
one of the most wealthy and populous of Asia, but now much reduced, 
having but 10,000 inhabitants. As the residence of the kings of Bactria, 
it was the rival of Niniveh and Babylon, the centre of the commerce 
between the east and the west, and one of the chief seats of eastern 
learning. 

There are several other khanats of considerable extent; the land of 
the Kirghises, comprising the central and northern parts of Tartary, is 
inhabited by numerous small tribes of that people under distinct and 
independent chiefs; and Turcomania, between the Caspian and Aral 
seas and the khanat of Khiva is occupied by similar tribes of Turk¬ 
mans. 

9. Inhabitants. The Turkish tribes are chiefly wandering shepherds 
and robbers; in the cities, however, there is much manufacturing in¬ 
dustry, but the artisans and merchants are Bucharians, Armenians, 
Hindoos, &c. In some of the fertile river valleys, and particularly 
in the vicinity of the great cities, the land is well cultivated, and arti¬ 
ficial irrigation is much practised. The religion of the people is 
Mahometanism of the Sunnite sect; the government is in general of an 
arbitrary character, but rarely despotic or absolute. The authority 
of the chiefs of the nomadic tribes, in particular, is much limited by long 
established usages. 


CXXXIII. INDIA OR HINDOSTAN. 

1. Boundaries. This great region is bounded on the north by the 
Chinese empire; on the east by the Birman empire and the Bay of 
Bengal; south by the Indian Ocean, and west, by the Arabian Sea, 
Cabul, and Beloochistan. It extends from 8° to 34° N. Lat., and from 
67° to 92° E. Lon., being 1,500 miles in its greatest breadth, and 1,800 
miles.in length from north to south. Its area, which exceeds 1,400,000 
square miles, is more than one third that of all Europe, and it contains 
140 million inhabitants. 

2. Mountains. The Himala Mountains, which extend along its whole 
northern boundary, contain the loftiest summits in the world. They 
rise in successive stages from the champaign country, forming several 
parallel ridges, until the principal and loftiest range, shoots its colossal 
summits up into regions of perpetual snow. This principal chain 
separates the valleys of Serinagore, Nepaul, and Bootan from Tibet, 
and attains an elevation of 26,000 and 28,000 feet. The Tchamoulari 
on the frontiers of Bootan is the highest known mountain in the world, 
being 28,200 feet in height; the Dhawalagiri on the frontiers of Nepaul 
is but little inferior in elevation. A lower and parallel chain runs along 
the southern margin of the valleys above mentioned, separating them 
from the great plain of the Ganges. The Deccan or Peninsula^which 
lies to the south of that plain is traversed by several chains of inferior 
elevation. The Western Ghauts extend for several hundred miles along 
the western shore, and in some places are supposed to reach the height 
of 10,000 feet. The Eastern Ghauts, rising behind the eastern coast, 
are of a less lofty and rugged description than the preceding. Along 


INDIA. 


397 


the northern border of the Deccan stretches a chain called the Berar 
Mountains, and in the south the Nilgherry Mountains connect the 
eastern and western Ghauts. 

3. Rivers. The Ganges, the principal river of India, rises on the 
southern declivity of the northern or principal chain of the Himala 
mountains, and after a course of 800 miles issues from the lower range 
of mountains into the open country. Hence this great river, which the 
Hindoos hold in religious veneration, believing that its waters have a 
virtue which will purify them from every transgression, flows through 
delightful plains, with a smooth navigable stream from one to three 
miles wide, toward the bay of Bengal, into which it runs by two large, 
and a multitude of smaller channels, that form and intersect a large tri¬ 
angular island, the base of which at the sea is near 200 miles in extent. 
The whole navigable course of this river, from its entrance into the 
plain to the sea, extending with its windings above thirteen hundred 
miles, is now possessed by the British, their allies and tributaries. The 
western branch, called the Little Ganges, or river of Hoogly, is navigable 
for large ships. 

The Ganges receives 11 rivers, some of which are equal to the Rhine, 
and none inferior to the Thames. The principal tributary is the Jumna 
which has a course of 800 miles. The inundations of the Ganges are 
watched with great interest by the natives; they take place in July and 
August, and are caused in part by the rains and melting of snows in the 
upper part of its course, and in part by the rain, which falls in the plain. 
By the end of July all the lower parts of Bengal contiguous to the 
Ganges are overflowed, and form a lake of more than 100 miles in 
breadth. The Brahmapootra or Burrampootra is supposed to rise in 
the mountains to the east of Assam, and it joins the eastern branch 
of the Ganges; the sources are as .yet unexplored. 

The Indus or Sind rises on the northern declivity of the Himala 
Mountains, in Little Tibet, and after taking a northerly direction for a 
considerable distance, it breaks through the mountains, and flows south 
into the Arabian Sea. Its length is 1700 miles, and it discharges its 
waters by a single mouth, but sends off a large branch to the Gulf of 
Cutch. Its principal tributary is the Punjab, formed by the confluence 
of five rivers, of which the Sutlege, with a course of 900 miles, and 
Jylum, 750 miles in length, are the chief. 

In Southern Hindostan the principal rivers are the Nerbudda, which 
forms the northern boundary of the Deccan, and flows into the Gulf 
of Cambay, after a course of 750 miles; the Godaveri, which rises in the 
Western Ghauts, and runs into the Bay of Bengal, through a distance 
of 850 miles; and the Krishna, 700 miles in length, and Cavery, 400, 
running into the same bay. 

4. Surface. The northern part is mountainous and rugged; but 
between the parallel ridges of the Himala Mountains extends the beauti 
ful girdle of Bootan, Nepaul, Serinagore, and Cashmere, comprising a 
series of charming valleys, and plains at the height of from 4,000 to 
7,000 feet. The valley of the Ganges comprising the main body of 
India is composed of a great plain of matchless fertility, extending from 
the Brahmapootra to the great desert, which divides the sources of the 
Jumna from the tributaries of the Indus, and from the mountains of the 
north to the high lands of central India; it is 1200 miles long, and from 
300 to 400 broad, and forms a continuous level of exhaustless richness, 


398 


INDIA. 


over which majestic rivers diffuse themselves with a slow and almost ill- 
sensible course. Westward of this plain, stretches the elevated desert 
of Ajmere, of moving sand, extending (>00 miles from north to south, 
and 300 from east to west, and bearing in some parts coarse grass or 
prickly shrubs, and interspersed with some productive tracts. West 
of this is the rich plain of the Punjab, in which the five tributaries of 
the Indus, reproduce the luxuriant fertility of the Gangetic plain. 
Around the Nerbudda is the table-land of Central India, comprising 
Malwa, Candeish, and Gundwana, having an elevation of from 1,200 to 
2,000 feet. Farther south lies the table-land of the Deccan, which is 
from 1,500 to 3,000 feet high. Below this on the east and west, the 
coasts sink down to a flat, low country. 

5. Climate. The varying degrees of elevation produce here the same 
changes in regard to temperature, that arise in some regions from great 
differences of position upon the earth’s surface. The littoral plains 
and the high table-lands of the Deccan, the flat lands of the Ganges, and 
the mountainous regions of the north present striking contrasts. The 
vast plains exhibit the double harvests, the luxuriant foliage, and even 
the burning deserts of the torrid zone ; the lower heights are covered 
with the fruits and grains of temperate climates; the higher elevations 
are clothed with the fine forests of northern regions; while the loftiest 
pinnacles are buried beneath the perpetual snows of the Arctic zone. 
The low, hot countries are commonly unhealthy for Europeans, and 
sanitary stations have been established in the hill provinces, to which 
those who are suffering from fever, dysentery, or liver complaint, the 
diseases engendered in the former, remove for the restoration of their 
health. In the dry, sandy plains of some parts of the country, coup de 
soleil or stroke of the sun, not unfrequently occurs by exposure to the 
intense heat of the solar rays. In general the year is divided into three 
seasons; the rainy, cold, and hot; the rainy extends from June to 
October; the cold from November to February; and the hot from March 
to May. The healthy season may be said to be from November to the 
setting in of the rains, and the unhealthy season during the period of 
the rains, and a short time after their termination. The northeast 
monsoon prevails during one half of the year, and the southwest during 
the other half. 

6. JYatural Productions. Large forests are found in various parts of 
this extensive country, and on the coast of Malabar they consist of trees 
of a prodigious size. The teak-tree affords a strong and durable timber, 
which is well calculated for ship-building, as teak ships that have been 
in service for thirty years are not uncommon in the Indian seas, while 
a European built ship is ruined there in five years. The cocoa-tree is 
remarkable for its extensive utility: of the body or trunk the natives 
make boats, and frames and rafters for their houses; they thatch their 
houses with the leaves, and, by slitting them lengthwise, make mats and 
baskets. The nut affords food, drink, and a valuable oil. From the 
branches when cut, exudes a liquor called toddy, from which when 
fermented is distilled an excellent arrack. The betel is cultivated all 
over India for its fruit, the well known betel-nut. The Indian fig, like¬ 
wise called the banyan and the wonder-tree, is sometimes of an amaz¬ 
ing size, as it is continually increasing: every branch proceeding from 
the trunk throws out long fibres, which take root in the earth, and shoot 
out new branches; these again throw out fibres that take root, and con- 


INDIA. 


399 


tinue to increase as long as they find soil to nourish them. Of fruit¬ 
bearing trees the number is very great, and the fruit delicious, especially 
pomegranates, oranges, lemons, citrons, dates, almonds, mangoes, pines, 
melons ; and, in the northern parts, pears and apples. In some parts, 
large tracts are covered with a dense mass of foliage and vegetation, 
crowded and twined together in such a manner as to be almost im¬ 
penetrable. This forms what is called a jungle, composed of huge 
trees, prickly shrubs, and canes or bamboos, which in a few months 
run up to the height of 60 feet. 

7. Animals . Of the wild animals of Hindostan, the tiger, for his 
size and strength, may claim the first place; the royal tiger (as he is 
called) of Bengal grows, it is said, to the height of five or six feet with 
a proportional length, and has such strength, that he can carry off a 
bullock or a buffalo with ease. Elephants are here very numerous and 
large. Here are also rhinoceroses, wild-boars, lions, bears, leopards, 
panthers, lynxes, hysenas, wolfs, jackals, and foxes, with various spe¬ 
cies of apes and monkeys, and many beautiful antilopes, particularly 
that large kind called the nyl-ghau. Wild buffaloes, which are very 
fierce, and have horns of extraordinary length, and the yak or grunting 
ox, are also numerous. 

8. Minerals. Iron, copper, and lead are abundant in various regions, 
but the mines are little wrought. The soil in many places is impreg¬ 
nated with saltpetre and soda, which is deposited upon the surface 
in moist weather in great quantities. Borax or tincal is obtained by 
evaporation from many saline lakes. Diamonds are obtained by wash¬ 
ings in several localities upon the Krishna, and the Godavery, and in 
Bundelcund : there are no mines in Golconda, but the diamonds are 
cut in the city of that name, which is a great mart for this gem, and this 
has led to the mistaken notion, that the diamond districts were in its 
vicinity. 

9. Islands. Ceylon lies near the southern extremity of Hindostan. It 
is 300 miles in length, and from 50 to 100 in breadth. The coast is low 
and flat, and encircled Ivith a wide border of cocoa trees, surrounded by 
rocks and shoals. The interior is filled with mountains, which rise in 
successive ranges from the coast; many of them are verdant and beauti¬ 
ful; others, peaked and rocky: the highest is called Adam’s Peak. A 
chain of shoals and rocks, called Adam’s bridge, connects the island 
with the continent, so that the channel between them is impassable for 
ships. Ceylon produces a great variety of fruits, and the finest cinna¬ 
mon in the world. The minerals are tin, lead, iron, and quicksilver. 
Precious stones are abundant. Columbo is the chief town, and has 
considerable commerce, with a population of 50,000. Trincomalee 
derives importance from the excellence of its harbor, in which the 
English have a dockyard. The natives are divided into the Cingalese, 
who inhabit the maritime region, and the Candians, who live in the 
interior. The island belongs to the English crown. 

The Laccadives are a group of shoals and islets to the west of the 
Deccan; they are governed by a prince, dependent upon the English. 

The Maldives also consist of a great number of banks or holms, 
among which there are 40 or 50 inhabited islets. The sovereign, who 
bears the title of sultan, resides in the largest, which is about 3 miles 
in circumference. 

10. Divisions. This country is politically divided into the Seik 


400 


INDIA. 


confederation; the kingdom of Sindia; the principality of Sinde; the 
kingdom of Nepaul; British India ; French India; Portuguese India; 
Danish India; and the kingdom of the Maldives. 

11. British India. The English East India company are masters 
of nearly all India, which they have conquered from the native prin¬ 
ces. Their territories cover an area of 1,130,000, square miles, and 
contain a population 130,000,000 souls. They are composed of two 
distinct parts; the country immediately and entirely governed by the 
company’s servants, divided into the three presidencies of Bengal, 
Madras, and Bombay, having an area of 515,000 square miles, and 90 
million inhabitants; and the territory of the allied states, which are 
garrisoned by British troops and are really mere vassals of the com¬ 
pany, though nominally governed by their own princes; the vassal or 
allied states are Hyderabad, Nagpore, Oude, Satarah, Mysore, Guzerat, 
Rajpootana, Travancore, Cochin, and numerous other petty states. 

Calcutta, the capital of Bengal, stands upon the Hoogly, in a marshy 
and unhealthy spot. It consists of two parts; the one inhabited by 
the natives, dirty and meanly built, called the Black Town, is a mere 
assemblage of thatched mud huts; the other, occupied by the Euro¬ 
peans, called the Chouringee, is described as resembling a village of 
palaces. Calcutta is the residence of the governor general of India, 
and is one of the most wealthy, populous, and commercial cities of 
Asia, having about 600,000 inhabitants. Fort William at Calcutta is 
remarkable for the vast extent and great strength of its works. Se- 
rampore, in the vicinity, belongs to Denmark ; it is a small town with 
13,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly remarkable, as being the principal 
station of the Baptist missionaries in India; they have here a college for 
the instruction of native youth, and a celebrated printing establishment, 
from which have issued translations of the Bible into eight Indian 
languages, and of the New Testament into twenty four Indian dialects. 

Dacca, upon the branch of the Ganges called the Old Ganges, was 
once the capital of Bengal, and is famous for the beautiful products of 
its looms, particularly its fine muslins. It has 200,000 inhabitants. 

Mooshedabad, upon the Ganges, with 130,000 inhabitants, and Patna, 
upon the same river, with 300,000, are, like most of the Asiatic cities, 
meanly built, but their manufactures are important. 

Benares, higher up the Ganges, is the largest city of India, and has 
long been celebrated as the chief seat of Braminical learning; it is also 
venerated by the Hindoos as a holy place, and crowds of pilgrims 
annually visit it from all parts of the country. The houses are high, 
and are ornamented with verandahs and galleries, and covered with 
painted tiles of brilliant colors. The temples are generally small, but 
they are numerous, and covered with sculptures of high finish. Sacred 
bulls consecrated to Siva, the Destroyer, the third member of the Hindoo 
trinity, are seen strolling about the streets, and groups of monkeys, 
sacred to Hanuman, or the Man Monkey, are climbing over the tem¬ 
ples, or pillaging the shops, without check, of fruits and sweetmeats. 
Benares is also a great manufacturing city, and the great mart for the 
shawls of the north, the diamonds of the south, the muslins of Dacca, 
and the English manufactures, brought from Calcutta. 

Allahabad, at the confluence of the Jumna with the Ganges, is re¬ 
garded by the Hindoos as the queen of holy cities, and is annually 
visited by thousands of pilgrims; the prayagas, or points where the trib- 


INDIA. 


401 


utaries of the Ganges, join the main stream, being regarded as places 
of peculiar sanctity, ablution in which atones even for deadly sins. It 
is now much reduced, having but 20,000 inhabitants, but its citadel, 
which has been rendered impregnable by the English, renders it the 
principal stronghold of British India. 

Agra, on the Jumna, once the splendid residence of the Great Mogul 
Akbar, is now principally in ruins. It still contains 60,000 inhabitants, 
and has of late begun to recover its commerce. The most remarka¬ 
ble building is the mausoleum of Tajmahal, erected by her husband; it 
is built of marble, and forms a square of 570 feet, surmounted by a 
marble dome 70 feet high, and four minarets of great elegance; the 
walls are adorned with exquisite mosaics made of precious stones, and 
a beautiful and spacious garden surrounds the building. The mauso¬ 
leum of Akbar, at Sicandara, six miles distant, is little inferior to this. 

Delhi, also upon the Jumna, and at one time the residence of the 
brilliant court of the Grand Mogul, is now much reduced, but still 
contaius 300,000 inhabitants. The imperial palace is one of the 
most magnificent residences in the world ; it is surrounded by a high 
and strong wall of about a mile in circuit. The principal mosque, con¬ 
sidered the most splendid Mahometan temple in India, rises upon a 
vast platform surrounded with a beautiful colonnade, and is 260 feet 
long; its rich decorations, its domes, and lofty minarets, 130 feet in 
height, are much admired. There is here a canal 120 miles in length, 
which serves to bring water from the mountains to Delhi, for purposes 
of irrigation. 

Hurd war is famous for its situation at the confluence of the two 
head branches of the Ganges, which attracts an immense number of 
pilgrims, estimated at some seasons to exceed one million. 

Juggernaut in Orissa is renowned throughout all India for its tem¬ 
ple, esteemed by the natives the most sacred place of pilgrimage. It 
consists of a number of buildings surrounded by a high wall, within 
which is a second enclosure, containing the sanctuary of Juggernaut, 
the lord of the universe, a pyramidal building 200 feet high. At 
great festivals the Juggernaut is placed in an enormous car, and drag¬ 
ged to his country residence, whence, after spending eight days, he is 
conducted back to the temple. It is at this time that the wretched 
devotees throw themselves under the wheels of the car, esteeming it 
a passport to happiness in the next world to be crushed under its 
weight. 

Madras, the capital of the presidency of the same name, is a large, 
populous, and well built city with 462,000 inhabitants. It presents a 
singular mixture of pagodas, minarets, mosques, and gardens, and con¬ 
sists of two distinct quarters, the Black and the White Town. Its cotton 
manufactures are extensive, and its commerce considerable. In the 
vicinity are the celebrated ruins of Mahabalipuram, consisting of im¬ 
mense excavations, groups of innumerable figures of men and animals; 
and beneath the waters of the sea, which has swallowed up a part of its 
site, some buildings are still visible. 

Trichi nopoly, one of the chief military stations of the British, con¬ 
tains 80,000 inhabitants, and Tanjore, in the neighborhood, once the 
capital of a kingdom, has about 30,000 inhabitants. On the island of 
Seringham, in the Cavery opposite Trichinopoly, is an immense pa¬ 
goda, composed of seven enclosures, the walls of which are 25 feet high, 
26 


402 


INDIA. 


each containing four large gates, surmounted by towers; the exterior 
wall is four miles in circuit; the towers, gates, and interior of the 
buildings are covered with sculpture, and the canopy of the interior 
temple is of massive gold, set with precious stones 

Masulipatam, on the Krishna, with 75,000 inhabitants, has the best 
harbor on the Coromandel coast, and its manufactures and commerce 
are extensive. 

Seringapatam, on the Cavery, in the kingdom of Mysore, belongs 
to the English; it was once the residence of the celebrated Tippoo 
Saib, and the capital of a powerful kingdom ; but it is now much 
reduced, and its 150,000 inhabitants have dwindled down to 10,000. 

Bombay, the capital of a presidency, is built upon a small island, 
defended by vast citadel, and is the chief naval station of the English 
in India. Its harbor is the best on the western coast, and Bombay is 
the great mart of the Indian trade with Persia, Arabia, Abyssinia, and 
the Indian Archipelago. The Parsees or Guebres, and the Armeni¬ 
ans are the principal merchants. Population 200,000. At Elephanta 
in the neighborhood is a temple of great size, hewn in the solid rock; 
it has three entrances between four rows of massive columns, and con¬ 
tains a colossal statue of Siva. At Kenneri, on another island, is a 
cave-temple still more lofty, and a whole hill is there cut out into 
tanks, stairs, &c. 

Poonah is a large and handsome town, with spacious streets ; pop¬ 
ulation 115,000. 

Surat, on the Tapty, is one of the chief commercial towns of India. 
It has a good harbor, but the streets are narrow and crooked, and the 
houses very high with the upper stories projecting. The Guebres are 
numerous and wealthy; Indian charity has here erected a vast hospital 
for animals, comprising monkeys, tortoises, fleas, and other vermin. 
Population 100,000. 

Ahmedabad, formerly one of the largest, richest, and most splendid 
cities of Asia, still contains a population of 100,000 souls, and several 
remarkable edifices, which attest its ancient magnificence. 

The ruins of Bisnagar, in the province of Bejapor, exceed in extent 
and gigantic proportions any thing of the sort in India. Its enormous 
walls are constructed of colossal blocks of stone, and its deserted 
streets, one of which, exceeding a mile in length and 100 feet in 
breadth, is lined through its whole length by colonnades, are paved 
with huge masses of granite. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Bisnagar 
was the capital of a powerful empire. 

In the kingdom of Oude is Lucknow, the capital, and the residence 
of the most brilliant native court in India. It contains many magnifi¬ 
cent buildings, and 300,000 inhabitants. 

Hyderabad is the residence of the Nizam, or sovereign prince of the 
state called the kingdom of the Deccan. It has a population of 200,000 
souls. Golconda in its neighborhood is a celebrated mart for diamonds. 
Aurungabad in the same state has 60,000 inhabitants. Ellora in its 
vicinity is famous for its magnificent cave-temples of enormous size 
and exquisite finish. 

Nagpore is the capital of the Mahratta kingdom of the same name ; 
population 125,000. 

Baroda, the capital of the states of Guickwar, another Mahratta 
prince, has 100,000 inhabitants. 


INDIA. 


403 


In the province of Ajmere, called also Rajpootana, on account of its 
containing several Rajpoot principalities, the most important town is 
Jvepore, one of the best built cities in India, with 60,000 inhabitants. 
The royal palace is built to represent a peacock’s tail, the colored glass 
of the windows representing the rich spots of the plumes. 

12. Kingdom of Sindia. This kingdom, which is entirely surround¬ 
ed by the British territories, comprises parts of the old provinces of 
Agra, Candeish, and Malwah, and has an area of 40,000 square miles, 
with 4,000,000 inhabitants. 

Gwalior, the capital, is a flourishing and populous city built in a 
vast plain, out of which suddenly rises a hill 340 feet high, containing 
the citadel. Population 80,000. 

Oogein is a town with 100,000 inhabitants, celebrated among the Hin¬ 
doos for its schools and its observatory. 

13. Confederation of the Seiks , or kingdom of Lahore, comprising 
Lahore, Cashmere, Multan, and part of the kingdom Cabul, has an area 
175,000 square miles and 8,000,000 inhabitants. Cashmere, however, 
has lately been detached from it, and probably now forms an indepen¬ 
dent state. 

Lahore, the capital, is a commercial and manufacturing town, stand¬ 
ing in the midst of a fertile and well cultivated country, with 100,000 
inhabitants. 

Amretsir, an important commercial mart, with about 50,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, contains the celebrated well of immortality, which the Hindoos 
imagine has power to wash away all sin. In the sacred basin is a tem¬ 
ple served by 500 priests. 

Cashmere, capital of the province of the same name, is a large manu¬ 
facturing city, but badly built, and much reduced from its former splen¬ 
dor. It is celebrated for the beauty of its situation, and its delightful 
climate, and it was the summer residence of the former sovereigns of 
India. Its shawls are known all over the world. Population 100,000. 

14. Kingdom of Nepaul. This state, which lies between British India 
and the Chinese empire, has an area of 53,000 square miles and 
2,500,000 inhabitants. Catmandoo, the capital, has a population of about 
20 , 000 . 

15. The Principality of Sinde , lying upon both sides of the Indus, has 
1,000,000 inhabitants upon a surface of 52,000 square miles. The 
capital, Hyderabad, is noted for its manufacture of arms, and has a 
population of 15,000. 

16. Portuguese India. The Portuguese possess only a small territory 
around Goa, Daman, and Diu on the eastern coast. The town of Goa, 
on a small island, has a good harbor and carries on an active trade; its 
population is about 15,000. 

17. French India. France possesses several detached fragments of 
territory round Pondicherry, Carical, Yanaon, Chandernagor, and 
Mahe. Pondichery, the residence of the governor of the French pos¬ 
sessions in India, has 40,000 inhabitants. 

18. Danish India consists merely of Seram pore, in Bengal, and 
Tranquebar, on the Cavery in Tanjore, with 12,000 inhabitants. 

19. Jlgriculture. The implements of husbandry are exceedingly im¬ 
perfect, and the agricultural part of the population are extremely poor. 
The only artificial means of fertility employed to much extent is irri¬ 
gation. Rice, which in Hindostan is the staff of life; cotton of an 


404 


INDIA. 


inferior quality, the material of clothing; opium, which is extensively 
used, particularly in the east, as a luxury ; silk, though inferior in staple 
to the European; sugar, but of a sort inferior to that of the West 
Indies; indigo, now the most important commercial product of India, 
and pepper are the principal articles of agricultural industry. 

20. Manufactures. India long supplied the west with manufactured 
goods, but in most articles, European skill and machinery have in recent 
times supplanted the productions of India; yet the muslins of Dacca 
in fineness, and the calicoes and other piece-goods of Coromandel in 
brilliancy and durableness of color, have never been surpassed. The 
Indian manufactures are produced by solitary individuals, working 
entirely by hand, with a loom of the rudest construction. The silk 
manufacture has been carried on from remote antiquity; cotton goods 
have long been made in great quantities, but at present British and even 
American cottons are imported into Hindostan. The Hindoos excel 
in working in gold and silver, and in cutting, polishing, and setting 
precious stones. 

21. Commerce. The Banians or Hindoo merchants, Armenians, and 
Parsees carry on the principal part of the internal trade; the maritime 
commerce is principally carried on by the English, Americans, &c. 
The English East India company prosecutes an extensive commerce 
between India and China, and the Indian Islands; tea is imported from 
China, to which opium is sent; spices from the Moluccas; coffee from 
Arabia, &c. 

22. Religion. The Hindoos are chiefly professors of Bramanism, but 
Buddhism is the religion of the Cingalese, the Nepaulese, and some 
others. The Jains are a Buddhist sect, who have incorporated some 
notions derived from Bramanism with their faith. The Seiks profess 
the religion of Nanek, a mixture of Mahometanism with Bramanism. 
The Mahometan religion is professed by that race of conquerors who 
established the empire of the great Mogul, and who were in facta 
mixture of Persian and Turkish tribes, and by some Hindoo converts. 
The Parsees or Guebres are numerous in Guzerat, and there are some 
Jews and Christians. 

23. Government. The native princes, who reign over a considerable 
part of the country, possess in general absolute power. The East India 
company of merchants rules over the immense territorial possessions 
belonging to it without any other control than the responsibility of its 
agents to the government of Great Britain. The laws and usages of 
the Hindoos are generally respected within its possessions. The vassal 
princes or allies have little more than the pomp of power, the real 
authority being for the most part in the hands of the company’s resi¬ 
dents or agents, stationed at the allied courts. The company maintains 
a large standing force of 256,000 men, consisting chiefly of native 
soldiers called sepoys, but officered by Europeans; only the inferior 
ranks being accessible to the natives. Garrisons are stationed in the 
allied territories, the troops composing which are paid by the respective 
princes. Thus is unhappy India enslaved by her own children, who 
are paid by her own money. The revenues of this great mercantile 
tyrant are derived chiefly from the territorial taxes, the trade having 
never proved a great source of revenue. 

24. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of India are Hindoos, who com¬ 
pose the mass of the population; descendants of Turkish and Persian 


INDIA. 


405 


tribes, who at different periods conquered the country; Europeans, 
of whom the number is few, not probably amounting to 100,000, in¬ 
cluding the civil and military servants of the company, and the king’s 
troops stationed in the country ; the Anglo-Indians, or East Indians, or 
descendants of English by Hindoo women, of whom the number does 
not exceed 50,000 ; and a number of nations such as the Garrows, Gonds, 
Bheels, Jits, &c., who do not appear to belong to either of these races. 

One of the most striking features of the Hindoo social system is the 
division into castes or hereditary classes, of which there are four prin¬ 
cipal ones ; the Bramins or priests; the Shatryas or warriors; the Vaisyas 
or husbandmen, merchants (banians), and artisans; and the Sudras or 
menials. But the number of mixed castes is very great, and it is by no 
means true, as is generally asserted, that the individuals of each caste 
are strictly limited to a particular occupation. Almost every occupa¬ 
tion is, indeed, regularly the profession of a particular class, but with 
some exceptions it is also open to those of other castes. Thus there 
are three duties or privileges exclusively braminical; teaching the ve- 
das or sacred books, officiating at a sacrifice, and receiving presents 
from a pure giver; but a bramin in distress may have recourse to em¬ 
ployments of the lower castes for subsistence; and so with the other 
castes, each in general being excluded from the professions belonging 
to superior castes, but being at liberty to follow those of the inferior; 
the sudras, however, and the mixed classes or burren-sunker are per¬ 
mitted to exercise all sorts of handicraft, trade, and agriculture. 

Beside these are the outcasts, or unhappy individuals who have, by 
misconduct, or even by the most trivial act of inadvertence, lost caste ; 
to swallow a morsel of beef though involuntarily, to hold communica¬ 
tion with persons of an inferior caste, &c., converts the most revered 
bramin at once into a despised outcast, who forfeits his patrimony, is 
excluded from the society of his family, and from all the courtesies 
and charities of life. There is a class of hereditary outcasts in India 
called pariahs, whose origin is unknown; even their approach is con¬ 
sidered pollution, and they are required to give notice of their presence 
by uttering certain cries, which may warn the pure of the danger. 

The sacred books of the Hindoos, called the Vedas, constitute the 
holy word or Shastra, which was derived from Vishnu; they are writ¬ 
ten in the San-scrit or Holy Language, long since a dead language, but 
probably spoken at a remote period, and are in the devanagari or sacred 
alphabet. According to the Braminical doctrines, the supreme mind 
or Brahm, acts in the three great operations of creating by Brama, of 
preserving- by Vishnu, and of destroying by Siva; these three powers 
or energies constitute the Braminical trinity or trirnourti, and have in¬ 
terposed in various characters and under various names in the affairs 
of men. By the common people all these manifestations of the su¬ 
preme mind are considered as so many divine beings or gods, but the 
philosophers consider them only as attributes or metamorphoses of 
Brahm. The ten avatars or descents of Vishnu upon earth constitute 
one of the most fertile themes of Hindoo mythology ; under various 
forms, human, monstrous, or brutal, he has repeatedly appeared on earth 
destroy ing giants, monsters, &c. The tenth avatar, when he will come 
to root out evil from the earth, is yet expected. The veneration of 
brute animals, particularly the cow, monkeys, &c., is derived from this 
doctrine of the divine incarnation in different forms. 


406 


INDIA. 


Metempsychosis or the transmigration of souls is also a leading 
feature of the Braminical religion; according to this belief the soul 
of man after death passes into other bodies, human or brute; and the 
nature of the change depends upon the moral character of the individ¬ 
ual. The good rise into higher states of existence, while the souls of 
the wicked animate the most vile and degraded animals. 

The rites of Braminism are chiefly of an irrational or of a revolting 
nature; pilgrimages, penances, ablutions, honors paid to images or 
sacred animals, and ceremonies of the most indecent or cruel nature, 
make up its ritual. 

There are many wandering fakeers, and many devotees live in soli¬ 
tude, who consider it meritorious to torture themselves. Some hold 
their hands in a perpendicular posture till they are withered, and others 
clench their hands together, till their nails grow into the flesh. Others 
are swung round with a hook passed under the muscles of the back, 
attached to a line which is made fast to a pivot on a post. The most 
grotesque as well as repulsive means of self torturing are followed. 

The great rivers are favorite objects of Hindoo veneration, and the 
waters of the Ganges are used in the courts to swear the witnesses up¬ 
on ; many seek a voluntary death in its sacred bosom, and the parent 
often devotes his child to an early doom in its waters. The Suttee 
or burning of widows upon the funeral pile of their husbands, and 
infanticide in various forms have long been practised, but the authority 
of the British government has lately been employed in abolishing these 
hateful rites. 

The Hindoos are gentle, polished, and courteous in their manners ; 
temperate, simple, frugal, industrious, lively, and intelligent. Yet the 
long oppression of foreign races, and the servile subordination of infe¬ 
riors to their superiors often render them treacherous, selfish,and cruel. 
Women hold a very degraded station among them, not being allowed 
to open a book, or to enter a temple ; they live generally a retired life 
in the interior of the houses. In person, the Hindoos are dark, well 
made, slender, and graceful, and their expression is soft and retiring, 
and less impassioned than that of the Persians or Arabs. The fore¬ 
head is small, the face oval, and the mouth and nose rather of the 
European cast. The ears are larger and more prominent than in Eu¬ 
ropeans. The females of the higher castes, who do not labor, are 
exceedingly delicate and graceful. 

A common mode of travelling is in palanquins, a sort of litter car¬ 
ried by means of poles on the shoulders of men. These vehicles are 
covered, and have curtains and cushions. The bearers are changed 
at convenient distances, on long journeys. They go from three to four 
miles an hour. 

Rice is the principal article of food, but nothing can be more mis¬ 
taken than the supposed prohibition of animal food. Fish is consider¬ 
ed one of the purest and most lawful kinds of food, and many Bramins 
eat both fish and kid ; the Rajpoots beside these eat mutton, venison, 
or goat’s flesh ; some castes may eat any thing but fowls, beef, or pork, 
while pork is a favorite diet with others, and beef only is prohibited. 
Intoxicating liquors are forbidden by their religion ; but this is disre¬ 
garded by many both of high and low caste, and intoxication is not 
rare even among the Bramins. 


FARTHER INDIA. 


407 


CXXXIV. FARTHER INDIA, OR INDIA BEYOND 
THE GANGES. 

1. Boundaries. Farther India comprises an extensive region lying 
to the east of Hindostan, and to the south of the Chinese empire. It 
has the Chinese Sea on the east and south ; the Strait of Sincapore on 
the south ; and the Strait of Malacca and the Sea of Bengal on the 
west. It extends from Lat. 2° to 29° N., and from Lon. 90° to 109° E. 

2. Natural. Features. The interior of this country is little known. 
It appears to be traversed by some chains of the Himala Mountains, 
and it contains a number of large rivers, the sources and upper course 
of which have never been explored. The Irawaddy, one of the largest 
rivers in Asia, is supposed to rise in the Chinese empire; after travers¬ 
ing the Birman empire from north to south, it reaches the sea by four¬ 
teen mouths, forming a delta 150 miles in width. The Saluen, which 
also traverses the Birman empire, empties itself into the gulf of Marta¬ 
ban. These rivers overflow extensive tracts of level country in the 
lower part of their course. The Menam is a large river, supposed to rise 
in the Chinese province of Yunnan, and which, passing through Siam, in¬ 
tersects and fertilizes that country by numerous branches, and enters 
the Gulf of Siam. The Mecon rises in Thibet, and after traversing the 
Chinese province of Yunnan, and the kingdom of Cambodia, it flows 
into the sea under the name of the river of Cambodia. The climate 
and productions do not differ materially from those of Hindostan. 

3. Divisions. Farther India comprises, beside several barbarous 
peoples who are independent, the empire of Annam, the kingdom of 
Siam, the Birman empire, the states of Malacca, the Andaman and 
Nicobar islands, and the English possessions. 

4. Birman Empire. This state is bounded on the north by the Eng¬ 
lish province of Assam, and the Chinese province of Yunnan; east by 
Yunnan and the Saluen ; south by the Sea of Bengal, and west by that 
sea and the English province of Arracan. It has an area of about 
205,000 square miles, and is estimated to contain nearly 3,700,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

Ava, the capital, is a large, but not very populous city upon the 
Irawaddy ; it is meanly built, consisting mainly of thatched cabins, 
with a few brick houses. Ava, like all the Birmese towns, contains 
numerous temples, with tall gilded spires, which make a show at a 
distance, but they are built of wood, as are also the monasteries and 
the palace. The population is estimated to amount to 50,000. 

Uinerapoora, which was once the capital, is also built chiefly of wood; 
here is a temple, which contains a colossal image of Godama, or Bud¬ 
dha, and a gallery with numerous ancient inscriptions on stone collected 
from different parts of the empire. Population 30,000. Saigaing, 
opposite to Ava, is also a large town, filled with an astonishing number 
of temples. 

Pegu, upon the river of the same name in the kingdom of Pegu, was 
destroyed by the Birmese in 1757, and has hut few inhabitants. It is 
chiefly remarkable for the temple of Shumadu, a large brick pyramid 
330 feet high, and 1,296 feet in circuit at the base, without any aperture. 
The whole is crowned by a tee or gilt iron summit, upon which is a 


408 FARTHER INDIA. 

gilt umbrella, 56 feet in circumference; to the tee are suspended nu¬ 
merous bells. 

Rangoon, upon one of tbe branches of the Irawaddy, is the prin¬ 
cipal commercial place in the empire, and is the great mart for teak 
wood, which is exported to Hindostan. Here is a temple similar to 
that at Pegu. Population 20,000. 

The Birmans are inferior to the Hindoos and Chinese in arts, manu¬ 
factures, and industry, and in all the institutions of civil life. They are 
ignorant of literature and science, and unskilled in navigation. The 
government is a pure despotism, the king dispensing torture, imprison¬ 
ment, and death, according to his sovereign pleasure. The criminal 
code is barbarous and severe, and the punishments inflicted are shock¬ 
ing to humanity; the ordeal and other superstitious modes of proceed¬ 
ing are resorted to, but the administration of justice is so inefficient, 
that the country is overrun with robbers and criminals. 

The Birmese are distinguished into seven classes, which have each 
peculiar privileges; these are the royal family, the public officers, the 
priests, the rich men, the laborers, the slaves, and outcasts. The laborers 
are considered as slaves of the king, who may at all times command 
their services. Women are not shut up as in many eastern countries, 
but in many respects they are exposed to the most degrading treatment, 
and rqay even be sold for a time to strangers. A Birman cannot leave 
the country without the permission of the king, which is only granted 
for a limited time, and women are never allowed to quit it at all. 

5. Kingdom of Siam. This kingdom, comprising Siam Proper, and 
part of Laos, Cambodia, and Malacca, is bounded north by China ; east 
by the empire of Annam; south by the Chinese Sea, and the Gulf of 
Siam, and west by the Strait of Malacca, and the Birman empire. It 
has an area of 200,000 square miles, and 3,600,000 inhabitants. 

Bankok, on the Menarn near its mouth, is a large city with an active 
commerce. It is entirely built of wood, with the exception of the 
palace and the temples, and has about 90,000 inhabitants, nearly three- 
quarters of whom are Chinese, who carry on all the foreign commerce 
of Siam. A great number of houses are built upon rafts moored in the 
river, and forming a floating city by itself. 

Siam, formerly the capital, and once a large and populous city, is 
now in ruins. 

6. Empire of Annam. Annam is bounded north by China; south 
and east by the Chinese Sea, and west by the Siamese state. It com¬ 
prises the kingdoms of Cochin China, Tonquin, Tsiampa, Cambodia, 
part of Laos, &c. Area 280,000 square miles, population 12,000,000. 

Hue is remarkable for its vast military works, its granaries, barracks, 
magazines,.and arsenals; the ditch which surrounds the place is eight 
miles in circuit, and 100 feet broad, and the walls are 60 feet high. The 
palace of the emperor is also an edifice of great size and strength, and 
there are here a large cannon fouudery and a dock-yard. Population 
100,000. 

Kesho, formerly capital of the kingdom of Tonquin, is now much 
reduced in importance. Population 40,000. 

Saigon, capital of Cambodia, upon the Donnai, has 100,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. Its citadel is hardly inferior in strength and extent of its works 
to that of Hue, and there is here a dock-yard, on an extensive scale, at 
which an American navigator a few years since saw 190 galleys, and 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


409 

two frigates built on the European model. The houses are mostly of 
wood, thatched with rice straw or palm leaves, and without glass. 

The government of Annam, as well as that of Siam, is of the most 
despotic character, and in both these states, as in the Birman empire, 
every male subject above 20 years of age, excepting the priests and 
public officers, is obliged to give every third year to the service of gov¬ 
ernment, either as a soldier or a laborer. 

The inhabitants are short and squat, and have an expression of 
sprightliness, intelligence, and good humor. Morals are in a low state ; 
the women are little better than mere slaves, being obliged to perform 
all the labor. Arts, manufactures, and agriculture are in a backward 
condition and make no progress. The people are generally poor, and 
live in miserable huts, with little furniture. 

7. English Territories. The possessions of the East India company 
in Farther India consist of several detached territories; the countries 
between Bengal and the Birman empire comprise Assam, Cashan, the 
country of the Garrows, Arracan, &c.; on the east of the Saluen are 
several provinces between the Birman empire, Siam, and the Sea of 
Bengal; the isle of Pulo Penang or Prince of Wales’ Island, and that of 
Sincapore, with a part of Malacca, also belong to the company. 

Arracan is a large town, built upon a spot overflowed by the river of 
the same name, and consisting chiefly of bamboo huts. Its population 
is about 30,000. 

Amhersttown, founded in 1826, stands at the mouth of the Saluen, 
and has about 10,000 inhabitants. 

Georgetown on the Prince of Wales’ Island is also a flourishing town, 
with an increasing commerce. Population 15,000. 

Sincapore, founded by the British in 1819, is already become a place 
of great commercial importance, and the great mart of this part of the 
world. It has 20,000 inhabitants. 

8. Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar islands form a long chain of 
rocks and islets in the Sea of Bengal, occupied by independent native 
tribes. The Andaman group consists of three principal islands, and a 
great number of smaller ones, inhabited by a fierce and savage race of 
blacks. The Nicobar group is composed of ten principal and numerous 
smaller isles, inhabited by a gentle and peaceable people resembling the 
Malays. 

9. Religion. Buddhism is professed by the Birmans, the Arracanians, 
Peguans, Siamese, Laosians, Cambodians, and by the lower classes in 
Cochin China and Tonquin. Some of the educated classes in the 
latter countries adhere to the doctrines of Confucius. Bramanism has 
some followers in Assam, Cashar, &c., and the Malays, who have 
settled on the coasts are Mahometans. Many barbarous tribes in the 
interior have no religious rites, or are attached to the most absurd su¬ 
perstitions. Christianity has made some converts in the Birman em¬ 
pire and in Annam. 

CXXXV. CHINESE EMPIRE. 

1. Boundaries. The Chinese empire is bounded north by Asiatic 
Russia ; east by the seas of Okotsk and Japan, and the Eastern Sea; 
south by the Chinese Sea, Farther India, and Hindostan; and west by 

s 


410 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


Turkistan. It extends from Lat. 18° to 51° N., and from Lon. 71° to 
143° E., covering an area of 5,425,000 square miles, and having a popu¬ 
lation differently estimated at from 180,000,000 to 250,000,000 souls. 

2. Mountains. On the north is the great Altaian chain, which forms 
in part the boundary between the Russian and Chinese empires. Run¬ 
ning nearly parallel with this is the Teenshan or Bogdo system of 
mountains, which stretches from Turkistan on the west to the country 
of the Monguls on the east; and here sends off a branch to the northeast 
traversing Manchooria and Corea, and another branch to the south trav¬ 
ersing China Proper. In the western part it is known under the local 
name of Mustag. Its highest summits are about 20,000 feet in elevation. 
A third system, in about Lat. 35°, runs parallel with the preceding, 
traversing Tibet and passing into China Proper, where it sends off nu¬ 
merous branches, one of which extends from north to south under the 
name of Yunling, and separates Tibet from China. This system is called 
the Kwanlun system, and rises in some places to the height of 16,000 or 
18,000 feet. Still further south and nearly parallel with these systems is 
the Himala chain separating Tibet from India. The Beloor Mountains 
are a transverse chain, running from north to south, and connecting 
the three last mentioned systems. 

3. Rivers. The Amur or Seghalien is a large river which rises in 
the Altaian Mountains, and flows east into the Sea of Okotsk, after a 
course of 1,800 miles. The Hoangho rises in the Kokonor Mountains, 
or a part of the Kwanlun system to the north of Tibet, and reaches the 
Yellow Sea by a circuitous course of 2,300 miles. Its current is so 
rapid as to render the navigation difficult, and its inundations cause 
great damage. The Kiang or Yangtsekiang rises in Tibet, and flows 
into the Eastern Sea; it has a course of 2,600 miles. The Chukiang is 
a large river which flows by Canton. The Yarkand rises in the Beloor 
Mountains, and flows through Little Bucharia into Lake Lop, after a 
course of about 700 miles. The Ele is a large inland stream, which 
discharges its waters into Lake Palcati. 

4. Surface. Most of the country between the Himala and Altaian 
Mountains lies at a great elevation above the sea, and is composed of 
several table-lands, intersected by the mountain chains already describ¬ 
ed. Between the Altaian and Teenshan mountains is the table-land 
of Zoongaria, from 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the level of the sea, con¬ 
taining Lake Palcati. Between Teenshan and Kwanlun is the plateau 
of Little Bucharia from 6,000 to 9,000 feet high, in which lies Lake Lop. 
Between Kwanlun and the Himala are the two table-lands of Eastern 
Tibet and Western Tibet, elevated from 9,000 to 14,000 feet above the 
sea. The Mongolian table-land is from 8,000 to 12,000 feet high, and 
stretches along the northwestern borders of China Proper. Two great 
deserts occupy a considerable part of this cold and dreary region; the 
desert of Cobi or Shamo, extending through Mongolia, and the Central 
desert occupying a part of Little Bucharia. On these plateaux and 
deserts are scattered volcanic peaks and salt lakes. 

5. Divisions. The empire is commonly described by Europeans 
under the following divisions; China Proper; Manchooria; Corea; 
Mongolia; Tibet; Bootan ; Little Bucharia; Zoongaria; and the Loo 
Choo islands. These divisions are not known to the natives, but as 
they are generally used in our books and maps, they may be more con¬ 
veniently employed than the political divisions of the empire. 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


411 


6. Climate. The great elevation of the surface of the central region 
renders it much colder than other regions of the same latitude. The 
winter is long and severe, and the summer short, hut often excessively 
hot. In some districts however the temperature is more moderate. 
The climate of China Proper is also colder than that of countries in 
the same latitude in western Asia and Europe. The southern part lies 
in the torrid zone, yet even here the heat is tempered by the vicinity of 
high mountains, and the exposure to the cool air of the Pacific Ocean. 

7. Natural Productions. China produces all the fruits common to 
the tropical and temperate countries. The camphor, tallow, and cinna¬ 
mon trees are common in the fields and gardens. The most celebrated 
production is the tea plant which grows wild here, but is much im¬ 
proved by careful culture. It is a shrub 5 or 6 feet in height producing 
leaves of different flavor according to the soil, and care with which it 
is cultivated. It is generally grown in gardens or plantations of no 
great extent. The leaves are gathered by the cultivator’s family, and 
carried to market, where they are bought by persons whose trade it is 
to dry them; the black teas are dried by exposure to the air, the green 
in iron vessels over a fire. Some of the leaf buds of the finest black tea 
plants are picked early before they expand; these constitute pekoe or 
the best black tea ; the second, third, and fourth crops afford the inferior 
qualities. In the same manner the first crop of the green tea plant is 
gunpowder; the second, third, and fourth, imperial, hyson, and young 
hyson ; hyson skin consists of the light leaves obtained from the hyson 
by winnowing. 3Iongolia produces rhubarb, and some other medicinal 
roots, and cotton, rice, and the vine are raised in Little Bucharia. 

8. Canals. The Imperial canal is the greatest work of the kind in 
the world, being 700 miles in length, and with the aid of several navi¬ 
gable rivers affording a line of inland navigation from Pekin to Canton, 
interrupted only by a single portage. There are many other canals*, 
the Chinese are unacquainted with the construction of locks, and the 
boats pass from one level to another on inclined planes over which they 
are drawn upon rollers by men. 

9. Towns. Pekin, the capital of the whole empire of China, and the 
ordinary residence of the emperor, is situated in a very fertile plain, 
twenty leagues distant from the great wall. It is of an oblong form, 
and is divided into two towns; that which contains the emperor’s 
palace is called the Tartar city. The walls and gates are of the height of 
fifty feet, so that they hide the whole city, and are so broad, that sentinels 
are placed upon them on horseback; there are slopes within the city of 
considerable length, by which horsemen may ascend the walls, and in 
several places there are houses built for the guards. The gates, which 
are nine in number, are not embellished with statues or other carving, 
all their beauty consisting in their prodigious height, which at a distance 
gives them a noble appearance. The arches of the gates are built of 
marble; and the rest of large bricks, cemented with excellent mortar. 
Most of the streets are built in a direct line ; the largest are about 120 
feet broad, and above two miles in length; but the houses are poorly 
built in front, and very low ; most of them having only a ground floor, 
and few exceeding one story above it. They are often showily orna¬ 
mented with gilded sculptures. Among the rich the doors are often of 
aromatic wood, richly carved; glass is not used in the windows, and its 
place is supplied by paper. Of all the buildings in this great city, the 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


412 

most remarkable is the imperial palace; the grandeur of which does 
not consist so much in the nobleness and elegance of the architecture, 
as in the multitude of its buildings, courts, and gardens, all regularly 
disposed. The population of Pekin is supposed to be about 1,500,000. 

Nanking was the royal residence till the fifteenth century, but it 
is now a declining city, and a large space within its circuit is unin¬ 
habited. It is regularly built, and is a neat if not handsome town. 
Near the entrance are two temples, one of which is rendered interest¬ 
ing by the skilful execution of the figures of about twenty Chinese 
philosophers and saints, surrounding a great hall. The city has ob¬ 
tained celebrity by the porcelain tower, and by the manufacture of 
nankeen. Population 500,000. 

Canton is the largest port in China, and the only port that has been 
much frequented by Europeans. The city wall is above five miles in 
circumference, with very pleasant walks around it. From the tops 
of some adjacent hills, on which forts are built, you have a fine pros¬ 
pect of the country. It is beautifully interspersed with mountains, little 
hills, and valleys, all green; and these are pleasantly diversified with 
small towns, villages, high towers, temples, the seats of mandarins and 
other great men, which are watered by delightful lakes, canals, and 
small branches from the river, on which are numberless boats and 
junks, sailing different ways through the most fertile parts of the 
country. The streets of Canton are very straight, though generally 
narrow, and are paved with flag-stones. There are many pretty build¬ 
ings in this city, great numbers of triumphal arches, and temples well 
stocked with images. There are many private walks about the skirts 
of the town, where those of the better sort have their houses, but which 
are very little frequented by Europeans, whose business lies chiefly in 
the trading part of the city, where there are only shops and ware¬ 
houses. It is computed that there are in this city and its suburbs, 
nearly 1,000.000 persons, and there are often 5,000 trading vessels lying 
before the city. What is called the boat-town is composed of thou¬ 
sands of boats occupied by individuals, some of whom are not even 
allowed to enter the city. 

Singan, upon a branch of the Hoangho in the western part of China, 
is one of the largest towns, and strongest fortresses in the country. It 
is said to have a population of 300,000 souls. 

Hangchou, near the coast to the southeast of Nanking, is a large 
town with extensive manufactures and commerce, and a good harbor; 
its population is estimated at 600,000. 

Souc.hou, upon the imperial canal, is a flourishing place, and is said 
to contain 700,000 inhabitants. 

There are many other large towns in China, the seats of manufac¬ 
turing and commercial industry, but little remarkable except for their 
size and population. The Chinese towns have no proper name; but 
are merely designated from the district of which they are the capital, 
as the city of Canton, that is of the province of the name; or from 
some other circumstance; as Peking, the northern court, that is, the 
northern residence of the Chinese court, &c. 

In Tibet the capital, Lassa, is a large and well built town, which car¬ 
ries on a great transit trade. It is the residence of the Chinese vice¬ 
roy, and the seat of the dalai-lama, and it contains a vast and magnifi¬ 
cent temple, surrounded by an immense bazar. It has a permanent 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


413 


population of 80,000, besides a large floating population of pilgrims 
and traders. The summer residence of the lama in the neighborhood 
is a large temple 312 feet high, and containing above 10,000 rooms. 
The towers and obelisks are covered with gold or silver, and there are 
innumerable images of Buddha, of gold, silver, and bronze. 

Jigagungar, the largest town in Tibet, situated near the Irawaddy 
has about 100,000 inhabitants. 

Yarkand in Little Bucharia, in a fertile and highly cultivated region, 
is a place of great manufacturing and commercial importance, and 
contains about 75,000 inhabitants, among whom are many Chinese, 
Hindoos, and Bucharians. Cashgar is also a place of great trade, with 
about 40,000 inhabitants. 

Goulja, in Zoongaria, is the great mart of the trade of Central Asia 
with the countries to the east and west. Its population is about 
70,000. 

Macao, upon a peninsula on the southern coast of China, belongs to the 
Portuguese; it is fortified and has considerable commerce, but is much 
sunk in importance. Its population is about 30,000. The English 
have also a factory here, but the police of the place is under the super¬ 
intendence of a Chinese mandarin. 

10. Agriculture. The soil in China is considered to be the proper¬ 
ty of the emperor, every tenant paying one tenth of the produce of the 
land as a rent. Such tenants often underlet portions of their estate 
upon half profits. The processes of agriculture are very imperfect, and 
the artificial methods of cultivation practised in Europe are unknown. 
In the vicinities of the great cities, every inch of ground is carefully 
cultivated, and the hills are diligently formed into terraces; but a great 
part of the land even in China Proper is quite waste, and in the other 
parts of the empire husbandry is still less attended to. 

11. Manufactures. China is so happily situated, and produces such 
a variety of materials for manufactures, that it may be said to be the 
native land of industry; but it is an industry without taste or elegance, 
though carried on with great art and neatness. The Chinese make 
paper of the bark of bamboo and other trees, as well as of cotton, but 
not comparable, for records or printing, to the European. Their ink 
for the use of drawing, called Indian ink, is said to be made of glue and 
lamp-black. The manufacture of that earthen-ware, generally known 
by the name of China, was long a secret in Europe; but several Eu¬ 
ropean nations now exceed the Chinese in manufacturing this com¬ 
modity. The Chinese silks are generally plain or flowered gauze; 
and they are said to have been originally fabricated in this country, 
where the art of rearing the silk-worm was first discovered. The 
Chinese manufacture silks likewise of a more durable kind ; and their 
cotton and other cloths are famous for furnishing a light warm wear. 

Their furniture, vessels, utensils, and instruments of all kinds, are 
distinguished for the firmness of the work. They have from time im¬ 
memorial been acquainted with the art of working in metals, polishing 
and cutting precious stones, and making musical instruments. En¬ 
graving on wood, and stereotype printing have been practised by them 
for seven or eight hundred years. They excel in embroidery, in 
varnishing, dyeing, carving in ivory, filligree-work, and almost every 
art that requires minute attention, patience, and manual dexterity. 
The Ccreans rival the Chinese in industry, particularly in the fabri- 


414 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


cation of nankeen and writing paper. The Tibetans are inferior, but 
their woollen goods are in great demand in the east. Buchanans 
excel in the art of polishing precious stones, in the manufacture of 
cloths of silver and gold, and also in that of silk and woollen goods. 
The Monguls, the Calmucs, and the Kirghises receive from their neigh¬ 
bors all their articles of luxury, and many of those of primary necessity. 

12. Commerce. The domestic trade of the Chinese empire is more 
important than the foreign ; it is carried on by means of numerous rivers 
and canals, and consists principally in the exchange of the natural pro¬ 
ductions or manufactures of the different provinces. The vast extent 
of the country, and the great diversity of its products have caused the 
Chinese to neglect foreign commerce ; still however their junks are to 
be found in all parts of the Indian seas. The commerce with Europe 
and America is limited to the single port of Canton, and is earned on 
chiefly by the English and Americans. In each port there is a certain 
number of merchants called the hong merchants, and every foreign 
ship must get one of these merchants to become security for the 
duties payable on the cargo and for the conduct of the crew. But the 
master or owner of the ship, may deal with any of the hong mer¬ 
chants, or with the outside merchants, that is, natives not belonging to 
the hong, indiscriminately. 

Beside the maritime foreign commerce, there is an extensive inland 
foreign trade carried on with Siberia, through Maimatchin, opposite 
to Kiachta; with Turkistan, through Yarkand; with Hindostan, through 
Lassa; and with the Birman empire and Annam. Tea, nankeen, 
rhubarb, ginger, porcelain, &c., are the chief articles of export. Opium 
from India, furs from North America and Siberia, sandal-wood, edible 
bird’s nests, biche de mer or tripang, ivory, ginseng, and tobacco are 
among the principal imports. 

13. Religion. Buddhism or the religion of Fo is professed by the 
greater part of the inhabitants of the empire, comprising most of the 
Chinese, Coreans, Tibetans, Bootanese, Monguls, Calmucs, and Man- 
choos. The religion of Confucius or the doctrine of the learned is 
the religion of the best educated part of the Chinese and Coreans; the 
emperor is himself the patriarch, and each magistrate solemnizes its 
rites within the limits of his jurisdiction. The learned are in general 
professors of this creed, without, however, entirely renouncing the 
forms and usages, belonging to the other modes of worship. The 
Kirghises, Bucharians, and Turkish tribes, forming the principal part 
of the population in the western provinces, are Mahometans. Some 
of the Manchoos, Tungooses, and barbarous tribes in the interior of 
China practise various sorts of idolatry. There is a colony of Jews 
in China, and there are some Roman Catholics, the converts of the 
missionaries, formerly tolerated here. 

The temples of Buddha, who is called Fo in China, are filled with 
all manner of images, and many of the rites and ceremonies struck 
the Roman Catholic missionaries, from their remarkable resemblance 
to those of their own church. Pontiffs, patriarchs whose spiritual 
jurisdiction extends over a certain province, a council of superior 
priests, by whom the pontiff is elected, and whose badges of dignity 
resemble those of the cardinals, convents, male and female, prayers 
for the dead, auricular confession, the intercession of saints, fasting, 
kissing of feet, litanies, processions, bells, and beads, and holy water, 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 415 

burning of incense and tapers, constitute some of the features of 
Buddhism in China. 

The priests of Buddha in Tibet are called lamas, and here a sort of 
theocracy has arisen. The Grand Lama or Dalai-Lama resides near 
Lassa,and is considered not merely as the representative of the supreme 
god, but as the deity himself, dwelling in a human form. When the 
dalai-lama dies the divine spirit merely passes into another body, 
which is known to the lamas by certain signs. The Mongols as well 
as the Tibetans recognise this personage as the incarnation of the 
divinity, and pay him the greatest veneration. The monasteries are 
very numerous in Tibet, both for males and females. 

The temples in China are low buildings usually containing nu¬ 
merous images, and inhabited by priests and beggars; the pagodas are 
lofty edifices containing no images, nor tenants. 

14. Government. The supreme authority is vested in the emperor 
who is styled the son of heaven ; the crown is hereditary in the male 
line. His power is limited by the rights of certain magistrates, and all 
officers must be appointed, according to established rules, from the 
learned. These form three ranks, which depend solely upon the ca¬ 
pacity of the candidate to undergo certain examinations. There are no 
hereditary dignities, except that of princes of the blood, descendants 
of Confucius, and one or two others, but the ancestors of a person of 
distinguished merit are often rewarded by titles of honor for the ser¬ 
vices of their descendant. 

The laws are couched in the simplest language, and promulgated 
with the utmost possible publicity, that none may be ignorant of them. 
The punishments are the bastinado, the pillory, banishment, hard labor, 
and death. 

The subjects are divided into seven classes; the great officers of 
state, called by Europeans mandarins, the military, the learned, priests, 
husbandmen, artisans, and merchants, several of which are subdivided 
into two or more ranks. 

The government of Tibet and Bootan is a theocracy, of which the 
lamas are the functionaries. The Monguls, Calmucs, and Kirghisesare 
governed by their own chiefs. 

15. Inhabitants. The great mass of the people in China consists of 
the Chinese, but the ruling race, to which belongs the emperor, is the 
Manchoos. The Monguls, the Tibetans, and the Turkish tribes of the 
west, the Coreans, and many independent people of the interior, belong 
to distinct races. 

The complexion of the Chinese is an olive or dark brown. The 
hair is black ; tbe eyes are small and black, with the point next the nose 
inclining a little downwards. The forehead is wide, the cheek bones 
high, and the chin pointed. 

The dress is long and loose. The chief garment is a robe reaching 
almost to the ground. Over tbe robe is worn a girdle of silk, from 
which is suspended a knife in a sheath, and the two sticks which are 
used instead of forks. The shirts are short and wide. The trowsers 
are wide, and in winter they are lined with fur. In warm seasons the 
neck is bare. The Chinese are by no means a cleanly people, either in 
person or dress. They seldom wash their garments, and they carry no 
pocket-handkerchiefs. The hair is shaven except a long tuft on the 
crown, which is plaited somewhat like a whip, and often extends below 


416 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


the waist. The covering for the head is generally a cap of woven 
cane, shaped like an inverted cone. No person is fully dressed without 
a fan. The dress of females of the common ranks differs little from 
that described. Their robes are long and closed at the top. An out¬ 
ward jacket is worn over them. Paints are universally used, though 
with little taste. The teeth are colored yellow or green. The nails of 
the higher classes are permitted to grow to several inches; and they 
are kept in bamboo sheaths. The shoes of a Chinese lady are about 
four inches in length, and two in breadth. In infancy the feet are so 
closely swathed, that they cease to grow. This deformity is considered 
as a beauty, and so far from being able to dance, it is with the utmost 
difficulty a female thus mutilated can walk. Children are not permit¬ 
ted to wear silks or furs, or to have the head covered, till a certain age, 
when they assume the dress of men. 

The Manchoo ladies and the women of the lower classes do not 
compress the feet. 

The principal article of food is rice, which is eaten with almost every 
sort of victuals, but in the north corn is more used. The Manchoos eat 
horse flesh, and the lower classes, who are miserably poor, and often 
suffer from famine, do not refuse the most loathsome vermin. Tea is 
the usual drink, which has now become almost as common in Great 
Britain and the United States, as in its native country. Edible bird’s 
nests, which consist of some sort of gelatinous matter, tripang or sea 
slug, shark fins, and fish maws are among the luxuries of the Chinese 
table; opium, though forbidden by law, is much used. 

When China was first explored by European travellers, it was be¬ 
lieved to be a nation that had alone found out the true secret of govern¬ 
ment ; where the virtues were developed by the operation of the laws. 
A greater familiarity with the Chinese has destroyed the delusion, and 
their virtues are the last subject for which they can claim any praise. 
Few nations, it is now agreed, have so little honor or feeling, or so much 
duplicity and mendacity. Their affected gravity is as far from wisdom, 
as their ceremonies are from politeness. The females, as in all unen¬ 
lightened countries, have to suffer for the state of society ; they pass 
a life of labor or of seclusion, the slaves rather than the companions 
of man. 

China is known to us principally from the missionaries and the em¬ 
bassies. Wherever the European passes, by land or water, for the 
‘ rivers have their thousands, he sees masses of people ; but only of one 
sex, with good humor pervading the whole. He sees soldiers with 
paper helmets, quilted petticoats and fans: he sees punishments inflict¬ 
ed in the streets, all the operations of trade carried on there, and signs 
over the shops affirming that they do not cheat here , to do away the 
more probable supposition that they do. The government of China is 
one of fear, and it has produced the usual effects, duplicity and mean¬ 
ness. Prostration to authority is nowhere more humble than in China. 
Ceremony directs the life of the Chinese, and their most indifferent ac¬ 
tions are moulded on it. Their very filial duty, which is prescribed to 
such an extent, as to destroy the principle, is rather a political institution 
than a sentiment. It gives to the parents too much authority to leave 
space for affection. The parents have the right to destroy or mutilate 
their infant children, and thousands are. exposed yearly to perish in the 
rivers, A son is a minor during the life of his father, and liable for all 


417 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 

the paternal debts but those contracted by gaming. The government 
sustains in the greatest rigor all this parental authority; as'the empe¬ 
ror assumes that he is the general father, that lie may exact from all, 
more than the obedience that is paid to a father by a son. There 
are many festivals, but games of chance are the common amusements. 
Cards and dice are always carried about. Quail fighting and locust 
fighting are common, and the Chinese are immoderately fond of them. 
The fireworks excel those of Europe. The chief festival is the feast 
of lanterns, when gorgeous lanterns are everywhere displayed. 

16. Literature , Jlrts , &-c. The Chinese language is distinguished 
into the written and spoken; the former is composed of syllabic signs, 
which are combined in many forms, amounting to 80,000 characters. 
The latter is poor and imperfect, and consists of few sounds; the words 
are few, and it becomes necessary to give to each sound, a variety of 
minute modifications of accent, in order to express different ideas; the 
written characters are also traced in the air by the hand in conversation, 
to supply the imperfection of the spoken language. 

The literature of the Chinese is the richest and most important of 
Asia. The classical works called King are of great antiquity, and the 
disciples of Confucius have made them the basis of their labors in 
morality and politics. History has always received the attention of the 
Chinese, and their annals form the most complete series extant in any 
language. Poetry, the drama, and romantic prose fictions are among 
the productions of the Chinese litterati, and their dictionaries, ency¬ 
clopaedias, commentaries, &c., are numerous; they use silk paper, 
printing only one side. Geography has been cultivated among them 
from a remote period ; the imperial geography forms 260 volumes, with 
maps. Astronomy and mathematics have not made much progress, 
and medicine is practised with a variety of superstitious ceremonies. 
Drawing and painting are executed with mechanical skill, but without 
a knowledge of scientific principles. 

The great wall is one of the most remarkable monuments of Chinese 
industry, and is one of the greatest works ever executed by man. It 
extends along the northern frontier for the distance of 1,500 miles, over 
valleys, rivers, and mountains, and has stood for 2,000 years. It con¬ 
sists of two brick walls at a little distance from each other, forming a 
sort of shell, which is filled up with earth, thus composing a solid ram¬ 
part, about 15 feet thick, and varying in different places from 30 to a 
few feet in height. It was constructed as a defence against the nomadic 
warriors of central Asia. The great garden near Peking, attached to 
a royal summer residence, covers 60,000 acres, and is filled with artificial 
hills, rivers, lakes, &c., and adorned with palaces, pavilions, and every 
sort of decoration that human ingenuity can devise. 

17. History. China has at different epochs formed a great number 
of independent states, and has been repeatedly subjected by foreign 
conquerors. The last event of this character was the conquest of the 
country by the Manchoos in 1644; but the conquerors have assumed 
the laws and manners of the Chinese. The name China is unknown 
to the natives, who call themselves men of the central empire, or men 
of th e central flower. 


27 


438 


EMPIRE OF JAPAN”. 


CXXXVI. EMPIRE OF JAPAN. 

1. Extent . This empire consists of several islands in the Pacific 
Ocean, lying between Lat. 29° and 47° N., and Lon. 128° and 150° E., 
and separated from the continent by the Sea of Japan and the channel 
of Tartary. It has an area of 240,000 square miles, and a population 
of 26,000,000 souls. The principal islands of the group are Niphon, 
Sikoko, Kiusiu, and Yesso or Matsmai; the southern part of Seghalien 
belongs to Japan, and the northern to China; some of the Kurile islands 
also belong to the former. The lofty mountains which intersect the 
principal islands, and the exposure to the sea-breezes render the climate 
cool. Earthquakes are common. 

2. Productions. Rice, hemp, and silk, and the various tropical fruits 
are produced in abundance in the southern parts. The milky juice of 
the varnish trees supplies the beautiful lacker or japan; the tea-tree 
and bamboo are indigenous. Agriculture is carried to great perfection, 
and as there are few cattle or sheep, there are no meadows, and fences 
are not necessary. The corn fields, cotton plantations, rice grounds, 
and mulberry orchards are often very extensive. 

3. Towns. Yedo, the capital, upon the island of Niphon, is one of 
the largest and most populous cities in the world, having a circuit of 
53 miles, and a population of 1,300,000 souls. The port is shallow, and 
accessible only to small vessels. The houses are constructed of bam¬ 
boo, covered with mortar, and are but two stories high. Paper sup¬ 
plies the place of glass, and the floors are covered with matting. The 
palace of the emperor is nearly 15 miles in circumference and is strong¬ 
ly fortified ; the citadel or inner fort is inhabited by the imperial family, 
and the outer fortress by the nobility. The hall of a hundred mats is 
600 feet long and 300 wide, with the doors and cornices finely lackered, 
and the locks and hinges richly gilt. 

Kio or Meaco was for a long time the capital, and contains the most 
remarkable edifices. It is also the residence of the dairi or descendant 
of the ancient emperors, who is the spiritual head of the empire. The 
dairi’s palace is in itself a town surrounded with walls and ditches; 
the imperial palace is also a large building. The temple of Fokosi, 
paved with squares of white marble, and adorned with 96 columns of 
cedar, is about 1000 feet in length, and contains a colossal statue of 
Buddha, 83 feet in height. The temple of Kwanwon is little inferior 
to the preceding; in the midst sits the goddess, with 33 hands, sur¬ 
rounded by crowds of subordinate deities ; and innumerable statues of 
all sizes, and richly gilt, are placed around on shelves; the Japanese 
say there are 33,333. The population is stated to amount to 500,000. 
Meaco is the centre of Japanese commerce and manufactures; silks, 
tissue, soy, and lackered wares are purchased here in their greatest per¬ 
fection ; and all the money of the empire is coined, and most of the 
books are printed here. 

Nangasaki, on the island of Kiusiu, is the only port in which foreign 
vessels are suffered to come to anchor. 

4 . Government. The Kubo or Jogun, (commander in chief) is the 
real sovereign, and his power is absolute. The government is a heredi¬ 
tary monarchy, sustained by a great number of damios (hereditary 


GENERAL VIEW OF ASIA. 419 

princes), who are themselves kept in subjection by their mutual jeal¬ 
ousies, and by being obliged to give hostages. Many of them are even 
required to leave their families in the capital, and to reside there them¬ 
selves half the year. The dairi retains the title of emperor and the 
appearances of authority, but he is confined in the palace at Meaco, 
which he never quits except on a visit to some of the principal temples. 

5. Manufactures aud Commerce. The Japanese excel in working in 
copper, iron, and steel; their silk and cotton goods, porcelain, paper 
of the bark of the mulberry, lackered ware (thence called japanned), and 
glass are also made in great perfection. Their foreign commerce is 
inconsiderable; the Japanese are forbidden to go out of the country, 
and the port of Nangasaki is open only to the Chinese, Coreans, and 
Dutch, and even to them under great restrictions. The inland and 
coasting trade is, however, extensive; the ports are crowded with ves¬ 
sels, and the fairs thronged with merchants. 

6. Religion. There are three forms of religion prevalent in Japan. 
The religion of Sinto is founded upon the worship of genii, or subordi¬ 
nate gods, from whom the dairi is supposed to be descended. The 
genii or karni are the souls of the virtuous who have ascended to heaven; 
in their honor are erected temples, in which are placed the symbols of 
the deity, consisting of strips of paper, attached to a piece of wood; 
these symbols are also kept in the houses, and before these are offered 
the daily prayers to the kamis. The domestic chapels are also adorned 
with flowers and green branches; and two lamps, a cup of tea, and 
another of wine are placed before them. Some animals are also vene¬ 
rated, as sacred to the kamis. The sacrifices, offered at certain seasons, 
consist of rice, cakes, eggs, &c. 

Buddhism was introduced into Japan from Corea, and in many cases 
is so far mingled with the religion of Sinto, that the same temples serve 
for both, and accommodate the images of the kamis together with those 
of the Buddhist gods. 

The doctrine of Confucius has also been brought into the countiy, 
and has many followers. 

7. Inhabitants. The Japanese have a brown complexion, black hair, 
and the oblique eye, which characterises the Chinese. They are 
middle-sized, well formed, and active, and in character intelligent, cour¬ 
teous, industrious, and honest, but suspicious and vindictive. They are 
more cleanly than the Chinese, and more ready to adopt the improve¬ 
ments of other nations. 

Women hold a higher rank than in China; they are educated with 
the same care as the men, and enjoy the same degree of liberty as in 
European countries. 

Most of the arts and sciences have been borrowed from the Chinese, 
and in many respects the Japanese are still much behind that industri¬ 
ous people. 


CXXXVII. GENERAL VIEW OF ASIA. 

1. Boundaries. Asia is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; 
on the east by Behring’s strait and the Pacific Ocean ; on the south by the 
Chinese Sea and the Indian Ocean, and on the west by the Red, Medi¬ 
terranean, and Black seas, and Europe. It extends from Lat. 1° to 78° 


420 


GENERAL VIEW OF ASIA. 


N. and from Lon. 26° E. to 170° W., having an area of 16,160,000 square 
miles, and a population of about 400,000,000. 

2. Mountains. Asia contains the loftiest summits in the world. The 
Ural Mountains, between Europe and Asia, and the Ghauts in Hindostan 
run north and south. Four chains extend from the region of the Cas¬ 
pian towards the east, covering the Chinese Empire, Siberia, and India 
with tileir numerous branches; they are the Altaian Mountains, the 
Teenshan, the Kwanlun,and the Himala mountains, of which the high¬ 
est summits rise to the height of 28,000 feet. The Japanese islands are 
covered with lofty mountains, containing numerous volcanoes. The 
numerous chains of the Taurus traverse the country between the Persian 
Gulf and the Black Sea in various directions. Between the Black and 
Caspian seas, are the Caucasian Mountains, the loftiest chain of which 
may be considered as the division line of Europe and Asia. The high¬ 
est summits have an elevation of 18,000 feet. 

3. Rivers. Although Asia is the largest division of the globe, the 
Asiatic streams are inferior in size to those of the American continent. 
The principal rivers descend from the northern, eastern, and southern 
declivities of the great central table-lands into the Arctic, Pacific, and 
Indian oceans. The Yenissey is the largest; the Oby and the Lena 
are also large rivers. The Hoang-ho, and the Kiang have an easterly 
course. The Irawaddy, the Ganges, the Indus, and the Euphrates flow 
south. 

4. Seas. Asia contains several large inland bodies of water, which 
are improperly called seas. They are principally salt. The largest of 
these is the Caspian Sea, which receives several considerable rivers, 
but has no outlet; its bed is indeed several hundred feet lower than the 
ocean. It is 650 miles in length by 250 in breadth, and covers an 
area of about 245,000 square miles. It is in many places too shallow 
for navigation, although in some parts very deep. It abounds in stur¬ 
geon, beluga, salmon, and other fish, and several species of seal are 
taken in its waters. The Sea of Okotsk, the Sea of Japan or Gulf of 
Corea, the Eastern Sea, between the Loochoo islands and China, and 
the Chinese Sea to the south of Formosa are large bays on the eastern 
coast. The Sea of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf and 
the Red Sea, are the principal arms of the sea on the south. The Red 
Sea is about 1,400 miles in length, but nowhere more than 200 in 
breadth ; it has few good harbors, and the navigation is rendered diffi¬ 
cult by storms, shoals, and coral reefs. 

5. Straits. The Straits of Babelmandel connect the Red Sea with the 
Arabian Gulf. The Straits of Ormuz lie between the Persian Gulf and 
the Gulf of Ormuz. The Strait of Malacca, which separates Sumatra 
from the continent, and the Strait of Sincapore, between the island of 
Sincapore and Malacca, are the most frequented of Asia. The Strait of 
Corea on the south, and that of Sougar or Sangar on the north connect 
the Sea of Japan with the ocean, and the Strait of Laperouse connects 
that sea with the Sea of Okotsk. The charyiel of Tartary flows between 
the continent and the island of Seghalien; and Bhering’s Strait divides 
the eastern and western hemispheres. 

6. Peninsulas. Asia Minor, between the Levant and the Black Sea, 
Arabia, the Deccan, Malacca, Corea, and Kamchatka are the most 
remarkable peninsulas of Asia. 

7. Islands. On the eastern coast are the Kurile islands; Seghalien, 





















MOUNTAINS OF ASIA. 



]. Ural, .5,200 feet. 

2. Altai, . 12,000 “ 

3. Anti Libanus, in which ^ 

are Mt. Carmel and > 16,000, 

Mt. Tabor, ) 

4. Mt. Lebanon in Anti ) jj <( 

Libanus Chain, 5 


5. Tauro Caucasian, . 18,000 feet 

6. Mount Ararat, . . . 17,280 “ 

7. Elboorz, .... 12,000 “ 

8. Teenshan, .... 20,000 “ 

9. Kwanlun, .... 16,000 “ 

10. Hindoo Koo, . . . 20,000 “ 

11. Chamoulari (Himala), 28,000 li 
















































CJ 


ANIMALS OF ASIA 



1. Pheasant. 

Elephant. 

. Peacock. 

4. Caracal. 

5. Tiger. 

G. Musk Deer. 


7. One Horned Rhinoc¬ 

eros. 

8. Chetah. 

9. Yak. 

10. Horse. 


11. Camel. 

12. Dromedary. 

13. Buffaloe. 

14. Zebu. 

15. Nylghau. 































GENERAL VIEW OF ASIA. 


421 


belonging partly to China and partly to Japan ; the Japanese archipelago; 
and Formosa, the Loochoo isles, and Hainan belonging to China, Near 
the coast of Malacca are the Junkselon, Nicobar, and Andaman islands. 
On the coast of Hindostan are Ceylon, the Laccadives, and Maldives. 
In the Mediterranean, Cyprus, and in the Archipelago, Rhodes, Samos, 
Mitylene, &c., belong to Asia. 

8. Climate. The great elevation of Central Asia, and the direction 
and elevation of the mountainous chains modify the climate of this 
continent and give it a peculiar character. In respect to climate Asia 
may be divided into five regions. L Central Asia, lying between the 
Altaian and liimala mountains, although situated between 28° and 50° 
N. Lat., experiences the rigors of the most northern regions, and en¬ 
joys but a short summer. 2. Southern Asia, comprising the two 
Indies, sheltered by a huge mountainous rampart from the icy winds of 
the north, has no winter; the summers are long and warm, and the 
seasons are distinguished into the wet and the dry. 3. Northern 
Asia, embracing all the extensive region north of the Altai is exposed 
to all the rigors of a polar climate. 4. Eastern Asia, exposed at once 
to the cooling influences of the interior highlands, and of the Pacific 
Ocean, is cold and moist. 5. Western Asia, lying between the Indus 
and Mediterranean, and the Caspian and Red seas enjoys a milder 
climate and a much more serene air. 

9. Vegetable Productions. Asia from its vast extent and unequal 
surface comprehends the vegetable products of all climates, from the 
creeping, lichen which flourishes on the borders of perpetual snow, to 
the splendid varieties of tropical vegetation. The agricultural staples 
are in the warmer regions rice, of which Asia yields 27 varieties, 
maize, millet, and many varieties of a coarser grain called dourra, 
as well as other species of legumes unknown in Europe. In the more 
temperate regions the different cereal grains are produced, and barley 
and oats are raised as far north as 60 degrees, and on the elevated 
plains of more southern regions. Beyond this and in the higher 
plains vegetation comprises only dwarf trees, berry-bearing shrubs, 
and lichens. The tea plant is indigenous to China, and coffee to Ara¬ 
bia. The sugar-cane is produced in India, and the poppy plant furnish¬ 
es great quantities of opium for exportation. The cotton shrub, and 
the mulberry tree grow throughout the southern regions, and various 
aromatic plants and gum-trees enrich this part of the continent, yield¬ 
ing mace, cassia, camphor, cinnamon, cloves and nutmegs, the fragrant 
balm of Mecca, frankincense, and myrrh. Asia also furnishes many 
medicinal plants and dye-stuffs. 

In the south the forests abound with valuable trees, furnishing various 
durable ornamental and dye-woods. The teak tree of the Indies 
surpasses all others in hardness and durability. The palms yield a 
rich and nutritious juice, and all the common fruit-trees of Europe, 
many of which were borrowed from Asia, are found in different re¬ 
gions. Asia Minor and the banks of the Euphrates abound in the 
myrtle, laurel, mastic, tamarind, cypress, and other trees. The orien¬ 
tal planes are numerous in Persia, and the oak and cedar grow to a 
great size in the Syrian mountains. In the colder regions are the oak, 
ash, elm, &c., the dwarf birch, mountain willow, and the dark ever¬ 
green pines and firs. 

10. Minerals. Asia yields all the useful and precious metals, but the 


422 


GENERAL VIEW OF ASIA. 


wealth of the Asiatic mines has not been fully explored. Hindostan 
and Asiatic Russia produce diamonds; gold, and silver are found in 
China, Japan, the Indies, and Russia ; tin in China and Farther India; 
quicksilver in China, Japan, and Ceylon ; and lead, copper, iron, coal, 
and salt abound. 

11. Animals. The lion is found in Mesopotamia, Persia, and India. 

The tiger is peculiar to Asia. He is a native of India, Sumatra, 
China, and other districts. He is fearless of man, ferocious, and blood¬ 
thirsty. He will kill and drag off a horse or a buffalo with the greatest 
ease. The usual mode of hunting the tiger, is with elephants. 

The cheetah or hunting leopard, is a small species of leopard, which 
is trained to hunt antelopes. It steals along slily when it discovers its 
prey till arrived within a convenient distance, when it suddenly springs 
forward with several immense bounds upon its victim. The cheetah 
is a connecting link between the dog and cat families. 

The panther, leopard, lynx, and caracal are also found in Asia. 

The one-horned rhinoceros is inferior in size and capacity to the 
elephant; it lives upon canes and shrubs, and unless attacked is inof¬ 
fensive ; the skin is rough, thick, and naked, and gathered in folds; 
the horn grows upon the snout. 

The elephant of Asia is larger and stronger than that of Africa. 
From time immemorial elephants have been used in war by the people 
of India. They are very numerous in the warm countries of Asia, and 
even in a wild state their manners are social and inoffensive. Their 
common food is roots, herbs, leaves, young branches, fruit, and corn; 
in quest of food they often ravage large tracts of territory. They are 
taken by being decoyed into enclosures, and are easily tamed. 

There are two species of camel; the dromedary with one hump, and 
the Bactrian or two-humped camel. The former is chiefly used for 
travelling, and its valuable quality is swiftness; it is much employed in 
the dry, sandy regions. The two-humped camel is mostly used ior 
carrying burdens, being heavy in make, with great strength and in¬ 
credible patience of fatigue and thirst. 

Numerous species of deer and antelopes are found in Asia. Of 
these the nyl-ghau or blue ox is the most remarkable ; it is described 
as partaking of the characters of the deer and the ox, having the head, 
neck, and legs of the former, and the body, horns, and tail of the latter. 

The musk deer is a timid, solitary animal, dwelling in the Alpine 
tracts of central Asia amid barren rocks and perpetual snows. The 
musk is obtained from a small bag under the belly. 

The yak or grunting ox, with a tail like a horse, and a mane on the 
neck and back, is about the size of the bull, and is invaluable to the 
nomadic tribes of the central plateaus, to whom it affords the means of 
conveyance, of clothing and covering for their tents, and of food in its 
flesh and milk. Its long bushy tail is used as a symbol of dignity by 
the chiefs. Buffaloes and the hump-backed or Indian oxen abound in 
the southern regions. 

Various fur-bearing animals abound in Siberia, and bears, wolves, 
and hyaenas are found in different countries. 

The broad-tailed sheep, the Cashmere aud Angora goats, compose the 
riches of some of the Asiatics. 

Arabia may be considered the native country of the horse, in which 
he arrives at the highest perfection, and combines all the most estima- 


EGYPT. 


423 


ble qualities of symmetry of form, fineness of skin, fire, docility, fleet¬ 
ness, and hardiness. The zebra and wild ass likewise inhabit some 
regions of Asia. 

The birds of Asia include almost every known species; the peacock 
and the peacock-pheasant are among the most remarkable for richness 
and beauty of plumage. 

12. Inhabitants , Religion. The principal Asiatic nations are the 
Japanese, comprising the Loochooans; the Chinese; the Siamese, 
Birmese, and Peguan; the Hindoo; the Persian, comprising the Af¬ 
ghans, Bucharians, and Curds; the Semitic, comprising the Jews and 
Arabians; the Tungoo, including the Tungooses and Manchoos; the 
Mongolian, comprising the Monguls and Cahnucks; the Turkish, in¬ 
cluding the Osmanlis, Turcomans, Usbeks, Kirghises, Yakouts, &c.; 
the Samoyede; the Armenian, &c. Asia is the land of fable and 
mystery, and exhibits a deplorable example of the errors into which 
unassisted reason guides the religious feelings. The Mosaic and Chris¬ 
tian religions, the most important truths have, however, been revealed 
on its soil; while there are few extravagances and absurdities that have 
not sprung up and flourished in the same region, as if to contrast in a 
more striking manner human folly with divine wisdom. The absurdi¬ 
ties of the Sabeans, the worship of fire and other elements, Mahome¬ 
tanism, which has mixed some great truths with its errors, the polythe¬ 
ism of the buddhists, the bramins, the lamaists, the worship of heaven 
and of the dead, of spirits and demons, and cruel, degrading, and 
loathsome rites, and doctrines of the most absurd nature have found 
followers and respect in this land of superstition. Buddhism is the 
religion of the greatest number of inhabitants, prevailing over all of 
Asia beyond the Ganges, and over a great part of Central Asia. Maho¬ 
metanism is the most widely diffused, but its followers are not so 
numerous ; it is professed by the great body of the people of Western 
Asia ; Bramanism is predominant in India. Buddhism numbers about 
170 million followers; Bramanism 60 million, and Mahometanism 
about the same number. 


CXXXVIII. EGYPT. 

1. Boundaries. Egypt is bounded north by the Mediterranean Sea; 
east by Arabia, and the Red Sea; south by Nubia; and west by the 
great desert. It extends from Lat. 23° to 32° N., and from Lon. 24° to 
35° E., being about 600 miles in length from north to south, and about 
400 in breadth; and having an area of 186,000 square miles, and a 
population of 2,500,000 inhabitants. 

2. Rivers. The only river is the Nile, which is formed in Nubia by 
the junction of two great streams, the Bahr el Azrek, which rises in 
Abyssinia, and the Bahr el Abiad, which is supposed to have its sources 
in the Mountains of the Moon, to the southwest. Traversing Egypt 
from south to north, the Nile, below Cairo, divides into several branches 
which discharge its waters into the Mediterranean. The two princi¬ 
pal mouths are that of Rosetta on the west, and that of Damietta on 
the east. Its length is about 2,400 miles. It annually overflows, and 
fertilizes the country upon its banks during the summer months. 

3. Surface. The lower part of Egypt consists of a rich alluvial plain • 


424 


EGYPT. 


the narrow valley of the Nile is shut in on both sides by low ranges of 
barren hills, beyond which to the east and west are vast sandy deserts. 
Interspersed over these deserts are well-watered, fertile spots, called 
oases or wadys, rising like green islands from amidst an ocean of sand. 
The Great Oasis, lying to the west of Thebes, consists of a group 
of these fertile spots, stretching 100 miles north and south. West of 
this is the Oasis of El Dakel, or the Western Oasis, comprising twelve 
villages. To the north lie those of El Kassar, and Siwah or Ammon. 
All of them contain numerous interesting ruins. 

4. Climate. Rain rarely falls in Egypt, and only in light showers for 
a few minutes ; thunder and lightning are equally infrequent. During 
eight months in the year, from March to November, the heat is almost 
insupportable to a European. The other months are comparatively 
temperate. The southerly winds which sometimes blow in Egypt, are 
by the natives called khamseen, that is, the hot winds of the desert. 
They are of such extreme heat and aridity, that no animated body ex¬ 
posed to them can withstand their pernicious influence. During the 
three days of the southern blast, the streets are deserted; and wo to the 
traveller whom this wind surprises remote from shelter; when it ex¬ 
ceeds three days, it is insupportable. Very frequently the inhabitants 
are almost blinded with drifts of sand ; but these evils are, in a great 
measure, remedied by the rising and overflowing of the Nile. 

5. Lakes. The Natron Lakes are a series of small basins in the 
northwestern part of Egypt, the waters of which deposit common salt, 
and natron or soda. Lake Mareotis, on the coast, has been converted 
into a salt lagoon by the irruption of the sea. Lake Mceris, long con¬ 
sidered an artificial work, has been proved by recent examinations to 
be a natural basin. 

6. Canals. Egypt contains a great number of canals, many of which 
are only adapted for purposes of irrigation. The principal canals of 
navigation are Joseph’s canal, about 100 miles in length, and from 50 
to 300 feet broad ; the canal of Cleopatra, recently restored under the 
name of the Mahmoud canal, connecting the Nile with the Mediterra¬ 
nean at Alexandria, 48 miles long, but so unskilfully constructed as to 
be already choked with mud; and the Abu Meneggy canal, passing 
from the Nile to the sea on the northeast, about 100 miles in length. 

7. Towns. Cairo or Kahira, in a sandy plain on the banks of the 
Nile, is a large town of the most irregular construction. The streets are 
so narrow that the balconies of the opposite houses often touch each 
other, and many of them are roofed quite over. A part of the town 
is annually inundated. The houses are in general built of mud and 
bricks, of two or three stories high, and being without windows on the 
street side, they present a gloomy appearance. Those of the public 
dignitaries have a basement of stone, each layer of which is painted red 
or green, and each story is provided with a balcony. In the basement 
story are a large hall where the master gives audience, and another 
hall, paved with marble, and supplied with sofas and jets-dleau. A 
great number of mosques, many of which are elegantly decorated with 
arabesques and light and rich minarets; 1,200 coffee-houses ; 31 bath¬ 
ing houses, remarkable for their size or ornaments; the vast cisterns or 
reservoirs containing a supply of water for the people, many of which 
are adorned with marble colonnades and bronze balustrades, and have 
schools attached to them, &c., deserve notice. Cairo is the centre of 


0 


EGYPT. 


425 


an extensive traffic between Asia and Africa, and contains about 
300,000 inhabitants. The vice-roy resides generally atShoubra, a little 
village in the vicinity, where he has built a splendid palace, with fine 
gardens. 

On the other side of the Nile stands Ghizeh, celebrated for its pyra¬ 
mids ; these colossal tombs, whose origin is lost in remote ages, and 
whose extent exceeds any thing of the kind known to us, contain im¬ 
mense halls, with walls constructed of large blocks of stone ; in the cen¬ 
tre of the principal hall, has been found a sarcophagus, indicating the 
purpose of the building. The two largest pyramids are those of Cheops 
and Cephrenes; the former is about 470 feet high, with a base 750 feet 
in length ; the latter is a little smaller. At the foot of the pyramid of 
Cephrenes is the fatuous colossal sphinx, or imaginary monster with a 
human head and a lion’s body; it is in a lying posture, the head and 
neck are about 30 feet high, and the length of the body about 125 feet; 
it seems to have been cut out of the solid rock. 

A little higher up the river are the ruins of the ancient Memphis, 
once the capital of Egypt, and the centre of Egyptian wealth, com¬ 
merce, and art. 

Alexandria stands upon the Mediterranean, and has a double harbor. 
Its site is a narrow neck of land between lake Mareotis and the sea. It 
communicates with the western arm of the Nile by a canal. This city 
was founded by Alexander the Great, and soon rose to wealth and 
greatness. It was the capital of the Ptolemies, and for science and 
literature was second only to Rome. It contained at one time 600,000 
inhabitants. After its capture by the Saracens, it began to decline, and 
the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope des¬ 
troyed its commercial importance. At present it consists of narrow, 
crooked, and dirty streets, and is surrounded by a high stone wall. It 
has considerable commerce, and its markets are well supplied. Popula¬ 
tion 25,000. The remains of ancient art in Alexandria are not of 
Egyptian, but of Grecian or Roman origin, and in comparison with the 
pyramids are quite modern. What is called Pompey’s Pillar is a Co¬ 
rinthian column of porphyry, about 120 feet high, of uncertain origin ; 
Cleopatra’s Needle is an obelisk of granite about 64 feet in length, and 
covered with hieroglyphics. 

Rosetta stands on the western branch of the Nile, four miles from 
its mouth. It is completely environed by groves of orange, sycamore, 
date, banana, and other trees. The city has a considerable trade and 
upwards of 50 caravanseries. Population 15,000. 

Damietta is situated between the eastern branch of the Nile and the 
Lake of Menzaleh, 10 miles from the sea. The houses are all white, 
and are built in a crescent around a bend of the river. The appearance 
of the town is beautifully picturesque, and the country in the neigh¬ 
borhood is the most fertile and best cultivated in Egypt. Here are 
vast magazines of rice belonging to the government. The commerce 
of the place is very active. Population 25,000. 

Suez, at the bottom of a gulf of the Red Sea, is a small town, Ayith 
some trade, which it owes to its good harbor. It was anciently an im¬ 
portant place, and was connected with the eastern branch of the Nile 
by a canal, now filled up. 

Si wall, in the oasis of that name, is a small town with about 2,000 
inhabitants, built on a steep conical rock, with narrow, crooked streets, 


426 


EGYPT. 


almost entirely covered over by the projection of the upper stories of 
the houses. It is interesting from its vicinity to the ruins of the cele¬ 
brated temple of Jupiter Ammon, built of enormous blocks of stone, 
and famous for its oracle. 

Near El Kargeh, the principal town of the Great Oasis, through 
which passes the Darfur caravan, are also seen ruins of three mag¬ 
nificent temples, consisting of immense masses of stone, and a necro¬ 
polis or cemetery, comprising several hundred buildings, each con¬ 
taining numerous mummies. 

Ascending the Nile from Cairo, we come to the town of Medinet el 
Fayoum, the ancient Arsinoe, with about 12,000 inhabitants, and con¬ 
nected with the river by a canal. Near this place travellers have 
thought they had discovered the ruins of the labyrinth ; this remark¬ 
able building is described in terms of admiration by an ancient Greek 
traveller, Herodotus, as the greatest triumph of human industry and 
art; it was composed of twelve covered courts, and 3,000 rooms, of 
which half were under ground. The latter he was not suffered to 
enter, as they contained the bodies of the sacred crocodiles, and of 
the twelve kings, who had constructed the labyrinth. But the infinite 
number of winding passages in the upper part of the building, the rich 
sculptures, which adorned the marble walls and ceilings, and the daz¬ 
zling whiteness of the polished columns, filled him with astonishment. 

Beni Hassan, a small village, is remarkable for its hypogees or 
sepulchral grottoes, of which the ceilings are in part arched and in 
part supported by pillars, and the walls covered with ancient Egyptian 
paintings. 

Siout, near which are similar grottoes, is a considerable town with 
20,000 inhabitants. The caravans of Nubia and Nigritia start from 
Siout. 

Denderah is a small village famous for its magnificent temple, con¬ 
sidered the most splendid production of Egyptian architecture. 

Luxor, Karnak, and several other villages occupy the site of the 
ancient Thebes, the beauty, richness, and dimensions of whose re¬ 
mains, their sculptured gateways, their miles of avenues, lined with 
colossal sphinxes, their long rows of columns, the stupendous size 
and immense number of the blocks of stone scattered around, and the 
graceful and exquisitely finished statues of gods and heroes, reveal 
its former extent and splendor. These ruins lie on both sides of the 
river. On one side are the remains of the vast palace of Rhamses, 
a castellated building with embattled walls; those of the Memnonium, 
covering a space of about 2,000 feet in length, with two colossal stat¬ 
ues, which though seated are 65 feet in height; from one of these 
called the statue of Memnon, musical sounds are said by the ancients 
to have issued, as soon as it was struck by the rays of the rising sun ; 
the tomb of Osymandyas of stupendous dimensions is also on the 
same side. On the right bank at Luxor are the ruins of the vast 
palace of Sesostris; two obelisks, exquisitely worked, each of one 
block of granite, and upwards of 73 feet high, four colossal statues of 
from 35 to 45 feet, a magnificent portal 50 feet in height, and a peris¬ 
tyle of 200 columns, lead to the main body of the palace. 

At Karnak is the ayenue of sphinxes, upwards of a mile in length, 
bordered by 600 colossal images of the mystic animal. The great 
palace at which it terminates is the most surprising of all these won- 


EGYPT. 


437 


derful monuments; the avenue of monolithic columns 76 feet in 
height; the great hall, 340 feet in length by 170 in breadth, the roof of 
which is supported by 134 columns; the obelisk, which is the largest 
known, being 96 feet in height; the walls covered with hieroglyphics, 
sculptures, and paintings, representing the battles, triumphs, proces¬ 
sions, sacrifices, and festivals of the ancient Egyptians,—these and other 
objects present a scene of unrivaled interest. At a little distance 
are the tombs of the kings, consisting of long galleries, covered with 
exquisite sculptures and paintings, and lofty halls sustained by numer¬ 
ous columns, and containing utensils, and vessels of various kinds, 
papyrus rolls, &c. The necropolis or cemetery of the ancient city is 
also visible, and occupies an immense extent. 

Esne is a town of 4,000 inhabitants, with considerable commerce; 
it is the rendezvous of the Sennaar and Darfur caravans, and is a 
great camel market. The ruins here are also magnificent. 

Syene, Elephantine, and Philse are equally remarkable for their 
remains of ancient architecture. 

8. Industry. The soil is so rich that little labor is necessary to 
cultivate it. Corn, rice, sugar, indigo, flax, cotton, henneh, and tobacco 
are produced. The cotton-tree, of which plantations have been formed 
by the present viceroy, yields cotton of a silky appearance and long 
staple; the mulberry is also extensively cultivated. The reigning sove- 
eign has also attempted to revive the manufacturing and mechanic 
arts among the people, and has set up large cotton mills, and introduced 
steam-engines and steamboats, established printing presses, &c.; but 
the result of these efforts remains as yet problematical. 

9. Inhabitants. The great mass of the inhabitants are of Arabic 
origin, descendants of the Arabs who overran the country in the 7th 
century. The Copts, who by some are considered the descendants of 
the ancient Egyptians, do not exceed 100,000; they have lost their 
original language, and speak Arabic, which is the prevailing language 
of the country, although Turkish is that of the government. They are 
Christians of the Greek church. There are also some Armenians, 
Jews, Turks, Syrians, and Greeks. The latter are descendants of the 
ancient Greek colonists in Egypt, but like the Copts they have adopted 
the Arabic tongue. 

The Arabs and Turks are Mahometans; the former consist of two 
classes, the Bedouin or wandering tribes, who roam through the deserts, 
and the Fellahs or stationary inhabitants. 

The present ruler has endeavored to introduce European customs, 
with European arts and civilization, and we find the inhabitants substi¬ 
tuting the cap for the turban, retrenching the fulness of the dress, and 
even shaving the chin ; circumstances, which however slight in them¬ 
selves indicate a great change of opinion. 

10. Government. The government is an absolute monarchy, and 
although the ruler retains the Turkish title of pacha, he is nevertheless 
entirely independent of the Ottoman empire. To Egypt belongs the 
island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean, Syria and part of Arabia in 
Asia, and part of Nubia; these possessions comprise about 5,000,000 
inhabitants and about 500,000 square miles. 

11. History. At an early period Egypt was the seat of a powerful and 
highly civilized people, but we have few authentic records of this remote 
age. After being repeatedly conquered by Asiatic nations, Egypt was 


428 


NUBIA. 


subdued by the Greeks, and the literature, arts, and language of that 
refined people became predominant upon the banks of the Nile. In 
the 7th century it was overrun by the Saracens, an Arab tribe, and 
has ever since been in the hands of the Arabians; for though at a later 
period annexed to the Ottoman empire, the Turks have never formed 
a considerable part of the population. 


CXXXIX. NUBIA. 

1. Boundaries, fyc. This country is bounded north by Egypt; east 
by the Red Sea; south by Abyssinia; and west by Darfur and Kordo- 
fan, in Nigritia. It extends from 11° to 24° N. Lat., and from 28° to 
39° E. Lon., comprising about 375,000 square miles. In its natural fea¬ 
tures Nubia much resembles Egypt; being watered by the Nile, which 
is here formed by the junction of the Bahr el Azrek and the Bahr el 
Abiad, and is swollen by the confluence of the Tacazze. On both sides 
of the river-valley the country consists of deserts, interspersed with 
oases. A great part of this extensive region is now subject to Egypt, 
but the submission of some of the tribes is merely nominal. 

2. Towns and Divisions. Sennaar, lately the capital of an indepen¬ 
dent and powerful state, has about 10,000 inhabitants. It is now merely 
a mass of mud huts and cabins, but there are ruins which show it to 
have been formerly a considerable town. 

The kingdom of Sennaar, which extended over a great part of south¬ 
ern Nubia, was conquered by the Egyptians in 1822. 

Shendy, a small and meanly built town with about 7,000 inhabitants, 
is the commercial emporium of Nubia and the greatest slave-mart in 
the country. In the neighborhood are the ruins of Meroe, anciently 
the seat of learning and science, and which some suppose to have been 
the cradle of Egyptian arts and letters. 

Below Shendy is the country of the Sheygyas, a nation of warriors 
and freebooters, containing no considerable town. 

Dongola, capital of a small state, which previous to the Egyptian ex¬ 
pedition had been conquered by the Mamelukes, was formerly the 
richest and largest city of Nubia, but is now reduced to a few hundred 
inhabitants. 

The northern part of Nubia, or Lower Nubia, called also the land of 
the Barabras, contains Derr with about 3,000 inhabitants, chiefly of 
Turkish origin, and Ebsamboul, a petty village, remarkable for the 
magnificent cave-temples in its neighborhood, enriched with historical 
sculptures and paintings, colossal statues, and columns. Numerous ruins 
line the banks of the Nile throughout this region. 

The country between the Red Sea and the Nile valley, consists of 
vast deserts and rugged and sterile hills, occupied by numerous wild 
and wandering tribes. 

Suakim, on the Red Sea, is an important commercial place, and a 
great slave-mart; population 8,000, chiefly Arabians. 

3. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Nubia are composed of various 
races. The Nubians proper, inhabiting the valley of the Nile, consist 
of two branches, the Kenoos and the Nubahs. They speak different 
dialects of the same language, and are called by the Arabs Berbers or 
Barabras. They have long been subject to foreigners, and are poor 


ABYSSINIA. 


429 


and ignorant. In the villages, round huts of mud or loose stones, and 
in towns, houses around an open court in the Egyptian fashion, are 
their habitations. A few earthen jars and dishes, a hand-mill, a hatchet, 
and some sticks to form a rude loom, constitute the whole furniture. 
A blue shirt or a woollen cloak and white cap are the attire of the men; 
the women are wrapped up in linen rags or woollen gowns, with ear¬ 
rings and bracelets of glass or straw. The weapons are a club, a lance, 
and a shield covered with hippopotamus skin. 

The Nubians are well made, muscular, strong, and handsome, with 
thick but not woolly hair, and little beard. The women are often 
handsome, and have generally a sweet expression and engaging man¬ 
ners ; they are favorably distinguished from the Egyptians by their 
superior morality. The complexion of the Nubians is quite dark, but 
they have not the negro physiognomy. Coarse woollen mantles and 
mats, drinking cups, and dishes woven from palm leaves, are their only 
manufactures. Most of the Nubians are Mahometans; but in the south 
are some heathens ; the Arabs, who are the ruling people in many of 
the states, are also Mahometans. The ruling people in Sennaar are the 
Shillooks, a black race from Nigritia, who conquered the country in the 
16th century. 

The wandering tribes of the eastern deserts are Bisharians, Ababdes, 
&c. They are often at war with each other, and are faithless and 
treacherous to strangers. 


CXL. ABYSSINIA. 

1. Boundaries , &c. This extensive region is bounded north by 
Nubia; east by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ; south by unknown 
regions, and west by Nigritia. It extends from 7° to 16° N. Lat., and 
from 34° to 43° E. Lon., covering an area of about 320,000 square miles. 
The Tacazze and the Bahr el Azrek rise in this country. Lake Dem- 
bea is a large sheet of water. 

2. Surface. Abyssinia forms an extensive table-land, sinking down 
gradually to the northwest, and descending rapidly by successive terra¬ 
ces to the east and south. The country is imperfectly known, but it 
appears to be traversed by several ranges of mountains. One of the 
most remarkable characteristics of its surface is the ambas or hill-forts, 
isolated hills rising suddenly with steep and almost inaccessible sides 
out of the plains, and often displaying on the top a level surface of con- 
siderable extent# 

3. Divisions and Towns. Abyssinia is politically divided into several 
independent kingdoms, of which the most powerful are Tigre, Gondar, 
Ankober, and Amhara. 

4. Kingdom of Tigre. This powerful state comprises an area of 
200,000 square miles, with a population of 2,000,000 inhabitants. The 
people are warlike and industrious. 

Chelicut, the capital, has about 8,000 inhabitants. 

Adora, the principal commercial town, has about the same number 
of inhabitants. 

Axum, once the capital of a powerful empire, now contains a popu¬ 
lation of 3,000 souls, and there are many ruins and remarkable edifices 
in the town and its vicinity. 


430 


MAGHREB OR BARBARY. 


On the western side of the Tacazze is a colony of Jews, called Fal- 
ashas or exiles, whose ancestors fled to this country, from the victorious 
arms of Nebuchadnezzar; they preserved their independence until 1800, 
when they fell under the dominion of Tigre. 

5. Kingdom of Gondar. This state comprises the central part of 
Abyssinia. Gondar, the chief town, has from 30,000 to 40,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. 

6. Kingdom of Ankober. Ankober comprises the richest and most 
fertile provinces of Abyssinia, but like Gondar is now governed by the 
Gal las. 

7. The kingdom of Amhara is also now in the hands of the Gallas. 

8. Inhabitants. The Abyssinians are in general well made, and 
though nearly black they have neither the nose, lips, nor hair of the 
negroes. They are considered to be of Asiatic origin, and to be nearly 
related to the Arabs; and the Amharic and Gheez languages, which 
are spoken in Ankober, Amhara, Tigre, and other states, bear a consi¬ 
derable resemblance to the Arabic. They are superior to most African 
nations, and their manufactures of carpets, parchment, iron and brass 
ware, leather, &c., show a good deal of skill. They have also authors 
and even painters. The Abyssinians are Christians of the Greek 
church ; the priests are not well informed, nor are the people in gene¬ 
ral well instructed in the principles of the Christian religion; but the 
sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s supper are administered in a de¬ 
corous manner, and the ceremonies are conducted with much decency. 
Polygamy is commonly practised, and the secular clergy are allowed 
to marry once. 

There are several negro tribes in Abyssinia, who have preserved 
their independence. Although speaking distinct languages they are all 
called Shangallas by the Abyssinians. Some of them live part of the 
year in caves and the remainder under the trees, feeding upon locusts, 
serpents, &c. They are hunted like wild beasts by the Abyssinians, 
and there are many Shangalla slaves in Tigre and Gondar. 

The Gallas have in a great measure adopted Abyssinian manners, 
but many of the tribes are wandering shepherds and warriors; they 
are black and of small stature, but have long hair; many of them have 
embraced Mahometanism, and they have become the ruling people hi 
several of the Abyssinian states. They seem to have emigrated from 
central Africa. 


CXLI. MAGHREB OR BARBARY. 

1. Boundaries. This section comprising all the northern part of 
Africa to the west of the Nilotic region, is bounded on the north by 
the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea; east by Egypt; 
south by Sahara; and west by the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of a 
narrow strip of fertile country along the Mediterranean, and a series of 
oases along the southern border, and is traversed by a mountainous 
chain called the Atlas Mountains. It is politically divided into three 
states, usually called the Barbary Powers, and the French colony of Al¬ 
giers ; but parts of the territory are also occupied by numerous inde¬ 
pendent tribes of Arabs or Berbers. 

2. Surface , Climate. The Atlas Mountains, which traverse the whole 


MAGHREB OR BARBARY. 


431 


region from east to west in several ranges, rise to their greatest eleva¬ 
tion in Morocco, where some of the summits exceed 12,000 feet. The 
rivers which descend from these mountains reach the sea after a short 
course, but they fertilize the plains which they water. On the east and 
south are extensive deserts, dotted here and there with cultivable and 
inhabitable wadys or oases. The maritime region, sheltered from the 
burning winds of the desert by the mountains, and open to the sea 
breezes, enjoys a pleasant climate. 

3. Productions. The productions of the fertile soil of Barbary are 
not materially different from those of southern Europe, the tempera¬ 
ture being nearly the same. Wheat and barely are chiefly cultivated ; 
beans and lentils are abundant, and in addition to the common fruits of 
Europe are the date and lotus. 

4. Tripoli. This state occupies the most easterly portion of Barbary, 
and is the most advanced in civilization ; it has an area of 270,000 square 
miles, most of which is sterile, with about 700,000 inhabitants. 

Tripoli, the capital, has a good harbor upon the Mediterranean. The 
streets are straight and wide, and the houses regular and well built; the 
architecture is more European than Arabian, and the city is much 
handsomer than the generality of the Moorish towns. Many of the 
houses are of stone, and the courts, mosques, and gates are adorned 
with marble. The great mosque is a magnificent structure with four 
cupolas supported by columns of marble. The city is surrounded by a 
high wall and strongly fortified. Population 25,000. 

Derne is a small town, which was taken by the Americans under 
General Eaton in 1805. 

In the desert of Barca are several oases and fertile tracts containing 
the ruins of the ancient Greek colony of Cyrenaica. The inhabitants 
of the oasis of Augelah, carry on a caravan trade with Bornou and 
Timbuctoo ; slaves form the principal article of importation. 

Fezzan is a large province consisting of several oases, which contain 
a considerable population. Moorzook, in one of them with narrow’ 
streets and mud huts, is the great mart of the inland trade of Northern 
Africa, and the rendezvous of the caravans from Cairo, Tripoli, Tunis, 
Gadames, Timbuctoo, and Bornou. 

Gadames, in the oasis of the same name, is also a place of much 
commercial activity. It presents, like several other towns of Barbary, 
the singular spectacle of a small town, inhabited by two separate com¬ 
munities, who are frequently at war with each other. A common wall 
encloses the whole town, but the space within is divided by an interior 
wall into distinct sections, occupied by distinct tribes. The two sec¬ 
tions communicate by a gate, which is closed in time of war. 

5. Tunis. The smallest, but most populous and best cultivated of 
the Barbary states, Tunis is bounded north by the Mediterranean ; east 
by the same sea and Tripoli; south by the desert; and west by Algiers. 
It contains an area of 54,000 square miles, with 1,800,000 inhabitants. 
It is watered by the Mejerda or Bagradas, a considerable river, and on 
the coasts are several good harbors. 

Tunis, the capital, is one of the best built towns of Africa, yet the 
streets are narrow and dirty, and the houses low and mean. The palace 
of the bey is a large building in the Moorish style; there are several 
mosques, and a number of schools, and the town is supplied with water 
by an aqueduct. Commerce, and manufactures of velvet, silk, and 


432 


MAGHREB OR BARBARY. 


linen, employ many of the inhabitants. Population 100,000. Six miles 
from the town is Goletta, the port and citadel of Tunis, with an arsenal 
and ship-yards. 

In the neighborhood is the site of the ancient city of Carthage, long 
the mistress of the Mediterranean, and the rival of Rome. The only 
remains of this celebrated place are detached fragments, or portions of 
walls, aqueducts, &c. 

Cabes, on a gulf of the same name in a fertile district, has a good har¬ 
bor, and 20,000 inhabitants engaged in commerce and manufactures. 

Cairwan, in the interior, is the centre of an important inland traffic. 
Its population is about 50,000. 

6. Algiers. This rich and important territory, until 1830 the seat of 
a piratical state, is now occupied by the French ; its fine climate, fertile 
soil, and central situation render it a valuable acquisition. 

Algiers, formerly the capital of the state, and now of the French 
colony, is built upon the declivity of a hill in the form of an amphi¬ 
theatre; the harbor is good, the streets narrow, and the houses low, 
with flat roofs. The principal public buildings are the palace of the 
dey, consisting of two large courts, surrounded by large buildings, and 
adorned with spacious marble colonnades; the dshami or principal 
mosque; the barracks which are the handsomest edifices in the town, 
and are decorated with marble and adorned with fountains; the bagnios, 
or prisons in which the slaves were shut up at night, and the bazars. 
The last dey resided in the Cassaba or citadel, a strong fortress, in the 
vaults of which the French seized about ten million dollars. The popu¬ 
lation of Algiers is now about 50,000. 

Oran, on the coast with about 10,000 inhabitants, has a good harbor. 

Bona, to the east of Algiers, with 10,000 inhabitants, is in the province 
of Constantina, which has not been reduced by the French. 

Constantina is the largest town of this part of Africa. It lies 20 days’ 
march to the southeast of Algiers, and the intervening tract is unin¬ 
habited. Population 50,000. 

Bugeiah, between Constantina and Algiers, has a good harbor and 
rich iron mines. The Cabyles in this vicinity are remarkable for their 
fierce disposition and warlike habits. 

Tremecen is the principal town in the province of Oran ; it has about 
20,000 inhabitants, who carry on some manufactures. 

Medea, in the fertile province of Tittery, and Blida or Belydah, de¬ 
lightfully situated in a productive district, are important towns. 

7. Empire of Morocco or Morocco. This state, bordering upon the 
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, is highly favored by nature 
in its mild climate,fertile soil, and advantageous position upon two seas; 
but bad government and civil discord have deprived it of the benefit of 
its natural advantages. It has an area of 175,000 square miles, with 
6,000,000 inhabitants. It comprises the kingdoms of Morocco, Fez, 
Suz, Tafilet, and some other provinces, but many of the tribes within 
these limits are entirely independent, and often at war with the govern¬ 
ment of Morocco and with each other. 

Morocco or Marocco, the capital, is a large town, situated in a fertile 
and elevated plain, in the rear of which rise the highest summits of 
Mount Atlas. It is much reduced, but still contains many sumptuous 
edifices, which attest its former splendor. The imperial palace, con¬ 
sisting of numerous pavilions, courts, and gardens, covers a space 4,500 


MAGHREB OR BARBARY. 433 

feet long by 1,800 broad ; one of the mosques is distinguished for its 
lofty minaret 220 feet high, and several others are remarkable for their 
size ; the vast building, called Bel-Abbas comprises in its precincts a 
sanctuary, a mosque, a mausoleum, and an hospital, which accom¬ 
modates 1,500 patients. The great morocco manufactory, the grana¬ 
ries, &c., are also worthy of notice. Population 70,000. 

Fez, the capital of the province of that name, is the largest city in 
the empire. It stands on the slopes of several hills, and is watered by 
a river. The streets are narrow; the houses are of brick or stone, and 
often adorned outwardly with mosaic work. The roofs are flat, and 
many have high towers decorated with carving and gilding. There 
are 200 mosques in the city, and two colleges. The place was once a 
famous seat of learning, and the metropolis of the Mahometan faith in 
the West. Almost all the houses have fountains, which are supplied 
with water by canals from the river. The markets are excessively 
crowded, and the Arabs of the surrounding regions resort hither for all 
their supplies. Population 80,000. 

Mequitiez has frequently been the residence of the Sultans, who have 
here a handsome palace. The city is surrounded by a triple line of 
walls 15 feet high, and resembles the other Moorish towns. The in¬ 
habitants are esteemed more polished and hospitable than those of the 
other cities. On one side stands a quarter inhabited by negroes. The 
surrounding country is fertile and well cultivated. Population 60,000. 

Mogador is a seaport on the Atlantic. It is built in a flat sandy desert. 
The houses are of white stone, and make a fine appearance from the 
sea. The harbor is shallow and is defended by two batteries. There 
is considerable commerce carried on with the north of Europe and 
America. Population 10,000. 

Sallee, a seaport on the Atlantic, has been famous for its piracies. 
It stands at the mouth of a river, and is defended by a wall and battery. 
There are many commercial houses established here by Europeans, 
but the trade is declining in consequence of the filling up of the harbor. 
Population 20,000. 

Tangier is a seaport just within the Straits of Gibraltar. It is the 
residence of many foreign consuls, but it has little trade. Population 
10 , 000 . 

The commerce of Morocco is chiefly transacted at Mogador, from 
which place are exported goat skins, oil, almonds, gums, wax, wool, 
ostrich feathers, pomegranates, and dates. The land trade with the 
Arab and uegro tribes is carried on by caravans. The manufactures 
are carpets, woollen and cotton cloths, silk, morocco, leather, paper, and 
saltpetre. 

8. Biledulgerid. Biledulgerid or the land of dates is a district lying 
between Tunis and Algiers on the north, and the Great Desert on the 
south. It is mountainous, sandy, and barren, producing little vegeta¬ 
tion. Some parts however are covered with thick groves of the date 
palm. The climate is hot and unhealthy. The inhabitants are a 
mixture of the native Africans and wild Arabs ; the former living in 
small villages, and the latter in tents, roaming from place to place in 
quest of plunder. 

9. Inhabitants. These are principally of three great races. 1st 
The Moors are of a mixed origin, being descended from the ancient 
inhabitants, Arabs, Romans, &c. Their complexions are lighter than 

28 t 


434 MAGHREB OR BARBARY. 

those of the Arabs, and they are a well formed race. 2d. The Arabs 
are much like those of Asia, and are descended from the original con¬ 
querors, and from emigrants from Sahara. They are pastoral, and 
live in tents. 3d. The Berbers are a race differing from the two 
former in language and customs, and, therefore, probably of a different 
origin. They are warlike and free. Of these, the chief tribes are the 
Shilloos, in the mountains of Morocco, the Cabyles, a white people in 
the mountains of Algiers and Tunis, the Tibboos, and the Tuaricks. 

The Berbers are probably the original inhabitants of a great part of 
Northern Africa; some of them are quite black, but they have not the 
negro physiognomy. The Jews are also numerous in the Barbary 
Suites, where they are treated with great harshness, and are a general 
object of hatred and contempt. The Turks are the ruling race in 
Tunis and Tripoli, as they were in Algiers until its conquest by the 
French ; but they are not numerous. Beside these various races, are 
the negroes, who are imported from Nigritia as slaves; in Morocco, 
however, they form the standing army of the empire, and the garrisons 
of the fortresses. 

10. Commerce. With a fertile soil and little manufacturing industry, 
the productions of the earth must form the principal articles of export 
from this region. Barbary, in ancient and even modern times, has been 
the granary of Europe ; but as corn is not now allowed to be exported, 
fruits, gums, hides, wax, and morocco are the chief materials for the 
maritime commerce. Haicks, a species of woollen cloth always worn 
by the Moors when they go abroad, sashes and silk handkerchiefs, 
carpets, and the conical woollen caps, called scull-caps, and worn all 
over Barbary and the Levant, are manufactured, and furnish articles of 
inland traffic. The caravan trade with the interior of Africa is chiefly 
carried on from Morocco and Tripoli *, the caravans carry salt, tobacco, 
and European goods, and bring back slaves, ivory, and gold-dust. 

11. Government and Religion. The government of Morocco is an 
absolute despotism; but most of the numerous tribes, which are found 
in all parts of Barbary, are governed by their own chiefs, whose au¬ 
thority is limited by the usages and free spirit of the respective people. 
The government of Tunis and Tripoli is also despotic; the bey of 
Tunis and the pacha of Tripoli are nominally dependent upon the 
Porte, but really independent sovereigns. The religion is Mahome¬ 
tanism. 

12. Character and Manners. The Moors live chiefly in the towns; 
they are described as indolent, ignorant, sanguinary, and vindictive, but 
courteous, polite, and obsequious. Generally speaking, a Moorish city 
presents a uniform aspect; everywhere the same silence and seclu¬ 
sion ; the same absence of gayety and bustle; narrow and dirty streets 
bordered by a dead wall; every individual burying himself in the inte¬ 
rior of his family, and the female sex immured in secluded apartments, 
and bought and sold as slaves. 

The complete dress of a Moor includes a red pointed cap, with a 
turban or cotton sash wrapped around it, a shirt with wide sleeves, 
short white drawers of great width, a woollen waistcoat, or a small 
cloth jacket, a silk or woollen sash, and yellow slippers. The legs are 
always bare. The haick is a universal garment; it is a piece of cloth 
five ells long, and one and a half broad, thrown over the shoulder, and 
fastened around the waist. Many Moors wear the caftan, a loose’coat 
teaching to the knee. 


435 


SAHARA OR GREAT DESERT. 

The females dress loosely, and encumber themselves with ear-rings, 
bracelets, and rings on the ancles. They dye the hair, feet, and finger¬ 
nails a deep saffron color, with henna. The only paint they use for 
the face is white. They overlook the numerous slaves, who are em¬ 
ployed in spinning, grinding, and other domestic offices. 

The sciences which anciently formed the glory of the Moors are 
now extinct in this region ; philosophical instruments of excellent con¬ 
struction are still seen, but they are shown only as curious relics, and 
even medicine is practised by physicians, whose skill reaches little far¬ 
ther than to dress a wound. 

The Arabs chiefly occupy the plains, and they exhibit the same pas¬ 
toral and migratory habits, the same simplicity of manners, and the 
same union of hospitality and plunder, that characterise their coun¬ 
trymen in Arabia; they live in tents, a number of which forms a 
camp under a sheik, and several camps often acknowledge a chief, 
called emir. 

Some of the Berbers or Brebers have the same migratory habits as 
the Arabs; their food consists of camel’s milk aud dried camel’s flesh, 
that animal constituting their sole wealth. They wear woollen gowns, 
which cover but a part of the body, and sometimes leather caftans and 
shirts. Rush mats form their beds, and their tents are made of camel’s 
hair, or a coarse woolly substance, obtained from the date palm. 
Others cultivate the earth, and are stationary in their habits. The 
Berbers, although Mahometans, do not scrupulously follow all the 
ordinances of their religion ; thus they drink wine and eat pork. The 
Maraboots are a sort of priests or saints, who are looked upon with 
great veneration by the Berbers; they often exercise great authority, 
and maintain a considerable military force. They alone understand 
Arabic, and can interpret the Koran, 


CXLII. SAHARA OR GREAT DESERT. 

This great waste extends from the Atlantic to the Nile-valley, and 
from the Barbary States to Senegambia and Nigritia. It stretches from 
Lat. 16° to 30° N., and from Lon. 29° E. to 17° W., having a length of 
about 3,000 miles, a breadth of 800, and an area of about 1,600,000 
square miles. The eastern part is often called the Deseit oi Libya, 
and it may be considered as forming a part of a great desert zone of 
sand and naked rocks, which, with few and slight interruptions, reaches 
from the Atlantic Ocean, over Central Asia, to the borders of China, 
through 130 degrees of longitude. Sahara consists of a table-land 
raised”a little above the level of the sea, covered with moving sand, and 
here and there containing some rocky heights and valleys, where the 
water collects and nourishes some thorny shrubs, ferns, and grass. 
Alon" the shore of the Atlantic are some mountains in detached peaks ; 
towards the interior the heights lose themselves m a plain, covered with 
white and sharp pebbles. The soil, shaded by no trees, and seldom 
moistened by rain, becomes one great furnace, which reflects and radi 
ates the burning heat of the sun; and for a great part of the year the 
dry, heated air has an appearance of a reddish vapor, and the horizon 
looks like the fire of a series of volcanoes. Rain falls in some districts 
in the latter part of summer. An aromatic plant resembling thyme, 


436 


NIGRITIA. 


acacias and other thorny shrubs, nettles, and brambles, are the ordinary 
vegetation. A few groves of the date or other palm trees are met with 
here and there. On the southern border are forests of green trees. 
Some monkeys and gazelles support themselves on the scanty vegeta¬ 
tion. Numerous flocks of ostriches are also found here. Lions, pan¬ 
thers, and serpents, add to the horrors of the scene. 

In some parts there are fertile oases of considerable extent, and there 
are pools or small lakes from distance to distance. The mode of tra¬ 
velling is by caravans; the travellers are obliged to go armed and in 
numbers, to protect themselves from the wild robber-tribes, that roam 
through these frightful wastes; the camel is used both for carrying 
burdens, and for transporting the traders, as the patience with which 
that useful animal bears fatigue, hunger, and thirst, particularly adapts 
it for this region of droughts and sterility. Caravans sometimes perish 
of thirst, when the dry wind has absorbed the water usually found in 
the springs, and they are exposed to great dangers from pestiferous 
winds and moving sands. The soil is strongly impregnated with salt. 
The eastern part of the desert is chiefly occupied by the Tibboos, a 
Berber race, who own great herds of camel, and plunder the unlucky 
travellers, whom they encounter. Their country contains numerous 
salt lakes, and yields large quantities of that valuable mineral, in which 
some of the Tibboos now carry on a profitable traffic with Nigritia. 

In the central part are the Tuaricks also a Berber nation. Some of 
their oases contain considerable towns. The Tuaricks are often en¬ 
gaged as guides to the caravans, as agents for foreign merchants, and 
sometimes become traders themselves. 

In the west towards the coast are various Moorish and mixed tribes, 
most of whom are robbers, and extremely fierce and savage in their 
manners 

CXLIII. NIGRITIA, SUDAN, OR LAND OF THE 

BLACKS. 

1. Boundaries , fyc. This is an extensive region, which derives its 
name from the color of its inhabitants, comprising numerous powerful 
states, and large tracts of country imperfectly known. It lies between 
6° and 16° N. Lat., and between 32° E. and 8° W. Lon., having the 
Desert of Sahara on the north; Nubia and Abyssinia on the east; the 
unknown regions of Central Africa and Guinea on the south; and 
Senegambia on the west. It is about 2,600 miles in length by 600 in 
breadth, and has an area of 1,500,000 square miles. 

2. Rivers and Lakes. The principal river of this region is the Ni°-er 
Quorra, or Joliba, which rises in the western part of Nigritia, and pur¬ 
suing an easterly course for some distance finally turns to the south 
and empties itself into the Gulf of Guinea. Its principal tributaries 
are the Moossa and Shary. In the central part is Lake Tchad, a large 
body of water, of which the limits are unknown. It receives the Yeou 
and the Shary, of the sources and course of which little is known. 

3. Climate and Productions. In the greatest part of Nigritia the heat 
is excessive for 8 or 9 months, and in some countries which are not 
well watered, the soil appears at that time quite sterile ; but in the rainy 
season from June to September it is covered with a luxuriant vegetation. 
Maize, rice, millet, cotton, melons, indigo, dates, bananas, sweet pota- 


NIGRITIA. 


437 


toes, &c., are the principal productions; the butter-tree, oil-tree, various 
gum trees, and gooroo or the Sudan nut, called by the Arabs the Sudan 
coffee, are also valuable productions. Camels, horses, and the other 
domestic animals of Europe are used ; and lions, elephants, hippopota¬ 
muses, giraffes or camelopards, ostriches, crocodiles, &c., abound. Gold 
is obtained principally as dust in the sands of rivers. 

4. Industry , fyc. The inhabitants are much more civilized and indus¬ 
trious than the negroes of the coast, and they have formed large states 
with regular governments. Goldsmiths, weavers, tanners, blacksmiths, 
and other skilful artisans are found among them. Many of them hunt 
elephants and rhinoceroses for their teeth and horns, gather gums, 
collect gold, kidnap individuals of neighboring tribes, whom with their 
other articles of merchandise they barter for arms, silks, ornaments, 
salt, &c., with the caravans from Egypt, Barbary, Nubia, and the sea- 
coast. 

5. Bambarra. This powerful state, which was lately the preponde¬ 
rating power in the western part of Nigritia, is now divided into two 
distinct states. Sego, upon the Joliba or Niger, the chief town of Upper 
Bambarra, is surrounded by a rampart; the streets are spacious, and 
the houses built of clay and whitewashed; the population is about 
20 , 000 . 

Lower Bambarra, governed by a Foolah chief, is the most powerful 
state; the capital Jenne, upon the Niger, is a considerable town, with 
15,000 inhabitants; it carries on an active trade, and is visited by many 
caravans. The houses are merely mud cabins. 

6. Timbuctoo or Tombuctoo. Once a powerful state, Timbuctoo is 
now reduced within narrow limits, and is even obliged to pay tribute 
to the ferocious Tuaricks. 

The capital, of the same name, stands in a sandy plain not far from 
the Niger; it is the principal commercial mart of this region. The 
houses are large but not high, consisting entirely of a ground floor. 
They are built of round bricks baked in the sun. The streets are 
clean, and sufficiently wide to permit three horsemen to pass abreast, 
which may be considered as spacious in a country where the use of 
carriages is unknown. Both within and without the town are many 
circular straw huts, inhabited by poor people and slaves. The popu¬ 
lation is about 15,000. 

7. The Kingdom of Borgoo. This is a confederacy, formed by 
several petty kings. Boussa is the common residence of the chiefs, 
and has about 12,000 inhabitants. Kiama is the largest town in the 
confederacy, having 30,000 inhabitants, and is an important commercial 
place. 

8. Yaniba. The kingdom of Yarriba is one of the chief powers of 
Nigritia, and maintains a well appointed army. Eyeo, the capital, is 
surrounded by a wall and ditch; the houses are built of clay and thatch¬ 
ed with straw. 

9. Fellatah Kingdom. This territory lies west of Bornou, and com¬ 
prises Houssa, Zegzeg, Kano, Cashna, and other districts more or less 
in subjection to the Fellatalis, a warlike and predatory nation. The coun¬ 
try is watered by the Yeou. Kano is a highly cultivated and populous 
district; its capital contains from 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 
a great proportion are slaves: it is famed all over Central Africa for dye¬ 
ing cloth. Kano is surrounded by a rampart, thirty feet high, with two 


438 


NIGRITIA. 


ditches; it is entered by 15 gates of wood, coated with iron, and is 
about 15 miles in circuit. It is the commercial emporium of Central 
Africa. The district ofCashna is separated from Kano by a stream 
flowing to the west; its capital is noted for its fairs, which make it a 
commercial entrepot between Egypt and Fezzan, and Southern Ni- 
grifia: the chief articles of trade are slaves and salt. 

The city of Soccatoo, the capital of the Fellatah dominions, stands on 
the river dividing Cashna from Kano, and occupies a long ridge which 
slopes gently toward the north ; unlike most other towns in Houssa, 
where the houses are thinly scattered, it is laid out in regular, well- 
built streets. The houses approach close to the walls which were built 
by the present Sultan in 1818, the old walls being too confined for the 
increasing population. The wall is between 20 and 30 feet high, and 
has 12 gates, which are regularly closed at sunset. There are two large 
mosques, besides several other places for prayer. There is a spacious 
market-place in the centre of the city, and another large square in front 
of the Sultan’s residence. The dwellings of the principal people are 
surrounded by high walls which inclose numerous flat-roofed houses, 
built in the Moorish style, with large water spouts of baked clay, pro¬ 
jecting from the eaves. Population about 80,000, chiefly Fellatahs. 

Zaria, a new town, with 50,000 inhabitants, and Babagie, with 
25,000, are the other principal places. 

The Fellatah kingdom is estimated to comprise an area of 95,000 
square miles, and to contain 1,700,000 inhabitants 

10. Bornou. The kingdom of Bornou lies to the west of the Fellatahs, 
and is one of the most important states of Central Africa, with which 
we are acquainted. It comprises Kanem to the north and east of Lake 
Tchad, and a part of Mandara and Loggun on the south, having an 
area of about 66,000 square miles, and a population of 1,200,000. 

There is a trade in the exportation of gold dust, slaves, horses, ostrich- 
feathers, salt, and civet. The slaves are procured from the neighboring 
districts to the south, where a regular system of slave hunting is carried 
on. The Bornouese manufacture the iron which their country pro¬ 
duces, into rude tools. Of their hemp they make a sort of coarse linen; 
and of cotton a kind of cloth which is dyed blue, and highly valued. 
They also manufacture carpets for coverings to their horses, and tents 
of wool and the hair of camels and goats. Birnie, near Lake Tchad, 
with 10,000 inhabitants; Angornou in the neighborhood, with 30,000, 
and Digoa, with about the same number, are the principal towns. The 
tovvus are in general surrounded with walls of earth. 

11. Darfoor . This country consists merely of a cluster of oases in 
the midst of a vast desert. It was once a powerful empire, extending 
its sway over the whole of the neighboring region; but is now reduced 
to an insignificant state. Cobbe, the capital, is a place of some com¬ 
mercial activity, with about 6,000 inhabitants. 

12. Kordofan. Kordofan also consists of a group of oases lying be¬ 
tween Sennaar and Darfoor, to which states it had been successively 
subject, until it was conquered by the Egyptians in 1820. It is inhabit¬ 
ed by negroes, who cultivate the ground," Dongolese traders, and wan¬ 
dering Arabs. 

Donga and the land of the Shillooks in this region, are very imper¬ 
fectly known to us. 

13. Inhabitants, Manners, Sfc, The inhabitants of this extensive 


NIGRITIA. 


439 


region are negroes, blit differing much from each other in their condi¬ 
tion, language, religion, and modes of life. The most civilized nations 
practise agriculture in a simple and rude manner, and are acquainted 
with some of the mechanic arts, such as weaving, dyeing, working in 
metal, and tanning; they are chiefly Mahometans, and live in towns ; but 
even these are entirely ignorant, unable to read and write, and having 
indeed no written characters of their own ; some few of them read Ara¬ 
bic, and such are looked upon as a sort of magicians, and their books and 
writings are esteemed in the light of spells and charms.- Their houses 
consist merely of stakes driven into the ground, and covered with clay 
and straw, but they sometimes erect mosques of bricks dried in the 
sun. The Fellatahs and Bornouese are the most remarkable among 
this class of negroes. 

The latter are described as ugly, simple, and good natured, but 
utterly destitute of intellectual culture ; only a few of the great doctors 
can read the Koran ; a writer is held in the highest estimation, but his 
only compositions are a few words written on scraps of paper, to be 
worn as amulets. In the absence of all refined pleasures, various rude 
sports are pursued with eagerness, such as boxing and wrestling; 
gaming is also a favorite sport. The Bornouese cavalry are covered 
with mail and iron plate,and their horses are also cased in armor; they 
are armed with long spears, and are accompanied to war by bowmen 
and spearmen on foot; the latter carry large wooden shields. 

The general dress in the Bornouese country is a loose robe or shirt 
of the cotton cloth made here, which is often fine and beautifully dyed; 
and high rank is indicated by six or seven of these worn one above 
another. Many of the people, however, have no dress but a girdle 
round the waist, and a pieee of cloth wrapped round the head. A pro¬ 
truding belly and a huge misshapen head are the two features without 
which it is vain to aspire to the rank of a fine gentleman; wadding is 
profusely employed by the courtiers to produce the one, and cloth is 
wrapped round the head in fold after fold to obtain the other; thus 
padded and stuffed, a Bornouese courtier adds still farther to his bulk 
by wearing ten or twelve robes of cotton or silk, and the whole of this 
monstrous creature is decked with numberless charms enclosed in 
green leather cases. 

A Bornouese belle decorates her person by plaiting the hair, and 
attaching to it strings of brass or silver beads, inserting pieces of amber 
or coral in the nose, ears, and lip, and besmearing her face with oil. 

In the great market of Angornou there is plenty of their principal 
grain, called gussub, much wheat and rice, bullocks, sheep, and fowls; 
but no vegetables, except onions, and no fruits of any kind are to be 
seen. 

A similar picture of Fellatah civilization might be drawn, but the 
traits are nearly the same, and it is unnecessary to repeat the descrip¬ 
tion. 

Throughout the whole country there is a great number of slaves, 
some of whom consist of conquered tribes, and others of individuals 
kidnapped for the purpose. A slave-hunt is a grand entertainment, as 
well as a profitable speculation for a Bornouese or Fellatah chief 
Within and around their territories are savage tribes, who inhabit 
mountainous or retired districts, and preserve their independence ; they 
are pagans; these are called by the Mahometans kerdies or caffres,that 


440 


SENEGAMBIA. 


is, unbelievers, or infidels, and are considered the lawful game of the 
faithful. The slaves thus captured are either sold to the Moorish and 
Arab traders, or are employed in menial occupations at home. 


CXLIV. SENEGAMBIA. 

1. Boundaries , Sfc. Senegambia is an extensive region lying south 
of the desert, west of Nigritia, north of Guinea, and east of the Atlantic 
Ocean. It is, like Nigritia and the other divisions of Africa employed 
in books, geographical and not political, and the name has been derived 
from its two principal rivers, the Senegal and Gambia. It lies between 
10° and 17° N. Lat., and between 8° and 18° W. Lon., having an area 
of about 500,000 square miles. The Senegal rises in the eastern part 
of the country, and taking a northwesterly direction flows into the At¬ 
lantic. The upper part of its course is through a hilly and uneven 
country, and is much broken by falls; the lower part is in a level region, 
which is annually inundated ; length about 1,200 miles. The Gambia 
and Grande are likewise considerable streams. 

2. Divisions. The English, French, and Portuguese have some 
settlements and factories upon the coast; the greater part of the coun¬ 
try is now iu the possession of three nations, who have conquered nearly 
all of the other tribes; these ruling people are the Jalofs or Yalofs, the 
Mandingoes, and the Foulahs or Fellatahs. Many of the negro tribes 
of Senegambia are Mahometans, but there is also a great number who 
worship fetiches , that is, certain natural objects selected as objects of 
veneration, and there are some idolaters. 

The Mandingoes are the most industrious and most civilized of the 
Senegambia negroes; they carry on an extensive trade with the Euro¬ 
peans and Americans on the coast in gold, ivory, and slaves; their 
women weave cotton and stuffs, which they die with indigo ; and the 
men are good hunters, and cultivate the earth with some skill. They 
dwell in villages, and their houses are circular mud-huts with a conical 
roof of bamboo, thatched with leaves. The Mandihgo is the commer¬ 
cial language of all this region. 

The Foulahs are the same race as the Fellatahs of the interior. They 
are, like most negroes, gay, gentle, kind, and hospitable; they raise 
indigo, maize, rice, &c., weave stuffs of wool and cotton, or pursue the 
chase ; some of them are wandering shepherds. 

3. Jalofs. The Jalof states occupy the northwestern part of Sene¬ 
gambia ; they are governed by hereditary princes; Wallo, Caior, and 
Jalof Proper are the principal states. The Jalofs are of a pure black 
color, with regular features, and they excel the Mandingoes in the manu¬ 
facture and dyeing of cotton ; they are fearless hunters, skilful horse¬ 
men, and brave warriors. 

4. Mandingoes. The Mandingo states lie to the south of the preced¬ 
ing ; they are Kaarta, Bambouk, Salootn, Kaboo, &e., comprising the 
Soosoos, Biafaras, &c.; the people of Bambarra in Nigritia are also- 
Mandingoes. 

5. Foidahs. The Foulah or Fellatah states are a sort of theocracies, 
being governed by elective spiritual princes, styled almamys, or chiefs 
of the faithful. The principal are Fouta Toro; Bondoo; Fouta Jallo, 
of which the capital, Teemboo, has about 9,000 inhabitants; Casso; and 
Fouladoo, 


GUINEA. 


441 

6. European Factories. The French colony of Senegal upon that 
river, consists merely of several factories or trading posts; St. Louis 
the principal town, has 6,000 inhabitants; and Goree, upon the island 
ot that name, 3000, mostly slaves or free blacks. 

The English factories are upon the Gambia; Bathurst is the princi¬ 
pal station. The Portuguese have some slave-trading posts among the 
Bissagos islands, of which Cacheu is the chief station. 

The principal articles of trade carried on by the two former settle¬ 
ments are spirituous liquors and tobacco, in return for which they 
receive gums, bees’ wax, gold-dust, and ivory. 


CXLV. GUINEA. 

1. Boundaries. This country is bounded north by Senegambia and 
Nigritia, east by unknown countries, south and west by the country 
of the Cimbebas and the Atlantic. It forms a crescent around the Gulf 

Guinea, and is intersected by the equator. It is separated from 
Nigritia and Senegambia by the mountains of Kong. The great river 
Niger or Quorra, enters this country from Nigritia, and flows into the 
Atlantic by several mouths, which intersect a tract of country 240 
miles in width along the coast. The principal of these mouths are 
known by the names of the rivers Nun, Benin, Formosa, Old and New 
Calabar. The other principal river is the Zaire or Congo, which flows 
into the Atlantic by so wide a mouth, and with so deep and rapid a 
current, that it was at one time imagined to be the outlet of the Niger. 
Its origin is not known. The Coanza, which also rises in unknown 
regions, flows northwesterly into the Atlantic. 

This vast region is very imperfectly known, and is divided into a 
great number of independent negro states. 

2. Ashantee Empire. The Ashantee empire is composed of several 
states and kingdoms, which have been conquered by the Ashantees, 
and extends from the sea to 10° N. Lat., having an area of about 
135,000 square miles, and a population of 3,000,000. 

Coomassie, the capital, is a large and regularly built town, situated 
in a well-watered and wooded valley. The houses are formed of 
stakes and wattled work, coated with clay and thatched with palm 
leaves. They are generally but one story high, the doors consisting 
of an entire piece of wood, and the windows of open wood work, 
fancifully carved and painted. The palace, enclosed by a high wall, 
consists of a number of buildings and courts, with arcades of bamboo 
and lattice windows, and containing beds of silk, stools embossed with 
gold, and other ornamental furniture. There are here several rnollas, or 
doctors, employed in teaching those who wish to read and write Ara¬ 
bic. Coomassie carries on an extensive commerce with the interior 
and the coasts. Population 15,000; but the floating population is very 
much greater. 

The Ashantees appear to be the most powerful, commercial, and war¬ 
like of all the tribes of Western Africa, yet until the beginning of the 
present century they were not known even by name to the Europeans. 
Since that period they have been visited by travellers from the coast. 
They have recently carried on hostilities against the British with remark¬ 
able success, and in 1823, they totally destroyed a British army. They 


442 


GUINEA. 


live with many of the comforts of civilization in a state of shocking bar¬ 
barism. They have trade, wealth, and a regular government, hut the 
human sacrifices perpetrated in the capital are almost beyond belief- 
The king and grandees have vessels of silver and gold, and the Eng¬ 
lish remarked a great natural politeness among the courtiers. The 
people are extremely neat in their persons, dress, and houses, and they 
bathe daily. 

On the death of a chief or one of his family, the grave is filled with 
the heads of the victims who are sacrificed that their spirits may be in 
attendance on the soul of the departed. On one occasion when the king’s 
mother died, three thousand people were slain: when the king would 
propitiate the higher or the lower powers, he offers these sacrifices: 
and as the victims are taken promiscuously, the streets are at such times 
deserted, or a few people only cross them by stealth, or run through 
them at full speed. 

The king of Ashantee has 3,333 wives, and the number is religiously 
kept entire, though many of them are infants, and but a few hundred 
of the wives are attached to the palace. When the wives of the king 
go out they are preceded by boys with whips, who fall upon every 
one in the street, that no one may see the ladies. 

3. Dahomey. This kingdom lies to the east of Ashantee, between 
Yarriba and the sea, but its limits are imperfectly known. Abomey, 
the capital, has 24,000 inhabitants, and is important from its annual 
fairs. Whidah is also a considerable town. 

The customs of the country are described as of the most barbarous 
character; the government is the most degrading despotism ; even the 
great men only dare to approach the king lying flat on their faces, and 
rolling their heads in the dust. The same horrible sacrifices are per¬ 
petrated as in Ashantee, and there is an annual festival, lasting for 
several weeks, during which the king offers human victims to the 
shades of his ancestors. 

4. Benin or Adou. This state, of which our knowledge is very 
slight, embraces a great part of the vast delta of the Niger. The capital 
of the same name is a large, though not populous town, with about 
15,000 inhabitants. Bonny, in one of the tributary states, is an im¬ 
portant commercial town with 20,000 inhabitants. The manners and 
customs of the inhabitants appear to resemble those of the people of 
Ashantee and Dahomey. 

5. Loango. Loango was formerly a dependency upon Congo. 
The people are industrious, and not only occupy themselves in vari¬ 
ous arts, but engage also in commercial pursuits. The climate is 
remarkably warm, and a long dry season regularly follows a long con¬ 
tinuance of rain. The cocoa and banana thrive beside the more 
common fruit trees; and the cotton plant and sugar cane are cultivat¬ 
ed with success. 

6. Congo. Congo is bounded on the north by Loango, and on the 
south by Angola, The climate is extremely hot in summer; but the 
winters are mild. The country is infested by serpents, some of which 
are of a monstrous length, vipers, scorpions, and venomous insects of 
various kinds. 

Among the insects the most wonderful are the termites or white 
ants, which construct works in the most ingenious manner, and com¬ 
pose an orderly and well regulated community. Their earthen struc- 


SOUTHERN AFRICA. 


443 


tures are sometimes raised to the height of seven or eight feet, and 
appear like the huts of the natives. These little creatures not only 
destroy the fruits of the earth, but in the night surround large animals 
in prodigious swarms, aud devour them in a few hours, leaving only 
the hones. 

7. Angola. To the southward of Congo is the kingdom of Angola, 
which used to supply the slave dealers with multitudes of those 
wretched and degraded beings, and still furnishes the Spaniards and 
Portuguese with a considerable number, as those nations continue the 
abominable traffic, in defiance of the general voice of Christendom. 
In Luanda, which is the chief town, the Portuguese have a settlement, 
which is the great slave mart. 

8. Benguela. Farther to the south is the territory of Benguela, with 
which the Portuguese are also connected. The climate of this country 
is insalubrious, and the people are rude and barbarous. Mines of 
copper exist among the mountains ; but they are not rendered, even 
by the European colonies, subservient to general use. The other ter¬ 
ritories are insignificant. 

9. Colonies. The Portuguese have numerous factories and posts 
upon some parts of the coast, and claim extensive territories, in Congo, 
Angola, and JBenguela; but in many cases their claims are merely 
nominal. The Danes and Dutch have some factories upon the Guinea 
coast, and the English have both factories and colonies. 

The colony of Sierra Leone was founded in 1787 with the benevolent 
purpose of suppressing the slave trade, and introducing civilization into 
this dark corner of the earth. But the climate has proved fatal to the 
Europeans who have been stationed there, and the colony is now in a 
declining condition, Freetown is the chief place; it contains about 
4,000 inhabitants, several schools, &c. In 1828 a settlement vvas made 
on Fernando Po, a fertile and healthy island in the Gull of Guinea, 
with the design of transplanting the colonists thither from Sierra Leone ; 
but this is claimed by Spain. 

Liberia is a flourishing colony, founded by the American coloniza¬ 
tion society for the purpose of removing thither free blacks and eman¬ 
cipated slaves from this country. It enjoys a mild and healthful 
climate and a fertile soil, and is in a highly prosperous condition. The 
territory of the colony extends about 150 miles along the coast, and 5(J 
miles inland over an area of 6,000 square miles. It comprises seven 


villages or settlements of which Monrovia and Caldwell are the prin- 
cipal, 4,000 colonists, a high school, 4 common schools, six.churches, 
■ ’ „ ’ , • . _:- Mrr. f^ofree. cotton. 



palm-oil, tortoise-shell, &c. Several of the native , 

ted themselves to the laws of the colony, and ot eis lave 
desire to partake of the blessings of civilization, which they see he.e 
enjoyed. 

CXLVI. SOUTHERN AFRICA. 

1. Boundaries. This region includes the countries extemling from 
Guinea on the north to the Southern Ocean, con,prising 
ny, the countries of the Cimbebas and Hottentots, and Caffiaria. It 


444 


SOUTHERN AFRICA. 


lies between 35° and 18° S. Lat., and between 12° and 37° E. Lon. 
The Indian Ocean on the east and the Atlantic on the west, the un¬ 
known regions of the interior and Monomotapa in Eastern Africa, with 
Guinea and the Southern Ocean, form its boundaries. 

2. Surface. Several mountainous chains run through this region in 
different directions, but their extent and elevation are not well known. 
Extensive table-lands and desert plains occupy a considerable part of 
the surface; the High barren plains which are numerous in the Cape 
Colony and in the interior, are called by the colonists karroos. Table 
Mountain is a high rock near the Cape, forming the termination of a 
mountain chain; it is chiefly remarkable for its precipitous character, 
and the view from its summit, which is 3,600 feet high. 

3. Rivers. The principal river is the Orange, which rises in Caffra- 
ria, and flows west into the Atlantic Ocean, after a course of about 
1,000 miles. It is broken by falls where it descends from the table¬ 
lands of the interior. The Elephant and Great Fish rivers are the 
other principal streams. 

4. Divisions. Beside the land of the Cimbebas, which is a dry and 
desert tract, and derives its name from a nation, which is said to 
wander through the country, this region is generally divided into the 
land of the Hottentots; the English colony of the Cape of Good Hope ; 
and Caflraria. The interior is but imperfectly known. 

5. Hottentots. This race originally occupied all the southern part 
of the continent, and is still numerous within the territorial limits of 
the Cape Colony, beyond which it extends to some distance north. It 
comprises several nations as the Namaquas, the Koranas, the Bushmen, 
&c., among whom there are slight differences of condition ; but in gene¬ 
ral it forms one of the most degraded members of the human family. 

The Hottentots are of a dirty brown color, with black, woolly hair, 
and a hideous profile, remarkable for the prominence of the lips, over 
which the nose is flattened so as to display the open nostrils. They 
are indolent and dirty, but mild, faithful, and hospitable. A sheep 
skin fastened on the breast with the fleece inside, serves the Hottentot 
for a dress by day, and a bed by night; a thick plaster of dirt and 
grease to keep his head cool, a similar unction over his body, pouches 
for knives and amulets, a catskin apron, and leathern buskins, form his 
wardrobe, and a blunt javelin with a dart, his weapons. The ladies 
smear their faces with red chalk, and powder themselves with a shin¬ 
ing dust; they wear a conical cap of lambskin, and an apron before 
and behind. 

The villages or kraals are circular clusters of beehive-shaped huts, 
placed close together, and covered with mats woven by the women ; a 
single opening serves as a door, a window, and a chimney. Worship 
of the moon, celebrated by shouts and dances, veneration for a large 
green beetle, respect for dead heroes, sacrifices to the evil spirit, and a 
belief in the power of sorcerers to bring on, or to avert evil, make up 
their religion. 

The Bushmen are a tribe so called from their habit of concealing 
themselves in the bushes, in wait for plunder; they live in caves, or 
shallow pits, or form beds of leaves and wool in trees, have no names, 
and speak a harsh, rude jargon. The Koranas, who are superior to 
the other tribes, have cattle and flocks, manufacture a coarse earthen 
ware, and carve bowls of wood. 



MOUNTAINS OF AFRICA 



Mauritius,. 3,764 feet. Atlas,. 12,000 feet. 

Cape Verd,. 7,890 “ Isle of Bourbon, . . . 12,500 “ 

Cape, . 10,200 “ Abyssinian, • . . . 14,720 “ 

Canary. Peak of ) noon “ Madagascar, .... 16,500 “ 

Teneriffe, > ’ * ; 















































ANIMALS OF AFRICA 



1. Elephant. 

2. Hippopotamus. 

3. Hyeena. 

4. Two Horned Rhinoc 

eros. 


5. Chimpanse. 

6. Camelopard. 

7. Zebra. 

8. Lion. 

9. Quagga. 


10. Secretary Vulture. 

11. Gnu. 

12. Ostrich. 

13. Crocodile. 


































I 

















* 






EASTERN AFRICA. 


445 


The Hottentots were long hunted down like beasts, employed as 
slaves, and treated as irreclaimable savages by the colonists; but recent 
attempts, made by missionaries to improve their condition, have been 
attended with complete success. 

6. Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. This colony, originally founded 
by the Dutch, has long been in the possession of the English. It ex¬ 
tends from 35° to 30° S. Lat., and from 18° to 28° E. Lon., having an 
area of about 120,000 square miles, with a population of 150,000 souls, 
including English and Dutch colonists, the free Hottentots, and the 
slaves of that race. 

Capetown, the capital, is situated at the foot of Table Mountain, at 
the head of Table Bay upon the Atlantic, and but a short distance 
from False Bay upon the Southern Ocean; both bays, however, are 
much exposed, and the anchorage is unsafe. But its strong fortifica¬ 
tions, and its central position between India and Europe, render it one 
of the most important military posts and commercial stations in the 
world. The town is regularly laid out, and the houses are built of 
brick or stone. There are here a botanical garden, a menagerie, a 
college, a public library, &c. Population 30,000, of which about 
12,000 are slaves, as many Europeans, and the remainder free Hotten¬ 
tots. In the neighborhood is Constantia, noted for its wines. 

7. Caffraria. This name is given by Europeans to an extensive 
region stretching along the eastern coast, and of which the interior is 
almost entirely unknown. The term Caffres, applied to the inhabitants 
of this region, is merely the Arabic designation signifying infidels, and 
was adopted by European navigators through ignorance. 

The Caffres form a race entirely distinct from the negroes and Hot¬ 
tentots ; they have a high nose, curly but not woolly hair, and a dark 
brown complexion; they are well formed, active, and warlike, and 
practice some of the mechanic arts with skill. The Coosas and the 
Betshuanas are the best-known tribes. In their habits some of the 
Caffres are a wandering, pastoral people, but many of them live in 
towns. Huts in the shape of beehives, plastered with clay, and cov¬ 
ered with mats, form their fixed dwellings, and similar buildings, con¬ 
structed of boughs and leaves, are their temporary abodes when 
following their cattle. Tattooing and staining the face are common 
among them, and their dress is merely a cloak and an apron of skin ; 
their wealth is in their cattle. Their weapons are a spear, a club, 
arrows, and a shield of bull’s hide. In disposition they are friendly, 
kind-hearted, and hospitable. 

Leetakoo and Koorrechanee, with 16,000 inhabitants, are considera¬ 
ble Betshuana towns, the inhabitants of which work in metals, make 
various sorts of pottery, &c. 


CXLVII. EASTERN AFRICA. 

1. Boundaries , fyc. This region lies between Abyssinia and Caffraria, 
extending from 12° N. to 20° S. Lat. A great part of it is very imper¬ 
fectly known, and much of it is quite unexplored. The principal 
river is the Zambeze, of which, the sources are unknown. 

2. Portuguese Possessions. The Portuguese claim an indefinite ex¬ 
tent of coast from the Bay of Lagoa to Cape Delgado, comprising the 


446 


AFRICAN ISLANDS. 


regions usually called Sofala and Mozambique. The country, how¬ 
ever, is inhabited by numerous Arab and Caffre tribes,’ who do not 
acknowledge their authority. Sofala is a petty village where the Por¬ 
tuguese have a military post; Mozambique is a considerable town 
with about 10,000 inhabitants, and is the chief commercial place on 
the coast. 

3. Monomotapa. This empire was once a powerful state, but seems 
now to be divided into numerous distinct kingdoms. It lies behind 
the Portuguese possessions, but we are almost entirely ignorant of its 
inhabitants and condition. 

4. Zanguebar. The coast to the north of Cape Delgado is vaguely 
termed the Zanguebar coast. It is well watered, fertile, and well 
timbered, and contains some excellent ports. Our knowledge of it is 
extremely imperfect. The principal states seem to be Quiloa, Mom¬ 
basa, Melinda, and Magadoxo, so called by Europeans from their res¬ 
pective capitals, which are petty towns. "The whole of this coast be¬ 
longs to the imam of Mascat. 

5. Ajan and Adel. The coast from Zanguebar to Cape Guardafui 
bears the name of Ajan ; it is dry, rocky, and barren. The want of 
harbors, the sterility of the country, and the fierceness of the natives 
have prevented it from being much frequented by traders. 

North of this from the Cape to Abyssinia is Adel, which is inhabited 
by the Somaulis, who also occupy the coast of Ajan, and probably 
extensive regions of the interior. They are not negroes, but have long 
hair, and an olive or blackish complexion; and are probably either 
of the Caffre or Breber race. They have ships of their own, and are 
active, enterprising merchants. 

Their chief towns are Berbera and Zeila, which carry on a trade 
with the natives of the unknown regions of the interior, and with the 
Arabs of the opposite shore. 


CXLVIII. AFRICAN ISLANDS. 

1. Socotra. Socotra, east of Cape Guardafui, is 85 miles long, by 
48 broad. It is in general dry and stony, with little vegetation; but 
aloes of the best quality grows in the sheltered valleys, and abundance 
of excellent dates are produced. It is governed by a sheik who is 
dependent upon the imam of Mascat; the inhabitants are of Arabian 
extraction, but there is a barbarous tribe in the interior. 

2. Madagascar. Madagascar is separated from the coast by a broad 
channel 220 miles wide. It is one of the largest islands in the world, 
being about 900 miles in length by 200 in breadth, and having an area 
of 200,000 square miles. It is traversed by a lofty chain of mountains, 
of which some of the summits have an elevation of 11,000 feet. 

Madagascar is a pleasant and fertile country, abounding in sugar, 
honey, fruit-trees, valuable gums, corn, cattle, poultry, precious stones, 
iron, some silver, copper, and tin. It affords an agreeable variety of 
hills, valleys, woods, and plains: and it is watered by numerous rivers. 
The air is generally temperate, and said to be very healthy, though in 
a hot climate. Among the inhabitants are white and black tribes. 
The whites and those of a tawny complexion, who inhabit the coasts, 
are of Arabic origin. The great mass of the inhabitants called Made- 


AFRICAN ISLANDS. 


447 


cassees are of Malay extraction. There are some black tribes with 
woolly hair, who are either the aborigines, or are colonists from 
Africa. 

Until 1898 the kingdom of Madagascar was a powerful state, which 
had reduced to subjection the greater part of the island ; the prince was 
an intelligent man, who sought to civilize his subjects by inviting mis¬ 
sionaries into the kingdom, and sending some young men into European 
countries to be educated. He had also introduced horses and fire-arms 
into his army, which was organized on the European model. But he 
was unfortunately poisoned by his queen, and his death was a signal 
for insurrection and civil war. 

3. Comoro Isles, &c. This group, lying north of the Mozambique 
Channel, comprises four principal islands, formerly populous and flour¬ 
ishing, but now rendered almost desolate by the piratical incursions of 
Madecassee pirates, who have carried off* great numbers of the inha¬ 
bitants as slaves. 

Admiralty Isles, to the northeast, are a group of 11 uninhabited 
islets belonging to the English, which are merely visited for catching 
turtles. The Seychelles are a cluster of 30 islets also belonging to the 
English. 

4. Mauritius or Isle of France. This island belongs to England, 
and is about 35 miles in length by 25 in breadth. Its coasts are beset 
with dangerous reefs, but it has two good harbors. It is of volcanic 
origin, and is rugged and mountainous. Sugar, coffee, spices, and 
ebony are the principal exports. The population is about 100,000, of 
whom nine tenths are blacks and three fourths slaves. The capital is 
Port St. Louis, which is the only town, the planters living scattered 
over the country. 

5. Bourbon. Bourbon, lying to the southwest of Mauritius, belongs 
to France. It enjoys a healthy climate, and the heat is tempered 
by breezes from the high mountains of the interior, and from the sea. 
There is here a volcano in constant activity, and hurricanes are frequent. 
The island contains no harbor, but has some good roads. Sugar, coffee, 
cinnamon, and spices, are the principal productions. The population 
amounts to 98,000, chiefly slaves and free blacks. St. Denis is the 
capital. 

6. Kerguelen's Land , &c, Kerguelen’s Land, or Isle of Desolation, 
is almost destitute of vegetation, but it contains good harbors, and is 
much frequented by seal fishers. Tristan d’ Acunha, occupied by the 
English, is important on account of its central position. 

7. St. Helena and Jlscension. In the South Atlantic are St. Helena, 
a small rocky island, rising precipitously out of the sen, celebrated as 
having been the prison and burial place of Napoleon, and important 
for its impregnable works; and Ascension, a small barren rock, occu¬ 
pied as well as the former by the English ; these islands are valuable 
as places at which ships bound to and from India may touch. 

8. Cape Verd Islands. This group belongs to the Portuguese, and 
comprises 10 principal islands, and a number of uninhabited rocks. 
They produce sugar, cotton, maize, orchilla, and tropical fruits; salt is 
also formed by spontaneous evaporation of the sea water which is left 
by the tides in natural pans formed by sand banks. Santiago is the 
largest island, and contains Praya, the capital, with a good harbor, at 
which ships bound for the African coast or for the East Indies generally 


448 


GENERAL VIEW OF AFRICA. 


touch. Santantao is the most populous island ; Fogo contains a volcano. 
These islands are subject to great droughts, during which the thin, dry 
soil yields no harvest; and the inhabitants suffer all the horrors of 
famine. Population 60,000. 

9. Canaries. This group is composed of 20 isles and islets, of which 
seven only are inhabited. These are Teneriffe, Palma, Lancerota, 
Fuerteventura, Ferro, Gomera, and Canary. The climate is mild, the 
air pure, and the soil yields the finest fruits, particularly grapes, of 
which wine of a good quality is made. The islands belong to Spain. 
Population 200,000. 

Teneriffe,the principal island contains a remarkable mountain, called 
the Peak, about 12,000 feet high, which was long considered the loftiest 
summit in the world. The capital, Santa Cruz, is a place of some com¬ 
merce, and has a good harbor; population 8,000. Orotava is the largest 
town, with 11,000 inhabitants. 

Canaria or Grand Canary is nearly equal in extent to Teneriffe, and 
is distinguished for its fertility. Palmas, the chief town, has 9,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

The Guanches, or native race, are now extinct, but'they have left 
memorials behind them, in the mummies found in their sepulchral 
monuments, and in some architectural remains. 

10. Madeiras. These islands belong to Portugal. Madeiras is about 
35 miles long by 12 broad, and consists of a series of hills extending from 
east to west. On the southern declivity, which is covered with vineyards, 
the rich merchants have their country-seats. Population 100,000. The 
principal production is wine, which is famous for its excellence. 

Funchal, the capital, stands on the south side of the island at the 
foot of high hills, and is defended by several forts. It has about 20,000 
inhabitants, but suffers from the want of a harbor, having only an 
insecure roadstead. 


CXLIX. GENERAL VIEW OF AFRICA. 

1. Boundaries and Extent. Africa is a vast peninsula joined to the 
Asiatic continent on the northeast by the narrow isthmus of Suez. It 
is bounded north by the Mediterranean Sea; east by the Red Sea and 
Indian Ocean ; south by the Southern Ocean, and west by the Atlantic 
Ocean. It extends from 38° N. to 35° S. Lat., and from 17° W. to 51° 
E. Long.; greatest length from Cape Blanc in Tunis to Cape Agulhas, 
5,000 miles; greatest breadth from Cape Verd to Cape Guardafui 
4,600 miles; area 11,500,000 square miles; population 60,000,000. 
From about 5° N. to 25° S. the interior of this country, comprising 
a tract of about 3,000,000 square miles, is wholly unknown, and with 
much of the remainder we are imperfectly acquainted. 

2. Mountains. Our ignorance of this vast division of the globe 
renders it impossible to describe this great natural feature with any 
accuracy. But Africa seems to have neither the lofty mountain chains, 
nor the magnificent rivers of Asia and America. Iti general the 
African mountains appear to be more remarkable for breadth than 
height. In the north is the Atlas range rising in some places to the 
height of above 12,000 feet. The Kong Mountains extend along the 
western limits of Senegambia and the northern border of Guinea, and 


GENERAL VIEW OF AFRICA. 


449 


in general have no great elevation, although some of their summits 
appear to reach the height of 12,000 or 1*3,000 feet. The Abyssinian 
Mountains at some points are of about the same elevation, but their 
continuation across the continent under the name of Mountains of 
the Moon is merely conjectural. Along the eastern coast, a continued 
chain extends from the Abyssinian range to the Table Mountain, but of 
no great height. It seems not improbable that the central part of the 
continent forms one great plateau, of which these littoral chains are 
merely the steep sides, descending seaward. 

3. Rivers. We are not acquainted with the whole course of the 
largest rivers of Africa. The sources of the principal branch of the 
Nile are yet uncertain. The Quorra or Niger is known to us only in 
the upper and lower part of its course. The Congo or Zaire is evident¬ 
ly a large river, of which but a small part has been visited, and the 
Zambeze or Couama on the eastern coast probably traverses extensive 
regions of the unknown interior. The Orange and Senegal are after 
these the principal rivers. 

4. Capes. The most prominent capes are Cape Blanc in Tunis, 
the most northern point of Africa; Cape Mesurata in Tripoli; Cape 
Spartel, upon the Straits of Gibraltar; Capes Nun and Boiador, on 
the coast of Sahara; Cape Verd in Senegambia, the most westerly 
point of this continent; Capes Mount, Mesurado, and Palmas on the 
Guinea coast; the Cape of Good Hope in the English Cape Colony ; 
Cape Agulhas the most southern point of Africa; Capes Corrientes 
and Delgado in the Portuguese territories, and Cape Guardafui, the 
eastern extremity of the continent. 

5. Climate. With the exception of comparatively narrow tracts on 
the northern and southern coast, the whole of this continent lies 
within the torrid zone, and presents the largest mass of land within 
the tropics, on the earth’s surface. Africa is therefore the hottest 
region on the face of the globe. The effect of its tropical position 
is still further heightened, by the nature of the soil and surface; the 
vast desert tracts of bare sand and shingle serve as a great reservoir 
of parched and heated air, the influence of which is often felt even 
in the more temperate regions of Barbary and the Cape Colony. The 
khamseen in Barbary and Egypt, and the harmattan in Guinea are 
dry, burning winds from the deserts. The low country on the sea 
coast, and in the river valleys throughout the tropical regions is des¬ 
tructive to Europeans; the great heat, and the exhalations of the 
swampy soil, covered by an exuberant vegetation, generating fatal 
dis0dS0s 

6. Minerals. Little is known of the mineral productions of Africa. 
Salt is abundant, except in Nigritia, and gold dust is found in many of 

the rivers. , . , _. , 

7. Vegetable Productions. The northern regions of Africa produce 
much the same vegetation as the southern parts of Europe, and the 
cereal grains and fruits of warm climates abound. The borders of 
the desert and the oases yield the date palm, affording the chief sus¬ 
tenance of the inhabitants. The sandy deserts of the north, and the dry 
plains of the south produce only prickly grasses, and saline and suc¬ 
culent plants, which feed rather upon dews than upon the moisture of 
the soil. The tropical reffions abound with forests of the finest timber 
trees, many of which are of gigantic dimensions. 

29 


450 


GENERAL VIEW OF AFRICA. 


The cotton tree, the baobab, the fruit of which yields a grateful 
drink, the chandelier tree, and the oil, sago, and other palms are the 
characteristic productions of this tropical section. The cassava, yam, 
and ground-nut are the farinaceous plants which here supply the place 
of the cereal grasses of temperate climates; the dourrha, from which 
the Africans make an intoxicating drink called booza, is the grain most 
extensively cultivated; the papaw, the tamarind, the cream-tree, the 
water-vine, &c., are among the useful trees, yielding articles of food. 
The acacias and the sandarach-tree yield the valuable gums of com¬ 
merce. 

8. Animals. The species of apes, baboons, and monkeys are numer¬ 
ous. The chimpanzee or pongo is the most remarkable of this order; 
it resembles man much more than the orang otang of the Oceanic 
islands, having a much greater facility of standing and walking upright 
and of using the hands. 

The lion of Africa is the noblest animal of his race, the Asiatic lions 
being much inferior in size and strength. He approaches his prey 
slily like others of the feline tribe, never attacking openly, and when 
within a proper distance pounces upon the victim with a tremendous 
leap. 

The leopard is fierce, powerful, and active, but inferior in size and 
strength to the tiger of Asia. The panther is found over a great part of 
Africa, and does not materially differ from the leopard. The tiger-cat 
is a smaller animal of the same family. 

The genus of hyenas is almost exclusively confined to Africa ; the 
striped hyena is found in the north, and the spotted hyena in the south, 
and thoro i« an animal oallod the hyena-dog also found in the southern 
section. These creatures are ravenous and fierce; they are nocturnal 
in their habits, and live chiefly upon carrion and offals. 

Elephants are numerous; they are a distinct species, and as far as 
is known, smaller than the Asiatic elephant. The natives have not 
domesticated them ; but they hunt them for their teeth. The food of 
the elephant is fruits, and the roots, leaves, and branches of trees. He 
is dangerous only when attacked. 

The hippopotamus or river horse is found in most of the rivers and 
lakes from the Nile to the Orange river; it dwells mostly in the water, 
from which it never goes far, but seems to derive its food chiefly from 
the land, browsing on the nearest shrubs, and feeding on the reeds of 
the marshes. The Negroes and Hottentots take it in pits. The teeth 
furnish ivory, and the hides are made into whips and shields. 

The rhinoceros of Africa has two horns, and the skin is not disposed 
in folds like the Asiatic species. The horns are esteemed by the natives 
for their supposed medicinal virtues. Its chief food is reeds and shrubs. 

The engallo or African wild boar is a remarkable animal of this 
order; its tusks are curved upward towards the forehead. When at¬ 
tacked it will rush upon its assailant with great fury and swiftness, 
and often inflicts fatal wounds. 

The zebra, the dow, and the quagga are distinct species of the horse 
kind. They are remarkable for the beauty of their markings, being 
regularly striped from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail. They 
are timid and swifi, and if taken young may be tamed. 

The antilopes of Africa are numerous, comprising no less than sixty 
species peculiar to it. Of these the gnu is the most remarkable; it 


GENERAL VIEW OF AFRICA. 


451 


partakes in its formation of the horse, the ox, the stag, and the antilope, 
having the shoulders, body, and mane of the first, the head of the 
second, and the tail and feet of the stag. It possesses in an eminent 
degree strength, swiftness, a nice nose, and a quick sight. 

The camelopard or giraffe is peculiar to Africa. It is remarkable 
for the great length of its fore legs and neck, which renders it the tallest 
of animals; the hind legs are much shorter, and the gait though rapid 
is awkward. It is extremely timid and inoffensive, and feeds upon the 
leaves of trees. 

The ostrich is a native of the torrid regions of Africa. It is generally 
considered as the largest of birds, but its great size and the shortness of 
its wings deprives it of the power of flying. It inhabits the most solitary 
and arid deserts, where there are few vegetables, and where the rain 
never comes to refresh the earth. It is said that the ostrich never 
drinks; but it is of all animals the most voracious, devouring leather, 
glass, iron, stones, or anything that it can get. The savage nations of 
Africa hunt it not only for its plumage, but for its flesh, which they con¬ 
sider a great dainty. 

The secretary vulture is styled by the Hottentots the serpent-eater, 
from the avidity with which it catches and devours those noxious rep¬ 
tiles. It may be easily tamed. The sociable vulture is of gigantic size, 
and is very numerous in the interior of Africa. In dimensions it is 
equal to the condor. Like other vultures, this is a bird of the moun¬ 
tains ; the sheltered retreats formed by their caves and fissures consti¬ 
tuting ito proper babitaliuu. Ill them it paoooe the night, and repOSeS, 

after it has sated its appetite, during the day. At sun-rise largo bands 
are seen perched on the rocks at the entrance of their abodes, and 
sometimes a continued chain of mountains exhibits them dispersed 
throughout the greater part of its extent. 

The crocodile inhabits the large rivers of the tropical regions, and 
the enormous python, a serpent of thirty feet long, lurks in the fens 
and morasses. The dipsas, asp, and cerastes or horned viper, are the 
principal venomous serpents. Of the insect tribes, the locust has from 
time immemorial been the scourge of this continent; scorpions, scarce¬ 
ly less to be dreaded than noxious serpents, are numerous, and the 
zebub or fly, one of the instruments employed to punish the Egyptians 
of old, is still the plague of the low and cultivated districts. 

9. Inhabitants. The Arabs and Moors who are now scattered all 
over the northern parts of Africa are of Asiatic origin. But there are 
at least four great families of nations strongly marked by physical 
peculiarities, that appear to be natives of the African continent. These 
are the Berbers in the north; the Negroes in the centre; and the Hot¬ 
tentots and Caffres in the south and east. Although the northeastern 
part of Africa or the Nile valley was once inhabited by civilized nations, 
who had carried the arts and sciences to a high degree of improvement, 
and the northern coasts were at subsequent periods settled by numerous 
Phoenician, Greek, and Roman colonies, and still later have been the 
seat of refined and polished Arab states, yet the great mass of this con¬ 
tinent has remained a stranger to the arts of improved life. The natives 
nowhere have the art of writing; no alphabet is found among them, 
and there is nothing to indicate that they have reached beyond some 
of the simplest useful arts. 

The negroes are physically characterised by woolly hair, black skin, 


452 


MALAYSIA. 


projecting lips, flattened nose, low and retreating forehead, and the form 
of the legs. Morally they are indolent, harmless, easy, and friendly in 
their disposition; but even in their more civilized states, many barba¬ 
rous usages and savage customs prevail. For ages the blacks have 
been sought for as slaves in other parts of the world, and even at home 
the greater part of the population is the property of the rest. Many 
of the negro tribes live in the most degraded state, without govern¬ 
ment, without any religion but the most absurd superstitions, without 
the decencies and proprieties of life, naked, and without habitations. 
Others are wandering shepherds, and still others have organized regu¬ 
lar governments, built towns, and cultivated the arts. 


CL. MALAYSIA OR INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 

1. Extent. Malaysia, or the Country of the Malays, comprises a 
great number of islands, separated from Asia by the Straits of Malacca 
and the Chinese Sea, and extending from 12° S. to 21° N. Lat., and 
from 95° to 134° E. Lon. The principal islands and groups included 
within these limits are the Sunda Islands, comprising Sumatra, Java, 
Banca, Bali, Sumbava, Timor, and other neighboring isles; Borneo, 
and Celebes; the Moluccas; and the Philippines. 

2. Sumatra. Sumatra, separated from Java by the Straits of Sunda, 
is a large island 800 miles in length by 170 in breadth, with an area of 
136,000 Square miles. It is UttvtrioeU ilnough its vvli^lo length bjr a 
lofty range of mountains, reaching to an elevation of 15,000 feet; Mount 
Ophir, directly under the equator, is 13,800 feet high. This chain 
contains five volcanoes in constant activity. Sumatra is in part occu¬ 
pied by independent native powers, and in part by the Dutch. 

The kingdom of Acheen is in the northern part of the island; it is 
now much reduced, but in the 16th and 17th centuries it included a 
great part of the island, and of the peninsula of Malacca. At that 
time the commercial relations of the Acheenese extended from Japan 
to Arabia, and their marine consisted of 500 vessels; they are still 
among the best navigators and most commercial people of this quarter 
of the globe. 

Acheen, the capital, is a large town, in a fertile and well cultivated 
district; the town itself stands in the midst of a thick forest of cocoa- 
trees, bamboos, and bananas, upon low ground, which is liable to be 
inundated, and most of the houses are constructed of bamboo, and 
raised upon piles several feet from the ground. Population about 
30,000. 

The kingdom of Siak inhabited by piratical Malays, and the country 
of the Battas, occupied by a confederation of independent Batta chiefs, 
lie to the south of Acheen. 

The rest of the island belongs to the Dutch. Padang, an important 
commercial town with 10,000 inhabitants, Bencoolen, 10,000, and Pa- 
lembang, on the eastern coast, with 25,000 inhabitants, are the chief 
places within their jurisdiction. 

Opposite to Palembang is the island of Banca, noted for its tin-mines. 

3. Java. Java, one of the most populous and flourishing countries 
in this region, belongs entirely to the Dutch. It is 640 miles long by 
60 wide, having an area of 50,000 square miles, and containing 4,000,000 


MALAYSIA. 


453 


inhabitants. A high chain of mountains, containing 38 active volca¬ 
noes, traverses the island. 

Batavia, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the east, and the em¬ 
porium of Dutch commerce with China, Japan, India, and Malaysia, 
has a spacious and safe harbor, but the town is extremely unhealthy. 
It contains a number of public buildings in the European style, and has 
a population of 60,000, more than one half of which are Javanese and 
Chinese, and about one quarter are slaves. 

Samarang, also built in the European style, is a place of some com¬ 
merce, and contains about 40,000 inhabitants. 

Suracarta is a large Javanese town, composed of a cluster of small 
villages, with 100,000 inhabitants, and Jocjocarta is of about the same 
size. 

Timor is the largest of the chain of small islands lying east of Java; 
it belongs chiefly to the Portuguese and Dutch. 

4. Borneo. This island, the largest in the world after New-Holland, 
is but imperfectly known to us. It is 800 miles in length by 700 in 
breadth, with an area of 300,000 square miles, and is supposed to con¬ 
tain about 4,000,000 inhabitants. It is separated from Celebes by the 
Strait of Macassar, and from Java by the Java Sea. The Dutch have 
settlements, or ports upon the western, southern, and eastern coasts, but 
the greater part is in the possession of independent native powers. 

Borneo is a town of some commerce, and is built chiefly upon piles 
in the midst of canals. It is the capital of the kingdom of Borneo, in 
the northwestern part of the island, and appears to contain about 10,000 
inhabitants, many of whom live in boats. 

5. Celebes. Celebes or Macassar is a large island of extremely irre¬ 
gular shape, being composed of four great peninsulas. It has an area 
of about 55,000 square miles, and its population is estimated at 3,000,000. 
Most of the island is occupied by native states, which are tributaries to 
the Dutch ; the latter have sojne ports, but no considerable town on the 
island. The site of the once populous town of Macassar is now occu¬ 
pied by the petty village of Vlaardingen. 

6. Moluccas or Spice Islands. This group comprises a great number 
of islands, belonging to the Dutch, or at least subject to them. The 
principal are Gilolo, Ceram, Banda, Amboyna, Ternate, and Tidore. 
Banda and the small islands around it are exclusively devoted to the 
culture of the nutmeg-tree of which mace and the nutmeg are the 
products. In order to secure the monopoly of these valuable articles, 
which are produced nowhere else in perfection, the Dutch bribed the 
chiefs of the other islands to root out all the trees in their dominions, 
and, having exterminated or expelled the natives of Banda, parcelled 
out the land to a few Europeans called park-keepers , who cultivated the 
plantations by slaves or convicts. 

Amboyna and the neighboring islands are devoted to the cultivation 
of the clove-tree, in regard to which the same policy has been pursued ; 
but this odious system appears now to be abandoned. The seas around 
these islauds abound in whales. 

7. Philippines. This archipelago comprises about 1,000 islands, 
many of which are large and populous, and contains above 3,000,000 
inhabitants. The Spaniards claim these islands, but there are several 
powerful states, and numerous small tribes, which are entirely inde¬ 
pendent. The two largest islands are Luzon and Mindanao; the 


454 


MALAYSIA. 


former has an area of 53,000 square miles; the latter of about 30,000. 
There are numerous volcanoes in these and the other islands. 

Manilla, the capital of all the Spanish colonies in the east, is a large, 
populous, and flourishing city on Luzon situated at the head of a fine 
bay, upon a noble river which divides it into two parts. It is hand¬ 
somely built, and contains the residence of the governor general, a 
cathedral, several convents and numerous churches, some of which are 
richly decorated. Manilla is the centre of an active commerce, and its 
harbor is thronged with European, American, and Chinese vessels. 
Population 150,000. 

The kingdom of Mindanao, with an area of 16,000 square miles, and 
36,000 inhabitants, is entirely independent, as is also the piratical state 
of Sooloo, the sultan of which rules the group of isles of that name, 
and holds some territories on Borneo and the large island of Palawan, 
which is but imperfectly known. 

8. Climate, Productions, &c. Situated in the middle of the torrid 
zone, Malaysia enjoys the advantages of a tropical climate, the intense 
heats of which are tempered by the vicinity of the sea. In those islands 
which lie north of the equator the monsoons blow southwest and 
northeast, in those to the south, southeast and northwest; the easterly 
winds bring the dry season, which in northern latitudes is from October 
to May, and in southern from May to October; the westerly monsoons 
prevail during the wet season. Some parts of the Malaysia are subject 
to violent hurricanes, and earthquakes are frequent and destructive in 
many of the islands. 

The rich soil, watered by copious showers and warmed by a vertical 
sun, yields in profusion the most precious spices, useful nutritious 
plants, and valuable woods. Sandal wood, ebony, teak, numerous 
species of palms, furnishing dates, cocoas, and sago, various dye-woods, 
pepper, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, camphor, gum benzoin, and many 
excellent fruits are among the vegetable productions. Some gold and 
silver, and tin, iron, copper, and lead are found. Borneo is the only 
region beside India, Brasil, and Russia which affords diamonds. 

The air, the earth, and the waters swarm with animals; the tiger, 
elephant, rhinoceros, and tapir inhabit the same marshes and forests, as 
the orang-otangs and the huge python. The babyroussa, kangaroo, &c., 
and among the birds, the cassowary or emeu, and the brilliant birds of 
paradise, are characteristic of this region. 

9. Inhabitants. Two distinct races are found in these islands; one 
of these is black, and is found in the interior of Borneo and the 
Philippine Isles, but comprises a small part of the population. 

The great mass of the inhabitants are tribes or nations of Malay 
origin. They are in general of a dark yellow complexion, but with a 
great variety of shades, with black or dark hair, and well formed. In 
their social condition they present great diversities, but have mostly 
made more or less progress in the arts and in civilization, having regu¬ 
larly organized governments, and written characters. They exhibit a 
singular combination of vigor and impetuosity in action, with mildness, 
and apathy when urged by no powerful motive. As enemies they are 
bold, remorseless, and vindictive; as friends too often capricious and 
treacherous. With these dispositions they are naturally inclined to 
predatory warfare, and piracy has ever been a favorite pursuit. In 
their usages we often find a similar mixture of mildness and ferocity, 


AUSTRALIA. 455 

gentle manners covering the horrible practices of cannibalism, infanti¬ 
cide, and human sacrifices. 

The principal nations of Malaysia are the Javanese; the Malays 
Proper, who inhabit the coast of Sumatra, Borneo, the Moluccas, 
Timor, &c,; the Aeheenese, and Battas of Sumatra; the, Macassars 
of Celebes; the Tagals, Bissayos, and Sooloos of the Philippines, and 
some others. Most of these nations are Mahometans; but the Battas, 
the Haraforas of the interior of Borneo, and many others are heathens. 

The Malays Proper and the Javanese are the most numerous and 
the most civilized ; they have at different times founded extensive em¬ 
pires, and have valuable literatures. These with many of the other 
nations have, from time immemorial, practised agriculture; worked 
mines, and possessed the art of weaving; domesticated the buffalo, the 
ox, the hog, and other animals; formed calendars, and had systems of 
arithmetic. They have practised navigation with great skill and bold¬ 
ness, and carried on a distant commerce from a remote period. 

The Battas, however, who possess these arts of civilization, have 
established a sort of legal or judicial cannibalism ; the punishment of 
several crimes by their laws is to be eaten alive. On the day fixed for 
the execution of the sentence, the person injured has the privilege of 
cutting off the first morsel, and he is followed in succession by the 
rest of the district. Beside this it is usual for the Battas and some other 
nations to eat their prisoners of war. 

CLI. AUSTRALIA. 

1. Extent. Australia comprises the islands lying round New Hol¬ 
land, and situated between 1° N. and 45° S. Lat., and between 110° and 
180° E. Lon., with the exception of those already described as belong¬ 
ing to Malaysia on the northwest, and the group of New Zealand on 
the southwest. These limits include New Holland with Van Die¬ 
men’s Land ; Papua or New Guinea with the Louisiade ; New Britain, 
New Ireland, and the neighboring islands; Solomon’s Islands ; New 
Hebrides; New Caledonia; and the Feejee Islands. 

2. JYew Holland This large island, or more properly continent, 
is but imperfectly known. It extends from 11° to 39° fe. Lat., and 
from 113° to 153° E. Lon., being about 1,500 miles in breadth from 
north to south, and 2,600 in length from east to west, and having an 
area of about 3,000,000 square miles. Of this vast extent we are ac¬ 
quainted only with the coasts, excepting that some exploring parties 
have penetrated several hundred miles inland from the eastern shore, 
and to a still less distance on the western. A range of high moun¬ 
tains extends parallel to the eastern coast about fifty or sixty miles 
from the sea. From their western declivities several large rivers de¬ 
scend, but they appear to be branches of one great stream which en¬ 
ters the sea on the southern coast under the name of the river Murray. 

The English claim the whole continent, and have formed two 
colonies, New South Wales on the east, and Swan River on the west. 

New South Wales comprises an indefinite extent of country, the 
actual settlements stretching about 200 miles inland, and about. 600 
miles {dong the coast from Moreton Bay in 27° to 36 S. Lat. 1 he 
colony is divided into 17 counties, which are subdivided into parishes 



456 


AUSTRALIA. 


and townships. The principal product is wool; the colonists are also 
actively engaged in the whale and seal fisheries. 

The population amounts to about 60,000, of which about 25,000 are 
convicts. The latter class are persons who, being convicted of cer¬ 
tain crimes in England, are sentenced to transportation. On their 
arrival, part are retained in the service of government, and the re¬ 
mainder are distributed among the free colonists as laborers and ser¬ 
vants. Those in the service of government are divided into gangs, 
under the management of overseers. They are clothed, fed, and lodged 
at the expense of government, and are permitted to spend the latter 
part of the day in amusement or in labor on their own account. 
Those distributed among the colonists are supported by their masters, 
and either work by task, or for the same number of hours as those in 
the service of government. At the expiration of the term for which 
they were sentenced, they may return to-England, or remain in the 
colony, receiving a grant of 40 acres of land, stock, and provisions. 

Sydney, the capital, stands on Port Jackson, one of the most spa¬ 
cious and safe harbors in the world. It is irregularly built, and con¬ 
tains several churches and meeting-houses, public schools, banks, &c., 
with about 12,000 inhabitants. It carries on an active commerce not 
only with the Cape Colony and England, but with New Zealand, 
China, and India. 

Paramatta, also upon Port Jackson, in a pleasant situation, is the 
usual residence of the governor; it is a flourishing town with 3,000 
inhabitants, and contains an observatory. 

Swan River Colony on the western coast was founded in 1829, and 
is in a flourishing state. Perth is the capital. 

The climate of New Holland is temperate and agreeable, the soil, as 
far as is known, not remarkable for fertility, and the country is liable 
to long droughts, which do much injury. The natives are blacks, and 
not numerous. 

3. Van Diemen's Land. Van Diemen’s Land is separated from New 
Holland by Bass’s Strait, and is a fertile island about 200 miles in length 
from north to south, and 170 in breadth. It presents an agreeable 
variety of surface, is well watered by several fine rivers, and contains 
many safe and commodious harbors. It belongs to the English, and 
like New South Wales is a penal colony. The population is about 
25,000, of which nearly one half are convicts. 

Hobartstown, the capital, is pleasantly situated at the mouth of the 
Derwent, with an excellent, harbor. It is a thriving town, with a 
flourishing commerce and 8,000 inhabitants. 

4. Papua , JYeiv Britain, fyc. Of the other islands of Australia our 
knowledge is confined to the coasts, and even this is very slight. It 
appears to be still doubtful whether what is called by some Louisiade 
is not a part of Papua; the latter, called also New Guinea, is separated 
from New Holland by Torres’ Strait and from New Britain by Dam- 
pier’s Strait. The extent of New Britain and New Ireland is not 
known, nor has the group of which they form a part ever been ex¬ 
amined with accuracy enough to determine of what number of islands 
it consists. Solomon’s Islands have been rarely visited. New Hebrides 
consists of a cluster of islands, some of which are of considerable mag¬ 
nitude; Espiritu Santo and Mallicolo are the principal. The group 
of the Fejee islands is much resorted to by American ships, for the 
purpose of cutting sandal wood. 


POLYNESIA. 


457 

o. Inhabitants. Australia with the exception of a few Malays upon 
the northwestern coast, and some Polynesians in the northeast, is 
inhabited by a black race, who have been called Melanesians,* to dis¬ 
tinguished them from the negroes of Africa. The Melanesians are in 
general the most barbarous, degraded, brutal, and hideously ugly of 
the human race. Those of New Holland and Australia are the lowest 
in the scale. They are thin and ill made, with flat noses, wide nostrils, 
sunken eyes, thick lips, and black and clotted, but not woolly hair; 
in complexion they vary from bronze to jet black. They are often, 
without clothing, without dwellings, living in the open ah*, and sleep¬ 
ing in the crevices of rocks, or under the bushes. They are ignorant 
of the use of the bow, but are armed with spears or clubs; those on 
the coasts live upon fish, and those of the interior chiefly upon insects, 
roots, eggs, berries, and kangaroos. They have no regular govern¬ 
ment, la\vs, or religion, living in little tribes, or rather in families ; and 
their courtship consist in knocking down the intended bride, and 
dragging her away bleeding to the woods. 

The inhabitants of Papua and the other northern islands are supe¬ 
rior in appearance and habits; they are better formed, though ex¬ 
tremely ugly, most of them wear some sort of clothing, and some of 
them have permanent habitations. Those to the east are still more 
advanced, many of them have bows and arrows, cook their food, make 
nets and sails of the fibres of the plantain; and display much skill 
and ingenuity in the construction of their canoes. 

6. Animals. Except dogs, rats, and on some of the islands hogs, 
nearly all the quadrupeds of this part of the world are of the marsupial 
or opossum tribe, having the hinder legs very long, and a sack or 
pouch under the belly, in which the young take refuge. The platypus 
or ornithorhynchus presents the singular spectacle of a quadruped, 
covered with fur, laying eggs, and having the bill of a duck, and spurs 
armed with a poisonous fluid; it is a little animal about a foot long. 
The echidna or spinous ant-eater is another singular creature nearly al¬ 
lied to the former. The birds are no less singular than the beasts, there 
being black swans and white eagles; the beautiful little birds of para¬ 
dise, and the tall emu also inhabit these regions. 


CLII. POLYNESIA. 

1. Extent. This division, as the name indicates,+ consists of a vast 
number of islands, scattered in groups over a great extent of sea. 
They are all much smaller than those already described. Polynesia 
comprises all the islands of the Pacific lying between 30° N., and 55° 
S. Lat., and between Australia, Malaysia, and Japan on the west and 
America on the east. . 

% Marianne or Ladrone Islands. This group, of which five are 
inhabited, belongs to Spain. Some of the islands are fertile and well 
wooded, and they have some good harbors. 

3. Carolines. The Carolines form an extensive archipelago, stretch¬ 
ing over a great distance from east to west, and consisting chiefly of 
those low coralline formations, so common in the Pacific Ocean. 

* From two Greek words signifying Black Islanders. 
t From two Greek words signifying many islands. 

u 


458 


POLYNESIA. 


The Pelew, Magellan, Anson, Marshall, Mulgrave, and Gilbert islands 
are small groups, scattered round in different directions, and for the 
most part low coralline formations. 

4. Sandwich Islands. The Sandwich Islands comprise eight inhabit¬ 

ed islands lying between Mexico and China; ,the principal are Hawaii 
(Owhyhee), of 4,600 square miles; Maui; Oahu (Woahoo); Tauai 
(Atooi); and Nihau. The whole group has an area of 6,000 square 
miles with 185,000 inhabitants. Some of the islands contain lofty peaks, 
many of which are active volcanoes ; Mouna Roa and Mouna Kea in 
Hawaii exceed 15,000 feet in height. • 

Blessed with a mild and healthful climate and a fertile soil, provided 
with good harbors, and situated upon the great maritime highway, 
which unites the three principal divisions of the globe, these islands are 
inhabited by an intelligent and enterprising race, who have already 
received the gift of civilization and Christianity from our own country. 
The American missionaries have established upwards of 400 schools, 
with 50,000 scholars, set up printing presses, translated parts of the 
scriptures and other books into the native language, and introduced the 
decencies and comforts of civilized life among this interesting people. 
Many of them have neat houses, comfortably furnished, and are well 
clothed; the government has a fleet of small vessels, employed in 
trading, and a treaty has been concluded by the king of the Sandwich 
islands with the United States. 

The most important production of the islands in a commercial res¬ 
pect has been sandal wood, of which great quantities have been sent to 
China; but this is now becoming scarce. Sugar is made and exported 
to California: yams, bread-fruit, and cocoa nuts abound, and the islands 
are well stocked with cattle and swine. Whale-ships fishing in the 
northern seas commonly touch here for supplies. 

Honolulu, the residence of the king, has a fine harbor, and is situated 
in a beautiful plain, in the fertile island of Oahu. It is defended by two 
forts armed with cannon ; the king’s palace is built of stone, and richly 
furnished in the European style; there is also a church here. Popula¬ 
tion 7,000. 

5. Georgian Isles. King George’s Archipelago consists of a long 
series of low coral formations, composed of numerous groups, many of 
which are inhabited, but others are without inhabitants. 

6. JVu/cahiva. To the north of the preceding lie the Nukahiva 
Islands, comprising the two groups of the Washington and Marquesas 
Isles, which consist of a number of small islands. 

7. Society Islands. This cluster of islands is composed of two groups, 
the one comprising Tahiti and Eimeo, and the other Raiatea, lluahina, 
Tubai, and some others. Like the Sandwich islanders the inhabitants 
have adopted the Christian religion, and with it the arts of civilization. 
The English missionaries have established schools and printing presses, 
taught the natives to read and write, and translated the Bible and other 
books into their ianguage. 

Tahiti (Otaheite) is the largest of these islands and contains several 
good harbors. It is about 100 miles in circuit, and has about 10,000 
inhabitants. Two high peaks in Tahiti have an elevation of about 
10,000 feet. 

Eimeo is remarkable for its fertility, beauty of scenery, excellent har¬ 
bors, and the industry of its inhabitants. 


POLYNESIA. 


459 


8. Navigator's Islands. This archipelago is a cluster of seven princi¬ 
pal and some smaller islands, which are subject to different chiefs and 
are thickly peopled. The largest of the group is Pola. 

9. Friendly Islands. This group comprises three principal islands, 
Tonga, Vavaoo, and Eaooa, and a great number of small isles; there is 
an English missionary station on Tonga; Vavaoo contains several good 
harbors. These islands are governed by several independent chiefs. 

10. New Zealand. New Zealand or Tasmania, consists of two 
large islands separated by Cook’s Strait, and having an area of about 
95,000 square miles. The inhabitants are active and intelligent, but 
ferocious and warlike, and although they have built vessels, entered into 
a trade with Sydney, and engaged in the whale fishery, they are yet 
ferocious savages and cannibals. There are missionary stations upon 
the northern island, but their influence is inconsiderable. English 
and American vessels prosecute the seal and whale fisheries upon the 
coast, and employ some of the natives as seamen, and English vessels 
from New South Wales and Van Dieman’s Land visit the country to 
procure the celebrated New Zealand flax, which is peculiar to these 
islands and is remarkable for its silky lustre. The only art of civiliza¬ 
tion for which the natives have acquired a taste is that of destruction, 
and they will submit to the greatest sacrifices to procure fire-arms, 
which enable them to kill and eat their enemies. The climate of 
these islands is temperate, and the soil fertile and covered with a vigo¬ 
rous vegetation. 

11. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Polynesia, with the exception of 
those in the northwestern groups, so strikingly resemble each other in 
appearance, language, institutions, and manners, that there can be no 
doubt of their belonging to the same stock, which is generally thought 
to be closely allied to the great Malay family. 

The northwestern islanders, inhabiting the Pelew, Mariannes, Caro¬ 
lines, &c., differ from the other Polynesians in many respects. They 
have some arts which are unknown to the latter ; they are remarkable 
for their skill in constructing boats, and in navigating them, being exact 
observers of the stars, and possessing a rude sort of compass. The 
rapidity with which they impel these proas, which are painted red, and 
rubbed with some substance that gives them the appearance of being 
varnished, and the dexterity with which they change their course and 
manage their simple sails are quite surprising. Although addicted to 
war they have not spears nor bows and arrows, their only arms being 
stones, clubs pointed with bones, and hatchets of shells. They appear 
to have no religious ceremonies, idols, or temples. They alone of the 
Polynesians have the art of weaving stuffs from the silken threads of 
the banana tree, by a kind of rude loom, and dyeing them with great 
beauty and taste. They are of a darker complexion, lighter form, and 
smaller features, than most of the other Polynesians, and the ava and 
taboo seem to be unknown or not general among them. 

The Polynesians in general are of a tawny complexion, but of various 
shades, with black hair, generally well made, vigorous, and active; 
intelligent, but often indolent when not stimulated by some particular 
object; ferocious and warlike, yet mild and gentle in their manners, and 
tender in their attachments; many of them had already attained a cer¬ 
tain degree of civilization when first visited by Europeans, being 


460 


POLYNESIA. 


organized into regular societies, having a religion with its rites, priests, 
and sacrifices, laws and usages scrupulously iollowed, and castes with 
distinct privileges. Others, however, particularly those upon the low 
coral formations, are generally inferior to the inhabitants of the larger 
islands, and the savage practices of cannibalism and human sacrifices 
were common to most if not all of these interesting islands. 

When first discovered many of the islanders had no clothing but the 
maro, a narrow strip of cloth about a foot in width, and many were 
and still are quite destitute of covering. Their cloth is not made by 
weaving flexible fibres, but by beating out the bark of certain trees with 
a mallet. Their mode of cooking is baking in subterranean ovens, or 
pits lined with heated stones. They prepare an intoxicating drink 
from the root of the kava or ava, a species of pepper ; they have morais 
or temples in which human sacrifices are offered to their idols, and 
they appear to be all addicted to cannibalism. The idols and canni¬ 
balism have of course disappeared from those islands, which have been 
converted to Christianity. 

The arms of the Polynesians are in general the same; bows and 
arrows are unknown among them, but spears, battle-axes, and war- 
clubs are their usual weapons. The practice of tatooing is also 
general; this consists in drawing lines by incision in the skin, and 
staining them with coloring matter. The figures drawn and the parts 
tatooed are by no means entirely arbitrary, but are indicative of the 
tribe, rank, or sex of the individual. 

The taboo is another singular usage, which appears to be peculiar 
to these islanders. The chiefs and arikis or priests have the power of 
declaring a place or object taboo to some particular persons or to all; 
it is then unlawful for the persons thus tabooed to touch the prohibited 
object, and instant death is the penalty of a violation of the taboo; 
in this way the chiefs and priests, who are often the same, can 
deprive any person of his property, and even interdict him from food, 
by declaring such articles taboo. Women are considered by the 
Polynesians as impure, and are not allowed to eat in the presence of 
tke men, or to enter the morais. These barbarous notions and usages 
have been for some time abolished in the Sandwich, Society, and 
Friendly islands, but they still prevail in most of the others. 

12. Climate , Productions , Most of these islands lie within the 

tropics, but as the heat is moderated by the vicinity to the sea, the 
climate is mild, and a perpetual spring seems to reign by the side of 
a perpetual autumn. The inhabitants require little clothing or shelter, 
and the air is pure and healthful. The productions of the soil, which 
is generally highly fertile, are sandal-wood, pandanus, the banana tree, 
the cocoa nut tree, bread-fruit tree, plantains, yams, batatas or sweet 
potatoes, and the taro-root. 

The bread-fruit affords a nutritive food either for immediate use, or 
made into a paste called mahie to keep; the trunk supplies timber for 
building canoes and houses; the gum, which exudes from it, answers the 
purpose of pitch, and cloth is made from the inner bark. The cocoa 
also furnishes food, a refreshing drink, and a material for making cloth. 
Taro-root is much cultivated, and is an important article of food. 

Fish is likewise much used ; hogs are now plentiful upon most of 
the islands, and bullocks upon many. The hog and dog were found 


461 


GENERAL VIEW OF OCEANIA. 

by the earliest European visiters, upon some of the islands, but the 
largest quadrupeds upon others were rats. The sugar-cane, rice, pine- 
apple, grape, and potato have also been introduced by Europeans. 

CLIII. GENERAL VIEW OF OCEANIA. 

1. Extent . The whole of this vast world of islands, including the 
three great divisions described under the names of Malaysia, Australia, 
and Polynesia, is called Oceania, to designate its position in the bosom 
of the great ocean. It forms the fifth great division of the globe. The 
land-area of Oceania amounts to 4,600,000 square miles, supporting a 
population of 20,000,000. Australia, which forms the largest part, is 
very thinly peopled, the great bulk of the population being comprised 
in Malaysia. 

2. Coral Islands. These seas are covered in different directions 
with small low islands and reefs, which are entirely of coral formation. 
Many of them are inhabited and covered with groves of cocoa nut and 
other trees, while others are quite destitute of trees and without in¬ 
habitants. In their appearance there is a remarkable similarity ; each 
generally consisting of a higher portion bearing vegetation, a low reef 
hardly emerged above the sea, and a central lagoon, in some cases en¬ 
tirely, in others nearly, surrounded by coral banks. 

These islands and reefs, some of which extend for hundreds of miles, 
are the residence of a little animal by which they are formed, as the 
shell of many other animals is created ; that is by the sGCrCtlGu oi a 
calcareous matter from the body of the creature. As soon as the edge 
of the reef is high enough to lay hold of floating sea-wreck and for birds 
to perch upon, the island may be said to commence. Seeds are de¬ 
posited by land birds or by currents, vegetation springs up, and a soil 
is formed by the deposits of birds and of decaying vegetable matter, 
and by the crumbling of the coral itself, till man finally comes to take 
possession of the new creation. These coral banks and islands are 
seen in all stages of their formation ; some in deep water; others just 
appearing in some points above the surface; some already elevated 
above the sea, but destitute of vegetation; others with a few weeds on 
their higher parts; and others again covered with large timber. 






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. 


. 




























ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 




465 


GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 


1. Figure of the Earth. The ancients were ignorant of the figure 
of the earth; some conceived it to be a plane surface; others observ¬ 
ing the descent of the rivers from the high grounds, concluded that it 
was concave, and that the ocean occupied the bottom of the cavity; 
some, however, conjectured that the earth was a spherical body, and 
that the opposite hemisphere might be inhabited. 

2. Geographical Knowledge of the Ancients. The western hemisphere 
only was known to the ancients, and that only in part. They were 
wholly ignorant of those regions which lie near the poles, and were 
imperfectly acquainted with the eastern part of Asia, and the great 
mass of Africa. In general they supposed the northern regions to be 
rendered uninhabitable by cold, and the tropical countries, by heat. 
Being entirely ignorant of the American and Oceanian continents, 
they considered the ocean to occupy a much larger portion of the 
globe than it actually does. 

3. Ancient Divisions of the Earth. The Ancients divided the world 
known to them into three parts, Asia, Libya (among the Greeks, called 
also Africa by the Komans), and Europe corresponding in general with 
the modern divisions. The Tanais (Don) was considered the boun¬ 
dary between Asia and Europe, and the isthmus of Suez that of Libya 
and Asia. 

4. The Ancients. The nations to whom we chiefly refer when speak¬ 
ing of the geographical knowledge of the ancients, are the Jews, Phoe¬ 
nicians, Greeks, and Romans; all of these nations dwelt upon the 
shores of what is now called the Mediterranean Sea, in the west of 
Asia, and the south of Europe. They flourished at different periods 
of the world, and the extent of their knowledge of the earth is vari¬ 
ous. The early Jews knew little beyond Egypt, the northwestern 
shores of the Indian Ocean, and the southwestern part of Asia. The 
Phoenicians navigated the Mediterranean and Black seas, planted 
colonies in Spain and on the northern coast of Africa, and sailed out 
into the Atlantic Ocean along the western coasts of Africa and Europe. 
The Greeks obtained a knowledge of India, and of more northern 
parts of Europe and Asia than had been known to the Phoenicians; 
and the Romans had a still more extensive acquaintance with Eu¬ 
ropean regions than the Greeks. 




466 


ASIA MINOR. 


ASIA. 

The Greeks divided Asia into Upper Asia and Lower Asia, the 
latter comprising the region between the Halys and Aegean Sea. The 
Romans separated it into Hither Asia, or Asia on this side the Taurus; 
and Further Asia, or Asia beyond the Taurus. According to Pompo- 
nius Mela, a Roman geographer, Asia is bounded north by the Scythian 
Ocean, of which the Caspian Sea is an inlet, east by the Eastern Ocean, 
and south by the Indian Ocean. Some ancient geographers extend it 
to the Nile on the west. The ancient name of the Arabian Sea was 
Erythrean Sea; the Red Sea was called Arabian Sea or Red Sea. 

ASIA MINOR OR LESSER ASIA. 

1. Divisions. This name was unknown to the ancients, but the 
region so called by the moderns included Mysia ; Bithynia; Paphla- 
gonia; Pontus; Lydia; Phrygia; Galatia; Cappadocia; Caria; Lycia; 
Pisidia and Pamphylia ; and Cilicia. 

2. Mysia. Mysia was bounded by the Propontis on the north ; the 
Hellespont and AEgean Sea on the west; Lydia on the south; and 
Phrygia and Bithynia on the east. The early inhabitants were the 
Mysians in the interior, and the Leleges, Pelasgians, and Teucrians and 
Dardanians (Trojans) on the coast. After the destruction of Troy the 
iEolians settled here. 

From Mount Ida in the northwest descended two small streams, the 
Simois and Scamander, which flowed by Troy. Other rivers were the 
Granicus, celebrated as the scene of one of Alexander’s victories over 
the Persians; the iEsepus; and the Hyllus, which separated Mysia 
from Lydia. 

On the coast were the islands of Lemnos (Stalimene), upon which 
Vulcan was said to have fallen from heaven ; Lesbos (Metelin), famous 
for its wines, and the birth-place of Pittacus and Sappho; Tenedos, 
opposite to Troy; and Proconnesus, in the Propontis, famous for its 
marble, whence its modern name Marmora. 

Troja (Troy) or Ilium was a city on the western coast, celebrated for 
its siege of ten years by the Greeks under Agamemnon. To the north 
on the Hellespont were Dardanus (whence the modern name of the 
strait, Dardanelles); Abydos, celebrated for the loves of Hero and 
Leander; and Lampsacus. 

On the Propontis was Cyzicus, formerly a large city, now in ruins. 

To the south were Pergamus, once the capital of a flourishing king¬ 
dom, and the seat of a learned court: Adramyttium on a gulf of the 
same name ; Cyme, the principal of the iEoliau cities; and Mytilene, 
the capital of Lesbos. 

3. Lydia. The ancient inhabitants of this district were called 
Maeonians. They resembled the Mysians and Carians in their lan¬ 
guage, manners, and rites. The coast of Lydia and Caria was at a 
later period occupied by colonies of Ionians from Greece, and is there¬ 
fore sometimes called Ionia. The Ionian cities formed a confederacy, 
but were independent of each other. 


ASIA MINOR. 


467 


On the coast were the islands of Chios (Scio) and Samos. 

The principal rivers were Pactolus, famous for its golden sands, and 
running into the Hermus; the Meander (Meinder) famous for its wind¬ 
ings, whence the word meander; and the Hermus (Sarabat). 

Ionia was celebrated among the ancients for the fertility of its soil 
and the mildness of its climate. The inhabitants were ingenious, in¬ 
dustrious, and wealthy, and distinguished for elegance of taste and love 
of the arts and sciences. Homer, the greatest of poets; A pelles and Par- 
rhasius, celebrated painters; Thales and Pythagoras, famous philoso¬ 
phers ; and Hippocrates, the great physician, were Ionians. Smyrna; 
Colophon; Ephesus, once a magnificent city now in ruins; Miletus; 
Clazomene; and Erythra were the chief towns of the Ionian confede¬ 
racy. Panionium was a village, in which the deputies of the twelve 
confederated cities met once a year. Teos, the birth-place of Anacreon, 
and Phocaea, were also on the coast. 

In the interior were Sardis, once the residence of the Lydian kings, 
Magnesia, and Philadelphia. 

Mount Tmolus, from which the Cayster descended to the sea, was 
famous for its vineyards; and Mycale, on the coast, for the naval victory 
gained by the Greeks over the Persians, in its neighborhood. 

3. Caria. Caria, which lies to the south of Lydia, was also in part 
occupied by Greek colonies of Ionians and Dorians. 

The principal islands were Cos (Stanchio); Pathmos, where St. John 
received the Revelations ; Rhodes ; and Carpathus (Scarpanto), which 
gave its name to the Carpathian Sea. 

The Dorian confederacy consisted of five cities; Halicarnassus, the 
principal, contained the celebrated sepulchral monument erected by 
Artemisia, to the memory of her husband Mausolus, whence the word 
mausoleum ; it is now destroyed, but was considered by the ancients 
one of the wonders of the world. This city was the birth-place of the 
Greek authors Herodotus and Dionysius. Cnidos (Porto Genovese), 
now in ruins, famous for its beautiful statue of Venus by Praxiteles, 
and for the games celebrated there in honor of Apollo, was the second 
city of the confederacy. Rhodes, the chief town of the island of the 
same name, contained the celebrated colossus of bronze, dedicated to 
Apollo, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. 

4. Phrygia. This province was to the east of Mysia and Lydia, and 
to the south of Bithynia and Galatia. It is a mountainous region, giv¬ 
ing birth to several considerable rivers. The Sangarius (Sakaria) run¬ 
ning through Bithynia into the Euxine, the Meander, and the Marsyas 
running into the Meander, are the principal. Olympus, Taurus, and the 
Lycaonian Hills traverse the province. 

The principal towns were Aneyra (Jar Ilissar), Apamsea, Laodicaea 
(Ladikiah), Hierapolis (Pambouk Kulassi), and Colossse. 

The southeastern part was called Lycaonia, which was inhabited by 
a fierce nation of mountaineers. Here was Iconium (Konieh). 

5. Bithynia. The Bithynians, who gave their name to this province, 
were of Thracian origin; they established here a powerful kingdom, 
which Nicomedes the last king bequeathed to the Romans. On the 
coast of the Euxine there were many Greek colonies. The Propontis 
and Thracian Bosphorus separated Bithynia from Thrace. 

On the Bosphorus stood Chrysopolis (Scutari) and Chalcedon now 
a mere village. 


468 


ASIA MINOR. 


On the Propontis were Nicomedia (Ismid) and Drepanum, destroy¬ 
ed, both on the Gulf of Astaeus. To the south lay Nicaea (Isnik or 
Nice) and Prasa (Boursa). 

On the Euxine was Heraclea, a Greek colony, famous for its navy, 
its library, and rich temples. 

6. Paphlagonia. Paphlagonia was separated from Bithynia by 
the Parthenius, and from Pontus by the Halys (Kizil Irmak). The 
inhabitants were chiefly engaged in mining. 

Sinope, a Milesian colony, was a rich city, the birth-place and resi¬ 
dence of Mithridates. Diogenes the Cynic was also a native of Sinope. 
Amastris lay in the eastern part. 

7. Galatia. This province, lying between Bithynia and Paphla¬ 
gonia on the north, and Phrygia on the south, derived its name from 
some tribes of Gauls, who settled in it. The Tolistoboii occupied the 
west, the Tectosages the centre, and the Trocmi the east. 

Gordium, on the Sangarius, was a very ancient city; here Alexander 
cut the Gordian knot. Pessinus, the capital of the Tolistoboii, was 
celebrated for the worship of Cybele, the mother of the gods. 

Ancyra (Angora) was the capital of the Tectosages; Paul’s Epistle 
to the Galatians was addressed to the Christians of this city. 

Tarium was the capital of the Trocmi. Gangra was the residence 
of king Deiotarus. 

8. Pontus. This countiy bordered upon the sea (in Greek, pontos, 
whence its name), and was once a part of Cappadocia. Under Mith¬ 
ridates it formed a powerful kingdom. Pontus contained rich copper 
mines. The Iris (Jekil Irmak), the Lycus, a tributary of the Iris, 
arid the Thermodon, on which the Amazons were said to dwell, were 
the principal rivers. The Amisene Gulf (Gulf of Samsouin) took its 
name from the city of Amisus. 

Amisus (Samsoum) was a large and beautiful Greek city. Amasia, 
on the Iris, was the birth-place of the Greek geographer Strabo. 

Comana Pontica (Al-Mous) was celebrated for its temples of Bellona 
and Venus. 

Trapezus (Trebisond), in the northeast, was a colony of Sinope. 
Cerasus gave its name to the cherry, which was brought thence into 
Europe by the Roman general Lucullus. 

9. Cappadocia was for some time an independent kingdom. The 
eastern part was inhabited by Armenians, and was often called Arme¬ 
nia Minor, or the Lesser Armenia. Tho Melas (Karasu) was a tribu¬ 
tary of the Euphrates. The Anti-Taurus Mountains traversed the 
country. 

Mazaca or Caesarea (Kaisarieh), Tyana, Comana, Satala, and Meli- 
tene were the principal towns. 

10. Cilicia. This province was divided into three parts, Isauria, 
Cilicia Trachea (Hilly), and Cilicia Campestris (the champaign coun 
try). It was watered by a number of small streams, among which 
were the Pyramus, Selinus, Cydnus, nearly fatal to Alexander, and 
Melas. On the southeast was a narrow defile or pass, leading into 
Syria, called the Pylae Syriae or Syrian Gates. 

Tarsus, the capital, celebrated for its cultivation of letters, was the 
birth-place of St. Paul. Issus, in the southeast, the scene of a victory 
of Alexander over the Persians, gave its name to a gulf. 

Coryus was celebrated among the ancients for its remarkable cave. 







(ii #. M 1-8 


MOUNTAIN^ OF OCEANIA. 



MOUNTAINS OF OCEANIA. 


AUSTRALIAN. 

. Celebes, . . r . 7,680 feet. 

. Bornean, .... 8,000 “ 

. Molluccas, .... 3,664 “ 

. Phillipine. . . • 10,540 u 

. Java, . 12,800 “ 

MALAYSIAN. 

6. Sumatra, .... 15,125 feet. 


7. Blue Mountain, . . . 6,500 feet 

8. Swan River, “ . . . 10,000 “ 

POLYNESIAN. 

9. Oroena, (Tahiti,) . 10,910 u 

10. Mauna Koa, do. . . 13,950 u 

11. Mauna Roa, do. . . 15,990 “ 

































ANIMALS OF OCEANIA 



ANIMALS OF OCEANIA. 


1. OrangOutang. 

2. Bird of Paradise. 

3. Kangaroo. 

4. Duck Billed Platypus. 

5. Black Swan. 6. Paroquet 


7. Parrot. 

8. Anaconda. 

9. Boa Constrictor. 

10. New Holland Cereopsis. 
11 ml “ Emeu. 




































SYRIA. 


469 


Derbe and Lystra were cities of Tsauria. 

11. Pisidia and Pamphylia. The coasts of this division, like those 
of the other parts of Asia Minor, were occupied hy the Greeks, who 
carried on commerce and often practised piracy. The interior was 
inhabited by Cilicians and Pisidians. 

Perga (Kara-llissar) was the capital. Aspendus was a large city 
upon the Euryrnedon (Menougat), near which the Athenian, Cimon, 
gained two victories over the Persians in one day. Selga now in 
ruins was the largest town in the province. 

12. Lycia. Tins province was at first inhabited by Cilicians, called 
Mylians or Solymes ; but the Greeks founded many colonies here, and 
the natives retiring into the interior were afterwards called Lycians. 

Xanthus, upon a river of the same name, Patara, famous for its 
oracle, and Telmessus, noted for its soothsayers, were the principal 
towns. 

Mount Cragus was the pretended residence of the fabulous Chim- 
sera. Near Phaselis, on the borders of Pamphylia, was a narrow 
mountain-pass called the Climax or ladder. 


SYRIA. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. Syria was bounded on the north by 
Asia Minor; on the east by the Euphrates, separating it from Mesopo¬ 
tamia; on the south by the Arabian Desert, and on the west by the 
sea. The name is sometimes applied to a greater extent of country. 
Within the limits described were comprised Syria Proper in the north, 
Phoenicia in the centre, and Palestine in the south. 

2. Syria Proper. The principal river of this division is the Orontes; 
the Euphrates washes the eastern border. On the north between 
Cilicia and Syria is mount Amanus. 

Samosata, Zeugma, and Hierapolis were the principal places on 
the Euphrates. 

Alexandria (Alexandretta or Scanderoon) was situated on the Gulf 
of Issus. To the south on the Orontes lay Antiochia (Antioch or 
Antakia), once one of the wealthiest cities of the east. Here the dis¬ 
ciples of Christ were first called Christians. In the neighborhood was 
Daphne famous for its oracle, and further to the east was Beraea 
(Aleppo). ... 

Further south was Laodicea-Upon-Sea, noted for its wines; to the 
east of which on the Orontes was Apamea, one of the chief cities of 
this region. 

In the southern part of Syria were the ridges of the Libanus (Leba¬ 
non) and Anti-Libanus. Beyond the mountains were Emesa (Hems) 
on the Orontes ; Heliopolis (Balbek), of which the ruins are still seen, 
and Damascus, a very ancient city. 

Palmyra (Tadmor) in the Syrian Desert, and long the capital of a 
powerful state (Palmyrene), is now ill ruins. The famous Zenobia 
was queen of this country. 

At Thapsacus, on the Euphrates, the Ten Thousand and the army 
of Alexander crossed that river. 

On the coast of Syria is the island of Cyprus, on which were Mount 
Olympus, and the cities of Paphos, Salainis, and Idalium. 


470 


SYRIA. 


3. Phoenicia. Phoenicia extended along the coast from Syria to 
Palestine. The Phoenicians were distinguished at an early period for 
their commercial enterprise, their skill in manufactures, their boldness 
in maritime navigation, and their wealth. The invention of letters has 
also been attributed to them. They established numerous colonies, 
among which Carthage became the most famous. 

Arce, afterwards Cesarsea (Akkar); Tripolis (Tripoli or Tarabalus); 
Biblos (Gebile), near the river Adonis, fabled to have run blood during 
the festival celebrated in honor of the shepherd of that name, who was 
said to have been wounded on its banks by a wild boar; and Berytus 
(Baireuth or Beyroot), noted for its wines, were important towns. 

Sidon was at an early period the most powerful city of Phoenicia, 
and long resisted the arms of the Jews, but was afterwards conquered 
by the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Sarepta, in its vicini¬ 
ty, was noted for its wines. 

Tyre was inferior only to Sidon in arts and wealth. It was origi¬ 
nally built upon the continent, but having been besieged by Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar, the inhabitants fled to an island where they built New Tyre. 

Acco or Ptolemais (Acre) was situated near Mount Carmel, famous 
in sacred history, as the retreat of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. 

4. Palestine. This region was called at an early period, the land 
of Canaan from the patriarch by whose descendants, the Canaanites, it 
was inhabited. From the Philistines, called by the Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans, Palaestines, who inhabited the coast, it took the name of Pales¬ 
tine. It is also called Judzea, from Juda the principal Hebrew tribe ; 
the Promised Land, because God had promised it to the posterity of 
the patriarchs; the Land of Israel, from its being occupied by the 
children of Israel or Israelites; and the Holy Land; because it was the 
birth-place and residence of Jesus Christ. 

Palestine was traversed by the Jordan (Arden), which, rising in 
Mount Hermon in the north, and passing through the Lake of Genne- 
sareth, called also the sea of Tiberias, or the sea of Galilee, emptied 
its waters into the Dead Sea or Lake Asphaltites. The Arnon also dis¬ 
charged itself into the same lake. 

The principal chain of mountains traversed the country from north 
to south under the names of Lebanon and Tabor in Galilee, Ebal and 
Gerizim in Samaria, the mountains of Ephraim, Sion, Moriah, and 
Hebron in Judsea. 

On the northeast was Mount Hermon, which was continued to the 
south under the names of the mountains of Gilead, of Arnon, of the 
Moabites. 

Before the Israelites entered the Promised Land it was divided among 
the Canaanites. The Girgashites and Amorites dwelt on the east of the 
Jordan; the Perizzites and Jebusites, on the west of that river; the 
Ilivites, to the west of the latter; and the Hittites and Philistines, be¬ 
tween the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean. 

After the conquest, it was divided, with some exceptions, among the 
twelve tribes, as follows: beyond or east of the Jordan were Reuben, on 
the north of the Akron, and Gad ; Manasseh, to the north of the latter, 
was on both sides of the river; to the west of the Dead Sea were 
Judah and Simeon; north of the latter was Dan, of the former, Benja¬ 
min ; between the Jordan and the sea was Ephraim, bordering on Ben¬ 
jamin and Dan; north of Ephraim was Issachar; north of the latter 


SCYTHIA. 


471 


lay Zebulon, and farther north, between the Jordan and Phoenicia, 
were Naphtali and Asher. 

At a later period Palestine became a Roman province, and was divid¬ 
ed into four principal parts; Galilee, in the north; Samaria, in the 
centre; Judaea, in the south ; and Peraea, beyond Jordan. 

Among the most remarkable places in Galilee were Nazareth, where 
our Savior passed his early years; Cana, where he wrought his first 
miracle; Gennesareth, Emmaus, Tiberias, and Capernaum, on the lake 
of Gennesareth. 

In Samaria were Samaria, capital of the kingdom of Israel, rebuilt 
by Herod under the name of Sebaste; Jezrael, in which were the 
palace of Ahab and the vineyard of Naboth ; Sichem or Syehar, called 
by the Greeks and Romans Neapolis (now Naplous), at different pe¬ 
riods, the capital of Samaria; and, on the coast, Caesarea. 

In Judaea were Jerusalem or Hierosolyma, still called by the Arabs 
El-Kods or the Holy, called also by the Romans, iEIia Capitolina; 
Bethlehem, the birth-place of the Savior; Emmaus, where he appear¬ 
ed to his disciples; Jericho, celebrated for its miraculous capture by 
Joshua; Lydda or Diospolis ; Joppa (Jaffa), the port from which Jonah 
embarked ; Gaza, Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gath, cities of the 
Philistines. 

The principal places in Peraea were Rabbath-Ammon, or Philadel¬ 
phia, the capital of the Ammonites; Jaser; Heshbon; and Rabbath- 
Moab, or Areopolis, the capital of the Moabites. 


ASIATIC SARMATIA. 

' 

The greater part of Sarmatia was in Europe ; but the portion of it 
lying to the east of the Tanais (Don) was placed by the ancients in 
Asia, though according to the modern lines of division it lies in Europe, 
as it is bounded by the Caucasus on the south, and the Rha (Volga) and 
Caspian Sea on the east. 

It was inhabited by the Heniochi, Alani, Maeotce, and other tribes. 
The principal rivers were the Hypanis (Kuban); Daix (Jaik), and Udon 
(Kama). A pass between the Caucasian Mountains and the Caspian 
Sea was called Caucasise Portae or Pylae, Caucasian Gates. 

On the coast were some Greek colonies. Tanais (Asoph), on the 
river of the same name, and Sindica on the Euxine, were the principal 
places. 


SCYTHIA. 

The Scythia of the ancients comprehended an indefinite and imper¬ 
fectly known region, extending to the east of the Rha and the Caspian 
Sea, and to the north of the Jaxartes (Sir), which was supposed by 
them to empty itself into the Caspian Sea. It corresponds to the 
southwestern part of Asiatic Russia, Turkistan, and the western part 
of the Chinese empire, and was divided into Scythia within the Imaus 
(Beloor Mountains), and Scythia beyond the Imaus. 

The Scythians were divided into a great number of roving tribes, 
who led the same sort of life with their descendants, the wandering 


472 


MESOPOTAMIA. 


Tartar tribes of modern times. Among them were the Massagetae. 
Sacae, Seres, &c. Serica, the land of the Seres, abounded in silk, 
which was not raised in the west till the 6th century. 


COLCHIS. 

1. Divisions. Colchis comprised the country between the Caspian 
and Euxine seas, and between the Caucasus on the north and Pontus 
and Armenia on the south. It was thither that the celebrated Argo- 
nautic voyage in quest of the golden fleece was made. The mountains 
furnished timber; the sands of the rivers contained gold. It was 
divided into Colchis Proper on the Euxine, Iberia to the east of the 
former, and Albania on the Caspian. 

2. Colchis Proper. Among the inhabitants were the Moschi, Abas- 
sians, and Lazians, and on the coast were some Greek and Egyptian 
colonies. The principal river was the Phasis (Phaz or Rioni). From 
CEa on that river the Argonauts took the golden fleece: Dioscurias 
(Iskuria) and Phais (Poti) on the Euxine were the other chief towns. 

3. Iberia. Iberia was inhabited by the Sapyrians. The principal 
rivers were the Alazon and Cyrus (Kur). 

4. Albania. This country lay between Iberia and the Caspian Sea. 
Here upon the sea were Albana and Setara. 


ARMENIA. 

Armenia was situated between Colchis on the north and Mesopo¬ 
tamia and Media on the south. The portion which lay to the west of 
the Euphrates was sometimes called Armenia Minor or Lesser Arme¬ 
nia. This country was at one time subject to the Persians; it then 
formed an independent monarchy, and afterwards formed a part of the 
Roman and Parthian empires. 

The Araxes (Aras,) Euphrates, and Tigris had their sources in 
Armenia. The latter rose in the Niphates or Snowy Mountains. 
North of the Niphates was Lake Arsissa or Arzes (Van.) To the south 
of the Araxes is Mount Ararat, upon which the ark is said to have 
rested. 

Among the towns were Tigranocerta (Sert), founded by Tigranes, 
king of Armenia; Arze (Erzerum); Thospia or Arzanii (Erzen); Ar- 
temita (Van); Artaxata ; and Chorzene (Kars). 


MESOPOTAMIA. 

Mesopotamia signifies in the Greek the land between the rivers, and 
it was so called because it lay between the Tigris and the Euphrates; 
on the north it was bounded by Armenia, and on the south by Baby¬ 
lonia. 

The northern part of the country was called Osroene and Mygdonia. 
There was a branch of the Taurus, called Mount Masius, in which the 
Mygdonius (Hermas) and Chaboras (Kabour) had their origin. 

In this section were Edessa or Callirhoe (Orfa), a very ancient city, 


ASSYRIA. 


473 


the building of which was attributed to Nimrod ; Charrse, called in the 
scriptures Harran, whence Abraham departed for Palestine ; Resaina, 
a very old city ; and Nisibis, once a large city, now in ruins. 

On the Euphrates were Nicephorium and Circesium; and further 
south C unax a, where Cyrus the Younger was killed fighting at the 
head of the Ten Thousand Greeks, against his brother Artaxerxes. 


ARABIA. 

1. Boundaries and Divisions. Arabia was bounded north by Syria, 
east by the Persian Gulf, south by the Erythrean Sea (Arabian Gulf), 
and west by the Arabian or Red Sea. It was divided by the ancients 
into Arabia Petraea, so called from its capital Petra; Arabia Deserta or 
the Barren, and Arabia Felix or the Fertile. The ancient Arabians 
led the same wandering life that their descendants still lead. 

2. Arabia Petrosa. This division, bordering on the Red Sea and 
Palestine, was inhabited by the Midianites, the Edomites in Idumaea, 
and the Nabatheans. Here was the desert in which the Israelites 
wandered forty years before they reached the Promised Land; here 
also were Horeb and Sinai, from which God gave the law to Moses. 

Upon the Red Sea stood Eziongeber, whence the fleets of Solomon 
sailed for Ophir; further north was Petra, the principal town of this 
region, and to the south was Madian, capital of the Midianites. 

3. Arabia Deserta. This comprised the central part of the peninsula, 
and eXtCIlcdd into Syris. It w ?9 inhabited entirely by wandering 
hordes, called by the ancients Scenites, that is, Dwellers in Tents. 

4. Arabia Felix. The rest of the country lying upon the three seas 
was included in this division. Among the most important nations 
were the Thamudites in the north; the Sabaeans and Homerites in 
the southwest; the Omanites on the Erythrean Sea, and the Macae, 
called also Ichthyophagi, that is Fish-Eaters, by the Greeks, on the 
Persian Gulf. 

In the west were Leucecome or Albus Pagus, on the Red Sea; 
Jatrippa (Medina); Jambia (Jambo), on the sea; Macoraba (Mecca); 
and Musa (Moseh). The entrance to the Red Sea was called Dirae 
(Babel mandel). 

Mariaba (Mareb) was in the country of the Homerites. 

On the Persian Gulf was Gerra fElkatif), an important commercial 
place, to the south of which was the island of Tylos (Bahrein). On 
the Erythrean Sea stood Omanum (Oman) and Mosca (Mascat). 


ASSYRIA. 

Assyria in its widest sense, comprising the whole of the Assyrian 
monarchy, extended from Asia Minor and the Mediterranean to Persia, 
including Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Susiana, and Assyria Proper. 

Assyria Proper, or Assyria in a narrower sense, was bounded by 
Armenia on the north ; Media, from which it was separated by Mount 
Zagros, on the east; Babylonia on the south, and the Tigris on the 
west. 


474 


MEDIA. 


Ninus or Niniveh, on the Tigris, was a very ancient city, of great 
extent. It was to this city that Jonah was sent. It is described by 
Diodorus, a Greek historian, as being 60 miles in circuit, with walls 
100 feet high, so thick that three chariots could pass abreast on them, 
and strengthened by 1,500 towers. 

Arbela (Erbil), capital of Adiabene, Gaugamela, Apollonia, and Opis 
on the Tigris, were among the most important places. 


BABYLONIA. 

Babylonia, called also Chaldeea, was inhabited by the Babylonians 
and Chaldaeans. The latter were celebrated for their knowledge of 
astronomy, and they supplied the Babylonians with priests. The 
extent of Chaldsea was different at different times, sometimes including 
a part of Mesopotamia, and sometimes restricted to the lower part of 
the course of the Euphrates and Tigris. The northern portion to the 
east of the Tigris was called Sitacene. A wall extending from the 
Euphrates to the Tigris, and called the Median wall or the wall of 
Semiramis, separated Babylonia from Mesopotamia. 

The country was watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, and several 
of their tributaries, and was intersected by several canals. 

In the north was Sitace, now in ruins; Seleucia on the Tigris, now 
destroyed, and Ctesiphon (Modain), for a time capital of the Parthian 
empire, were large cities. 

Babylon, on the Euphrates, one of the largest and most ancient r.ities 
la the world, has Jong been destroyed, ft was founded by Belus, 
whom some suppose to be the same as Nimrod, and enlarged and em¬ 
bellished by Semiramis and Nebuchadnezzar. It was built in the 
form of a square, sixty miles in circuit, with the bouses and walls of 
brick dried in the sun. 

Sura and Teredon were further south. 


MEDIA. 

Media was an extensive country bounded on the north by Armenia 
and the Caspian Sea; on the south by Susiana and Persia, and on the 
west by Assyria and Babylonia. The Medes were divided into several 
tribes, one of which was that of the Magians. 

After the death of Alexander the northern part was erected into a 
separate kingdom called Atropatene. 

In the west was Lake Mantiana (Urmia), and farther south Mount 
Orontes (Eluend), stretching through the country from west to east. 
The Mardus or Amandus (Kizil-Osein) emptied its waters into the 
Caspian Sea. 

Ecbatana (Hamadan), the capital of the kingdom of the Medes, 
Elymais, and Praaspes were the chief towns in the west. 

Further east were Rages (Rai), near which was a mountain-pass, 
called Caspife Pylge or Caspian Gates; Hecatonpylus, long the capital 
of the Parthians, who formed at one time a powerful empire, and 
Ecbatana of the Magians. 


GEDROSIA. 


475 


SUSIANA. 

Susiana lay to the south of Media, extending to the Persian Gulf, and 
bounded by Persia on the east, and by Babylonia on the west. It be¬ 
longed to the Persian empire. The principal river was the Choaspes 
(Kerah). 

Susa (Shuz) was one of the capitals of Persia, and the winter resi¬ 
dence of the Persian kings. The tomb of Daniel is still shown here. 


PERSIS OR PERSIA. 

Persia Proper was only a province of the great empire which was 
destroyed by Alexander, and which comprised the whole of Asia west 
of the Indus and south of the Caspian and Euxine seas, except Arabia; 
Egypt and Libya in Africa were also a part of the Persian empire. 
Persia Proper was bounded on the north by Media; on the east by 
Carmania; on the south by the Persian Gulf; and on the west by 
Susiana. 

The principal rivers of Persis were the Medus (Abi-Kuren), which 
emptied itself into a lake; the Araxes (Bendemeer), flowing into the 
Medus; and the Pasitigris, discharging its waters into the Persian 
Gulf. 

The most remarkable towns were Persepolis(Istakhar), now in ruins; 
here was the magnificent palace of the reision kings, burnt by Alexan¬ 
der; the famous ruins, called Chilminar or the Forty Columns, are 
supposed to be the remains of this palace; and Pasargada (Pasa), 
which contained the tomb of Cyrus. 


CARMANIA. 

Carmania was an extensive province, consisting chiefly of deserts, 
lying to the east of Persis, and having the Persian Gulf and the 
Erythrean Sea on the south, and Gedrosia on the east. 

In the gulf were the islands Oaracta (Kishmiz), containing the tomb 
of king Erythras, whose name according to some was given to the sea; 
and Organa (Ormuz). 

The capital was Carmana (Kerman or Sirjan): Harmosia (Bender- 
Abassi), on the Persian Gulf, and Badis (Jask), on the Erythrean Sea, 
were the other chief places. 


GEDROSIA. 

Gedrosia lay to the west of India, on the north of the Erythrean Sea, 
and to the east of Carmania. A large part of the country was co?nposed 
of deserts, in which Semiramis and Cyrus lost great numbers of their 
soldiers, and in traversing which the forces of Alexander underwent 
severe hardships. 

Along the coasts were tribes of fishermen, called by the Greeks 
Ichthyophagi, or Fish-Eaters. In the east were the Horites. 


476 


SOGDIANIA. 


Pura (Foreg), in the interior, Cysa and Malana near the sea, and Ora 
(Haur) in the country of the Horites, were the chief places. 


HYRCANIA. 

This extensive region bordered on the Caspian Sea, which was 
thence also called the Hyrcanian Sea. 

The Ochus and the Margus were the principal rivers. 

Hyrcania comprised the provinces of Astabena, in which was Asaac 
(Azhor); Apavareticena, called from its capital, Apavaretica; Parthiene, 
the native country of the Parthians, whose empire under the Arsacides 
or successors of Arsaces extended over a great part of western Asia ; 
and Margiana, bordering on the Margus. 


ARIA. 

Aria lay to the southeast of Hyrcania. It was traversed by Mount 
Paropamisus, a prolongation of Mount Taurus. 

Here were Alexandria (Herat) on the Lake Aria (Zere), and Zaris 
(Zere), upon the same lake. 


DRANGIANA, 

This country, which was subsequently conquered by the Sacae, a 
Scythian tribe, and took the name of Sacastania, was to the southeast 
of Aria. 

The Etymander (Hindmend) emptied itself into the Arian Lake. 
Agriaspe (Dergasp), and Prophtasia (Zarang) were the principal towns. 


ARACHOSIA. 

Arachosia lay to the east of Drangiana, and to the south of Bactri- 
ana. The ancients were very imperfectly acquainted with this and 
the neighboring regions. 


SOGDIANA. 

This country, lying between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, was in¬ 
habited by Scythian tribes, among whom were the Dahse, Sacse, 
Comedi, &c. 

The Oxus (Gihon), which emptied its waters into Lake Aral, was 
important as one of the great routes of the commerce of the ancients 
with India; goods were carried down the Oxus, across the Caspian 
Sea, up the Cyrus, and down the Phasis to the Euxine. 

Cyropolis (Kogend) founded by Cyrus; Alexandria, founded by 
Alexander; and Maracanda (Samarcand), were among the principal 
places. 

Sogdiana appears to have been the extreme northeastern limit of the 
conquests of Bacchus, Hercules, Semiramis, Cyrus, and Alexander. 


AFRICA. 


477 


CHORASMIA, &c. 

To the northwest of Sogdiana, between the Jaxartes and the Caspian 
Sea, lay an extensive region little known to the ancients, inhabited 
chiefly by the Scythians. The Chorasmii, Massagetae, Barcanii, &c., 
were among the inhabitants. 


BACTRIANA. 

Bactriana was situated to the south of Sogdiana, and was inhabited 
by Scythians. After the dissolution of the Macedonian empire, a sepa¬ 
rate Greek kingdom was formed here, but was soon overthrown by the 
Scythians. ^ 

Bactra (Balk); Zariaspa; Darapsa (Bamian); and Alexandria were 
the principal places. 


INDIA. 

With the vast regions of southeastern Asia, the ancients were but 
slightly acquainted ; Alexander first made the Greeks acquainted with 
the country on the Indus, and the Greco-Bactrian kings carried their 
arms much further east and south. The vague names of Golden 
Region, Silver Region, Golden Chersonese (Malacca), Region of the 
Sinte (according to some China, according to others Siam), &c., indi¬ 
cate their ignorance of Further India. The northern part of Sumatra 
appears to have been known to them under the name of Jabadii. 

The Indus, Hydaspes (Jylum), Acesines (Chenab), Hyphasis (Sut- 
ledge), Ganges, and Mesolus (Krishna), were the principal rivers known 
to the ancients. 

The western coast of the Deccan received from them the vague name 
of the country of Patidion, a king of that region. The island of Tapro- 
bane (Ceylon) lay to the south of the above mentioned country. 

Aornos was a celebrated fortress taken by Alexander; on the Indus 
to the north lay Embolima, long since destroyed, and still further north 
was Nysa or Dionysopolis. 

Beyond the Indus were Lahora (Lahore), the capital of Porus; Ser- 
inda (Sirhitid), whence silk worms were first brought into Europe, in 
the reign of Justinian ; Palibothra (Boglipoor), and Agara (Agra) on 
the Ganges. 


AFRICA. 

Africa, or as it was called by the Greeks Libya, was but imper¬ 
fectly known to the ancients. The northern coast was occupied by 
civilized nations,—Egyptians, and Phoenician, Grecian, and Roman 
colonies, but they did not penetrate far into the interior. 

Some ancient writers consider the Nile as the eastern boundary of 
Africa. Pornponius Mela, the Roman geographer, describes it as wash¬ 
ed by the Libyan Sea on the north, the Atlantic on the west, and the 
./Ethiopian Sea on the south. The interior, he says, is inhabited by the 


478 


AFRICA PROPER. 


Troglodytes, who live in caves, eat snakes, and gibber rather than 
speak; the Blemmyes, men without heads, whose eyes are in their 
breasts; and the Satyrs and AEgipans, half men and half beasts. 

The Africa of the ancients may be described under six great divi¬ 
sions; Mauritania, Numidia, Africa Proper, Egypt, Lybia, and AEthio- 
pia. 

TheGetulians inhabited the Atlas Mountains; the Numidians, who 
lived upon the coast, and the Mauri or Moors, who dwelt further to the 
west, were probably of Getulian origin. 


MAURITANIA. 

Mauritania extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ampsagas, 
which separated it from Numidia. On the north it was separated from 
Hispania (Spain) by the Straits of Gades or Hercules (Straits of 
Gibraltar). 

On the south of this strait was Mount Abyla, opposite to which, in 
Spain, was Calpe. These two hills were called the Pillars of Hercules, 
and it was fabled that that hero burst asunder the ridge which divided 
the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Mount Atlas, a long and lofty 
chain on the south of Mauritania and Numidia, still retains its ancient 
name. 

Mauritania was divided into two parts ; Mauritania Tingitica in the 
west, and Mauritania Csesariensis, in the east. 

The principal places in the former were Tingis (Tangiers), Lixus 
(Larrache), and Sala (Sallee) on the Atlantic; and Abyla or Septa 
(Ceuta), on the Mediterranean. 

To the southwest of the coast of Mauritania lay the Fortunate Isles 
or the Islands of the Blessed (Canaries;. 

Mauritania Caesariensis lay to the east of the Mulucha (Malloui), the 
principal river of this country. The chief towns in this division were 
Siga, Mina, Caesarea (Algiers), and Coba(Bugeia)^ 


NUMIDIA. 

Numidia lay between Mauritania and Africa Proper; it was inhabit¬ 
ed by two distinct nations, the Massyli in the east, and the Massesyli in 
the west. 

The Ampsagas (Wad-el-Kebir), which separated it from Mauritania, 
and the Savus, which emptied itself into a lake, were the principal 
rivers. 

Cirta (Constantina), capital of Numidia and residence of Massinissa, 
and Hippo-Regius (Bona), were among the most important places. 


AFRICA PROPER. 

Africa Proper or the province of Africa was a fertile region, lying 
along the coast, between Numidia on the west, and Libya on the east.— 
It comprised the three provinces of Zeugitana, Byzacena, and Tripo- 
litana. 

On the coast were the Lesser Syrtis (Gulf of Gabes), and the Great 


EGYPT. 


479 


Syrtis (Gulf of Sidra); in the interior was the Lake of Triton (Lou- 
deah), fabled to have been the birth-place of Minerva. The Bagradas 
(Megerda) was the principal river. 

Carthage, a Phoenician colony, was long celebrated for its commerce, 
wealth, and maritime power, and it reduced a great part of Northern 
Africa, the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, and extensive re¬ 
gions in Spain to its dominion. Its merchants traded to Spain, and 
the western coasts of Europe and Africa by sea, and with Egypt and 
the interior of Africa by caravans. 

Utica, to the north, celebrated for the death of Cato; Zama, where 
Scipio defeated Hannibal, Capsa in the interior, and Thapsus and 
Hadrumetum on the coast, were the principal places. 

In Tripolitana Leptis Magna or the Greater Leptis (Lebida) was the 
chief towu. In this division dwelt the Lotophagi (that is, Lotus 
Eaters), so called by the Greeks, because they used the berry of the 
lotus as food; this fruit was fabled to have the power of making stran¬ 
gers forget their native land. 


LIBYA. 

Libya formed two great divisions, Maritime Libya and Inland Libya. 

1. Maritime Libya lay between Tripolitana and Egypt, comprising 
Cyrenaica and Marmarica on the coast, and several oases in the in¬ 
terior. 

Cyrenaica, so called from its chief city Cyrene, was chiefly occu¬ 
pied by rich Grecian colonies; it was also called Pentapolis, that is, 
the Five Cities, from the number of its principal towns. 

The five chief towns were Cyrene (Grennah), Berenice, Arsinoe, 
Ptolemais, and Apollinopolis. 

To the south lay the oasis of Augila, which still bears the same 
name; between this and the Greater Syrtis dwelt the Nasamones. 

Marmarica, to the east of Cyrenaica, was inhabited by various wan¬ 
dering tribes, who roamed over the deserts from one oasis to another. 

2. Inland Libya comprised the vast regions lying to the south of 
those already described, and stretching to the Atlantic Ocean. Here 
was the great Desert of Libya (Sahara); the Niger was the name ap¬ 
plied to some great river of this region, but it is uncertain whether it 
was the same as that now so called. 

The inhabitants were called Melano-Getulians, that is Black Getuli- 
ans, Garamantes, Nigritae (Blacks), and Western ^Ethiopians. 

On the western coast are mentioned Cape Arsinarium (Verd), and 
^Ethiopia? Hippodromus, the extreme southern limit of the navigation 
of the ancients. 

EGYPT. 

Egypt occupied the northeastern corner of Africa, extending from 
Marmarica and Libya Interior to Arabia and the Red Sea. In the 
scriptures this country is called Mizraim, a name which it still bears 

among the orientals. , . _ . . . 

This country is traversed by the Nile, the inundations of which 
were a subject of wonder to the ancients, who were ignorant of their 


480 


EGYPT. 


cause. It entered the sea by seven mouths, most of which are now 
choked up. The principal mouths were the Pelusiac, the Phatmetic 
(the Damietta branch), the Bolbitic (the Rosetta branch), the Canopic, 
and the Sebennytic. 

Egypt was divided into three parts; Lower Egypt in the north; 
Central Egypt or the Heptanomis in the centre; and Upper Egypt or 
the Thebais in the south. 

1. Lower Egypt extended from the bifurcation of the Nile to the 
sea, and from Syria on the east to Lybia. The part comprised be¬ 
tween the eastern and western arms of the river was called the Delta. 

Alexandria, built by Alexander, became one of the most flourishing 
cities of the world, and continued to be the great mart of Indian com¬ 
merce till the discovery of the passage to India by sea round the Cape 
of Good Hope. A canal led from the Nile to Alexandria. 

In this neighborhood was Lake Mareotis (Mariout), anciently a 
body of fresh water, but now rendered salt by the irruption of the sea. 

Pharos, once an island, was united to the continent by a causeway, 
which has been much enlarged by the accumulation of earth upon 
both sides; here was a celebrated lighthouse. 

Canopus (Abukir), Bolbitine (Rosetta), and Sais (Sa) were the other 
principal placesin this vicinity. 

Nitria, a valley containing the Natron Lakes, was also in this neigh¬ 
borhood. 

Further east were Sebenntyus, Tanis (San), now in ruins, and Pelu- 
sium (Tineh), the birth-place of the celebrated geographer Ptolemy. 
Here also was the Sirbonis Palus or Serhonian Bog. 

Arsinoe orCleopatris (Suez) stood at the head of the Gulf of Heroo- 
polis, an arm of the Red Sea; a canal connected it with Babylon on 
the Nile. 

Bubastus and Heliopolis or On were also important cities of Lower 
Egypt. 

2. Heptanomis or Centred Egypt extended from Babylon to above 
Antinoe. 

Here was lake Mceris (Birket-el Karoum), long considered a work of 
art, but now known to be a natural basin. In its neighborhood was the 
celebrated labyrinth. 

The most remarkable city of Heptanomis was Memphis, now in 
ruins, once the splendid capital of an independent state. In the vicini¬ 
ty were erected those gigantic pyramids, which still stand to astonish 
the spectator. 

Near lake Mceris was Arsinoe, called also Crocodilopolis, because the 
crocodile was held sacred there, and on the right bank of the Nile was 
Aphroditopolis. 

To the west lay the Great and Little Oasis, and the Oasis of Ammon, 
partly in Libya, and partly in the Thebais. Higher up the Nile were 
Hermopolis and Antinoe, of which the magnificent ruins are still visi¬ 
ble. 

3. Upper Egypt was also called the Thebais, from its capital Thebes. 
It extended from Heptanomis to ^Ethiopia. 

On the Red Sea were Myos Hormos (Cosseir), and Berenice, cele¬ 
brated ports, from which the ancients carried on an active commerce 
with India. In this part of the country were the emerald mines of 
Mount Smaragdus (Emerald Mountains). 


GRA2CIA OR GREECE. 


481 


Thebes, called by the Greeks Diospolis or city of Jupiter, was a mag¬ 
nificent city of vast extent, the ruins of which still attest its ancient 
splendor. It was at an early period the capital of a powerful state, but 
subsequently declined with the rise of Memphis. 

Below Thebes, on the Nile, were Lycopolis (Siout), Ptolemais, Aby- 
dos, Tentyra, and Coptos, once splendid cities, now in ruins. 

Above Thebes were Latopolis (Esneh), and Syene (Assouan), the last 
city of Egypt. 

Further south were the Cataracts of the Nile, of which the ancients, 
little acquainted with the physical features of the world, exaggerated 
the height and sound. The islands of Elephantine and Philae in the 
Nile are still covered with ruins. 

^ETHIOPIA. 

Under the name of ^Ethiopia the ancients included all the interior 
regions of Africa, inhabited by the negroes. The name was also 
vaguely applied to some parts of southern Asia, of which the inhabi¬ 
tants were black. 

^Ethiopia, in a narrower sense, was the country above Egypt, 
answering to the Nubia and Abyssinia of modern times. Even this 
region was imperfectly known to the ancients, and to some of the in¬ 
habitants they gave the vague name of Ichthyophagi or Fish Eaters, 
while others were described as Anthropophagi or Men Eaters, Blem- 
myes, men without a head, and Pygmies, a people of a tiny size. 

This region was early the seat of civilization, and is still covered 
with magnificent ruins. 

Meroe, the capital of a celebrated ^Ethiopian kingdom of the same 
name, was situated on the Nile in a peninsula formed by the Astapus 
(Bahr-el-Azrek) and the Astaboras (Tacazze). 

Auxume (Axum) was the capital of another ^Ethiopian kingdom. 

Napata was the residence of queen Candace. 

The entrance into the Red Sea was called Dirce (Babelmandel); here 
also was Cape Aromata (Guardafui), and to the south lay Barbaria. 
Ophir, celebrated for its gold, is supposed to have been somewhere on 
this coast. 


EUROPA OR EUROPE. 

The ancients were acquainted only with the southern, central, and 
western parts of Europe. Pomponius Mela says that ‘Europe is 
bounded on the east by the Tanais, the Mseotis, and the Euxine; on the 
south by Our Sea (meaning the Mediterranean); on the west by the 
Atlantic; and on the north by the British Ocean.’ 

GRiECIA OR GREECE. 

Ancient Greece comprised that region lying between the iEgean 
Sea (Archipelago) on the east, and the Ionian Sea on the west; it was 
separated fromAlacedonia bv the Cambiinian Mountains. 

31 w 


482 


GR/ECIA OR GREECE. 


The name of Greece and Grecians is derived from the Romans. 
The natives called themselves Hellenes, and their country Hellas, 
though this latter name is rarely applied to the whole region inhabited 
by the Hellenic race. 

The sea on the southeast, between the continent and Crete (Candia), 
was called the Myrtoan Sea. 

The coast was much indented by arms of the sea; on the east were 
the Thermic Gulf (Gulf of Saloniki); the Pelasgic Gulf (Gulf of Yolo); 
and the Maliac Gulf (Gulf of Zeitun); the Euripus (Strait of Egnpo or 
Negropont), a narrow channel, separating the island of Eubcea from 
the continent, was celebrated among the ancients for the violent and 
irregular motions of its waters. 

On the southeast were the Saronic Gulf (Gulf of Egina) and the 
Argolic (Gulf of Nauplia). 

The principal gulfs on the south were the Laconic (Gulf of Kol- 
okithia) and Messenian (Gulf of Coron). 

Passing along the western coast the following were the principal 
gulfs of the Ionian Sea; the Cyparissian (Gulf of Arcadia); Chelonitic 
(Gulf of Gastouni), and Cyllenian ; the Corinthian (Gulf of Lepanto), 
the Myrtuntian Sea, and the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of Arta). 

This country is commonly described under four general divisions; 
1. Northern Greece, comprising Epirus and Thessaly; 2. Central 
Greece or Hellas, comprising Attica, Megaris, Boeotia, JPhocis, Locris, 
Doris, vEtolia, and Acarnania; 3. Peloponnesus (Morea), including 
Arcadia, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Argolis, Achaia, Sicyon, and Corinth ; 
and 4. the Grecian Islands. 

The earlier inhabitants of Greece were called Pelasgians, but they 
appear to have belonged to the same stock as the later inhabitants or 
Hellenes, who became so famous for their genius, learning, and taste. 
The Hellenic nation was divided into four great branches ; the Ionians, 
AEolians, Dorians, and Achseans, who were distinguished from each 
other by difference of dialect, manners, and constitutions of govern¬ 
ment. 

The AEolians inhabited the western part of Hellas and the Pelopon¬ 
nesus, Acarnania, AEtolia, Phocis, Locris, and Elis, and the western 
islands. 

The Dorians occupied the central part of Hellas, and the greater 
portion of the Peloponnesus. 

The Achaeans occupied Achaia; and the Ionians, who had been 
driven out of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians, emigrated to the Asiatic 
coasts and islands, where they founded many rich colonies. 

1. Thessaly , the largest of the divisions of Greece, was a fertile 
region, and early the seat of civilization. The principal river was 
the Peneus, which flowed through the beautiful vale of Tempe into 
the Thermaic Gulf. 

In the eastern part were Mount Olympus, celebrated in Grecian my¬ 
thology as the residence of the gods, Ossa, and Pelion ; on the south 
were mounts Pindus, Othrys, and OEta. Between the termination of 
the latter and the Maliac Gulf, was a narrow passage, called Thermo¬ 
pylae, affording access to Hellas from the north. 

Thessaly was subdivided into five cantons or states; Estiaeotis, 
containing Gomphi and Azorus; Pelasgiotis, chief town Larissa; 
Thessaliotis, containing Pharsalus, near which was fought the cele¬ 
brated battle between Caesar and Pompey; Phthiotis, chief town, 


GRACIA OR GREECE. 483 


Eherae; and the peninsula of Magnesia, containing a city of the same 
name, and Iolcos from which sailed the Argonautic expedition. 

2. Epirus extended from the Ambracian Gulf to Macedonia. It 
was inhabited by a number of distinct tribes, with independent gov¬ 
ernments, but of common origin. Molossis, Thesprotia, and Chaonia, 
were among the cantons of Epirus. 

The Acroceraunian Mountains, on the western coast, were celebrat¬ 
ed among the ancients for their storms. 

Near the coast lay the island of Corcyra (Corfu), inhabited at an 
early period by the Phseacians, and subsequently colonized by the 
Corinthians. Here was a town of the same name. To the south lay 
Paxos. 

The principal river of Epirus was the Acheron, which after passing 
through Lake Acherusia (lake of Yanina), and receiving the Cocytus, 
emptied its waters into the Ionian Sea. 

The chief town of Epirus was Buthrotum (Butrinto); Dodona was 
famed for its ancient oracle. 

3. Acamania , the most western province of Hellas, was separated 
from iEtolia by the Achelous (Aspro-Potamo). 

On the coast were the islands of Leucadia (Santa-Maura), on which 
was a celebrated rock projecting into the sea, and called the Lover’s 
Leap ; Cephallenia (Cephalonia); and Ithaca (Theaki); these islands, 
with a part of the continent, formed the kingdom of Ulysses. 

In the north was the town of Actium, near which was fought the 
celebrated naval battle between Augustus and Antony. The other 
towns were Amphilochian Argos; Leucas (Santa-Maura) on Leuca¬ 
dia ; and Same on Cephallenia. 

4. JEtolia was the least cultivated part of ancient Greece. The 
principal rivers were the Achelous and the Evenus (Fidaris). The 
early inhabitants were the Curetes and Leleges. 

Thermus, now destroyed; Calydon, famous for the chase of the 
Calydonian boar, and Dulichium (Anatolico) were the chief towns. - 

5. Locris consisted of two distinct parts, one in the east inhabited by 
the Opuntian Locrians (capital Opus), and the Epicnemedian Locrians; 
and the other and more considerable in the west bordering on the 

Gulf of Corinth, and inhabited by the Ozolian Locrians. 

The principal towns of the latter division were Naupactus (Lepanto) 

and Amphissa (Salona). „ . 

• 6. Boris was a small district lying to the south of Mount (Eta, it 

was also called Tetrapolis (The Four Cities), from the number of its 


prmcipal towns^ Qn the Oorintliian Gulf, between ^Etolia and 


B< The principal river, the Cephissus, traversed the country from west 

‘"S^aflloTn^CnLus (Liakura), celebrated in mythology as 

“AuheftoCC“ood Delphi (Castri), famed for to oracle 
and its fountain Castalia. On the Gu lf of Corinth was Cr.ssa 

8 Bceolia a marshy and mountainous district, was noted for the 
fertility ofTts pandits foggy climate. The Boeotians -re accused 
by their more lively neighbors of Attica of being , he avy and dull, yet 
this province produced Pindar and Corinna, Pelopidas and Epami 
nondas. 


484 


GRAECIA OR GREECE. 


The principal rivers were the Cephissus flowing into lake CopaiS 
(Topolia), and the Asopus, running into the sea. 

Mount Helicon (Zagora) was famed in Grecian mythology as the 
residence of the Muses; on the mountain were the celebrated foun¬ 
tains of Hippocrene and Aganippe, sacred to those divinities. 

Bceotia consisted of a number of small states, with distinct capitals. 

Thebes, the principal town, was one of the chief cities of ancient 
Greece. 

Orchomenus was, at an early period of Grecian history, celebrated 
for its power and wealth. Chaeronea, the birth-place of Plutarch and 
the scene of the victory of Philip over the Grecians, and Lebadea 
(Livadia), were in the neighborhood. 

In the south were Leuctra, celebrated for the defeat of the Spartans 
by the Thebans under Epaminondas, and Platsea, before which the 
Greeks routed the Persian forces. 

Aulis, on the Euripus, was the port at which Agamemnon and the 
Greeks embarked for Troy. 

9. Mtgaris , the smallest of the divisions of Greece, formed the south¬ 
ern frontier of Hellas. The capital was Megara, the port of which 
was called Nissea. 

10. Attica , a dry and sterile maritime province, has been rendered 
famous by the genius and taste of its inhabitants, having produced some 
of the first artists, poets, historians, orators, and philosophers that the 
world has ever known. 

The principal mountains of Attica were Hymettus, renowned for its 
honey; Pentelicus, for its marble; Sunium (Cape Colonna), a noted 
promontory; and Cithseron, which separated it from Bceotia. 

The rivers were small; the Ilissus and Cephissus were the prin¬ 
cipal. 

On the coasts were the islands of Euboea (Negropont); and Salamis, 
rendered famous by the naval victory of the Greeks over the Persians. 

Athens, the most illustrious of cities, was the only large town of 
Attica; it stood on the Ilissus, a few miles from the Saronic Gulf, on 
which it had three ports, Piraeus, Phalerum, and Munyohia. Within 
the citadel, called the Acropolis, stood the Parthenon, or temple of 
Minerva, still the admiration of the world. To the west of the Acro¬ 
polis was the Areiopagus or Mars’ Hill, where St. Paul preached ; the 
Pnyx, or place where the public meetings of the Athenians were held; 
and the Ceramicus or public cemetery. The city was adorned by all 
the splendors of architecture and sculpture, and was the native spot 
or the favorite resort of the most illustrious wits and scholars ,of 
Greece. The temple of Olympian Jupiter; that of Theseus; the 
Odeon; the Prytaneum; the Pcecile Stoa or gallery of paintings, in 
which was the school of the Stoics ; and the Academy and the Lyceum, 
two other celebrated schools of philosophy, were a few among the 
numerous objects of interest in Athens. 

The other places in Attica were small but of historical interest; such 
as Eleusis, where the mysteries of Ceres were celebrated; Phyle, sit¬ 
uated at a narrow pass where Thrasybulus took up his position, when 
meditating the rescue of Athens from the thirty tyrants; Marathon, 
where the Athenians under Miltiades routed a large Persian army; 
and Laurium, noted for its silver mines. 

The principal places in Euboea were Chalcis (Negropont) on the 
Euripus, and Eretria. 


GRACIA OR GREECE. 


485 


11. Corinth was a small district of the Peloponnesus, occupying the 
narrow neck, which connected the peninsula with the main land. °The 
capital Corinth, famous in antiquity for its wealth and luxury, had two 
ports, Lechaeum on the Corinthian, and Cenchrae on the Saronic Gulf. 
Its citadel, called Acrocorinth, was built upon a high and steep rock. 

12. Sicyon , a still smaller district, lying to the west of Corinth, on the 
Corinthian Gul£ contained the towns of Sicyon and Phlius. 

13. Achaia , more anciently Ionia, formed the northern shore of the 
Peloponnesus. This province contained twelve cities, each having its 
independent jurisdiction, which were generally united together by a 
federal league. 

The chief of these little republics were Dyme, Patrae (Patras), and 
Pellene. 

14. Elis, on the western coast, comprised the little mountainous 
region of Triphylia. The principal river was the Alpheus, which had 
its sources in Arcadia, and discharged its waters into the Ionian Sea. 

On the coast were the islands of Zacynthus (Zante), and the Stro- 
phades. 

Elis, the principal town ; Olympia, where were celebrated the Olym¬ 
pic games in honor of Jupiter; Pisa, on the Alpheus; Lepreum, and 
Cyllene were among the chief places of interest. 

15. Arcadia. This province, situated in the centre of the Peloponne¬ 
sus was entirely inland; its surface was mouutainous, and its inhabit¬ 
ants were distinguished for their pastoral habits, the simplicity of their 
manners, and their love of music. 

Arcadia was traversed by the Alpheus and its tributary, the Eryman- 
thus, and among the mountains were Cyllene, Menalus, and Lycaeus. 
Here also was the Stymphalian Lake, noted in mythology as the resort 
of fabulous birds, called Stymphalides. 

Among the principal towns were Mantinea, where Epaminondas 
defeated the Spartans; Megalopolis, the capital of the province; Tegea; 
Phigalia; and Orchomenus. 

16. Argolis comprised several small states, occupying the eastern part 
of the Peloponnesus. 

On the coast were the islands of Angina, the inhabitants of which 
were distinguished for their naval skill and their genius for sculpture; 
Hydrea (Hydra); and Calauria (Porol. 

Argos, the principal town, was one of the most ancient cities of 
Greece. Mycenae was also a place of great antiquity. To the south 
of Argos, was the Lake Lerna, where Hercules is fabled to have killed 
the Lernean Hydra. Ruins of an uncertain but remote age, called Cy¬ 
clopean walls, are still discovered in Argolis. 

Nauplia (Napoli di Romania) was the port of Argos. Epidaurus, 
Trcezene, Tyrins, and Nemea, near which Hercules is said to have 
killed the Nemean lion, are places of historical interest. 

17. Laconia was a mountainous region traversed by the ridges of the 
Taygetus, which formed the promontories of Malea and Taenarium 
(Cape Matapan). The principal river was the Eurotas (Vasili Potamo). 

On the coast was the island of Cythera (Cerigo), sacred to Venus. 

The only considerable town of Laconia was Sparta or Lacedaemon, 
situated on the Eurotas, and celebrated for the warlike character, and 
rude and simple manners of its inhabitants. Sparta stood near the site 
of the modern xMisitra. 


486 


GRECIAN COLONIES. 


Sellasia and Amyclae were small towns. 

18. Messenia , to the west of Laconia, was a level and fertile country. 

The principal place was Messene; Ithome, Corone (Coron), Meth- 

one (Modon), and Pylus were the other most important places. 

19. Cyclades. This group comprised the small islands lying off the 
southeastern coast of Greece, between Euboea and Crete. The prin¬ 
cipal were Andros; Ceos (Zia), the birth-place of Simonides and 
Bachilides; Tenos (Tino); Delos (Sidili), sacred to Apollo, who was 
fabled to have been born there; Myconos ; Seriphos (Serpho); Naxos 
(Naxia), the largest of the Cyclades, and sacred to Bacchus; Paros, 
famed for its beautiful marble, and the birth-place of Archilochus; 
Melos (Milo); and Amorgos. 

20. The Sporades was a general name applied by the Greeks to the 
various islands scattered over the JEgean Sea and along the coasts of 
Greece. The most important have already been mentioned. 

21. Crete (Candia). This island was early colonized by the Phoeni¬ 
cians and Greeks. It was fabled to have been the birth-place of Jupiter, 
and was said to contain one hundred cities. 

It was traversed by Mount Ida; its principal cities were Cortyna, 
near which was a famous labyrinth ; Cnossus, the chief town, and 
Cydonia. 


GRECIAN COLONIES. 

The Greeks being a maritime people established a great number of 
colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Euxine Seas, in Asia 
Minor, Italy, Sicily, &c. 

The Malian colonies on the western coast of Asia Minor, occupied 
the coasts of Mysia and Caria, and the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos. 

The Ionians established themselves on the coasts of Lydia and Caria, 
and on the islands of Samos and Chios; Phocaea, Ephesus, and Miletus 
were the principal Ionian cities. 

The Dorians settled on the coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos 
and Rhodes; Halicarnassus and Cnidus were the colonies on the con¬ 
tinent. 

Numerous colonies were established on the Propontis, the Euxine, 
and the Palus Mceotis, chiefly by the Milesians. On the Propontis 
were Lampsacus and Cyzicus, Perinthus or Heraclea, Byzantium, 
and Chalcedon; on the Euxine were Heraclea in Bitliynia, Sin¬ 
ope in Paphlagonia, Amisus and Trapezus in Pontus, and Phasis 
and Dioscurias on the eastern shore ; on the Palus Moeotis was Tanais, 
and at the mouth of the Borystlienes, Olbia, both important commer¬ 
cial towns; and in the Tauric Chersonese, Pantacapaea. 

In the Thracian Chersonese Sestos, Cardia, and ./Egos-potamos were 
the principal places; and on the southern shore of Thrace were Abde- 
ra and Maronea. 

Along the Macedonian coast Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olynthus, and 
Potidaea were the most important colonies. 

The Greek colonies of Lower Italy were so numerous and impor¬ 
tant, that that region received the name of Great Greece. Among 
these Tarentum, Heraclea, and Brundusium were of Dorian ; Sybaris, 
Crotona, Metapontum, Posidonia or Paestum, Calaunia, &c., of Ach-» 
aean; and Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and Naples of Ionian origin. 


THRACE. 


487 


In Sicily Messana, Syracuse, Hybla, Segeste, Gela, Agrigentum, and 
other flourishing cities were Dorian colonies. Naxus, Catana, Tauro- 
menium, and Hymera were among the most important Ionian colonies 
in Sicily. 

There were also Greek colonies in Corsica and Sardinia; in Gaul 
(Marseilles); in Spain (Saguntum); and in Africa (Cyrene). 


MACEDONIA. 

Macedonia extended from Thrace to the Ionian Sea, and from 
Greece to Mcesia and Illyricum. It comprised a number of provinces, 
among which were Pelagonia, Paeonia, Mygdonia, Lyncestis, Emathia, 
Pieria, Chalcidice, &c. 

On the north lay Mount Ilcemus (Balkan), on the east Pangaeus, 
and in the southeast Mount Athos (Monte Santo). 

The principal rivers were the Haliacmon (Indge-Carasou),the Axius 
(Vardar), the Strymon (Carasou or Strymon), and the Drinus (Drino). 

On the coast to the north of Chalcidice was the Strymonic Gulf 
(Gulf of Cortessa). 

The principal towns of Macedonia were Edessa (Vodena), on the 
Erigon ; Pella,^he capital; Beraea (Karaveria), and Thessalonica (Sal- 
onica), to the inhabitants of which Paul addressed the epistles to the 
Thessalonians. 

Olynthus and Stagyra, the birth-place of Aristotle, both in Chalci¬ 
dice; and Amphipolis and Philippi, the latter famous for the battle 
between the troops of Brutus and Cassius on one side, and Antony and 
Octavianus on the other, were also places of note. 

On the western coast Epidamnus or Dyrrachium (Durazzo) and 
Apollouia were the chief towns. 

THRACE. 

The name of Thrace was sometimes applied to an indefinite region 
to the east and northeast of Macedonia. In a narrower sense, Thrace 
was bounded by Mount Hcemus, the Euxine, the Aegean, and Mount 
Pangaeus. Until the time of its reduction to a Roman province it was 
divided into a number of separate states. 

It was traversed by the river Hebrus (Maritza), and by the ridges of 
Mount Rhodope (Despoto-Dag). 

In the southeast was the peninsula ealled the Thracian Chersonese, 
between which and Asia was only the narrow channel called the Hel¬ 
lespont. In the Chersonese were Sestos, opposite to Abydos in Asia; 
JEgospotamos, on a small river, where was fought a naval battle between 
the Athenians and Lacedaemonians; and Oallipolis (Gallipoli). 

. At the Entrance of the Thracian Bosphorus stood Byzantium, a 
Greek colony, which Constantine afterwards made the capital of the 
Roman Empire, under the name of Constantinople. 

On the Euxine were Apollonia (Sizeboli) and Salmydessus. 

On the Hebrus were Philippolis, A drianopolis, and Trajanopolis, 
and on the Nestus was Nicopolis, all which have retained their ancient 
names. Abdera, near the mouth of the Nestus, was the birth-place of 
Democritus, 


488 


SCANDINAVIA. 


The islands of Thasus, Samothrace, and Imbrus, lay in the AEgean 
Sea, off the southern coast of Thrace. 

MCESIA. 

Mcesia extended from Mount Haemus to the Ister (Danube), which 
separated it from Dacia, and from the Euxine to Pannonia and Illyri- 
cum. It was divided into Upper Moesia in the west, and Lower 
Mcesia in the east. 

The principal river was the Margus (Morava) flowing into the Ister. 

Among the most important towns were Viminatium, Nicopolis, 
Sardica, Odessus (Varna), Istropolis, and Singidunum (Belgrade). 


DACIA. 

This country extended from the Tyras (Dniester to Pannonia,) 
from which it was separated by the Ister. It was inhabited by the 
Daci and Getse, and the Jazyges Metanastae, and was for a short time, 
a Roman Province. The Roman colonies were afterward abandoned, 
and the country was overrun by the Goths. 

The principal rivers were the Pyretus (Pruth) at*l the Tibiscus 
(Theiss). On the north were the Bastarnian Alps (Carpathian Moun¬ 
tains). 

Ulpia Trajana, capital of a Roman colony established by Trajan, 
Tibiscus (Temeswar), and Ulpianurn were among the most important 
places. 


SARMATIA. 

European Sarmatia comprised an indefinite extent of country lying 
to the north of Dacia, and between Scythia on the east and Germany 
on the west. The ancients were imperfectly acquainted, particularly 
with the northern parts of this region. 

It was inhabited by various tribes of nomades, who often changed 
their residence as the necessities of war or pasture impelled. 

The principal rivers of Sarmatia were the Tanais (Don), Borysthenes 
(Dnieper), and Hypanis (Bog), flowing into the Euxine. 

Among the Sarmatian tribes we find mention of the Roxolani, Alau- 
ni, Agathyrsi, AEstii, Venedi, Fenni, Borussi, &c. of whom some were 
of German, some of Sclavonic, and some of Thracian origin. 

In the south was the peninsula called the Taurie Chersonese (Cri¬ 
mea), in which were founded several Greek colonies. It was sepa¬ 
rated from Asia by the Cimmerian Bosphorus (Strait of Caffa). Theo¬ 
dosia (Caffa) was the principal town. 


SCANDINAVIA. 

Scandinavia or Scandia, comprising the peninsula lying on the 
north and west of the Codanic Gulf (Baltic Sea), was imperfectly 
known to the ancients, who conceived it to be an island. They men¬ 
tion the Lappiones (Laplanders), and Finningia (Finland), 


BRITISH ISLES. 


489 


BRITISH ISLES. 

The British Isles comprised Britannia or Albion (Great Britain), 
and Hibernia (Ireland), with the neighboring groups. 

On the northern coast were Thule, the most northern point known 
to the ancients, probably one of the Shetland isles; the Orcades (Ork¬ 
neys); and the Ebudes (Hebrides or Western Isles). 

Between Hibernia and Britannia were Monaeda (Isle of Man) and 
Mona (Anglesey); and off the southwest point of Britannia were the 
Cassiterides or Tin Islands (Scilly Isles). 

On the east of Britannia the sea was called the German Sea; on 
the south were the Straits of Gaul (Straits of Dover) and the British 
Sea (English Channel); on the west were the Hibernian Sea (St. 
Georges Channel), and the Western Ocean (Irish Sea). 

Hibernia was little known to the ancients ; it was inhabited by Celtic 
tribes from Britannia, and was divided among a number of petty prin¬ 
ces. We find it also mentioned under the names of Jerne (Erin) and 
Ju verna. 

The Brigantes in the southeast were the most powerful nation. The 
Hiberni in the southwest, the Gangari, Blanii, Menapii, &c., are like¬ 
wise enumerated among the Hibernian nations. 

The principal rivers were the Senus (Shannon), Libnius (LifFey), 
and Birgus (Barrow). 

Eblana (Dublin) and Menapia (Wexford) were the principal towns. 

Britannia was inhabited by Celtic tribes, probably from Gaul; the 
Britons resembling the Gauls in their manners, laws, and religion. 
The northern part, which was not reduced by the Romans, was called 
Caledonia (Scotland), and the inhabitants, the Caledonians or Piets, 
retained their barbarous manners. The rest of the island, became 
a Roman province, and was called Roman Britain. 

1. Caledonia or the land of the Piets embraced the northern part of 
Scotland. The Piets were naked barbarians, who stained their bodies 
with paint; they were subsequently mingled with the Scoti, who 
came from Ireland, and gave their name to the country. 

The wall of Severus, extending from the estuary of Boderia (Firth 
of Forth) to that of Glotta (Firth of Clyde), was erected to protect the 
Roman province from the incursions of the Piets. 

2. Roman Britain comprised the southern part of Scotland, Eng¬ 
land, and Wales. „ , 

On the coast were the estuaries of Metaris (The Wash), of Ituna 

(Solway Firth), and of Sabrina (Bristol Channel). 

The principal rivers were the Alaunus (Tweed), Tinna (1 yne), 
Abus (Humber), and Tamesis (Thames), on the eastern side ; Sabrina 
(Severn), and Deva (Dee). 

Adrian’s Wall extended from Ituna estuary (Solway Firth) to the 
Tyne, and was erected to check the encroachments of the northern 

barban ^ • mes occup j e d the country to the north of the Abus and 
the Deva (Cumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, Lancaster, and York¬ 
shire). Among their towns were Luguvalliurn (Carlisle), Eboraeum 
(York), Manucium (Manchester), and Danum (Doncaster). 


490 


GERMANIA, 


On the eastern coast south of the Brigantes dwelt the Corltani, oc¬ 
cupying Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, &c. Among 
their towns were Lindum Colonia (Lincoln), and Rata? (Leicester). 

The Cornavii occupied the country to the west of the latter (Che¬ 
shire, Shropshire, Derbyshire, &c). The principal town of this section 
was Deva (Chester). 

The country west of the Sabrina, comprising Wales and several 
western counties of England, was inhabited by the Silures, Ordovices, 
and Demetee. Maridunum (Carmarthen), Venta Silurum (Chepstow), 
and Segontium (Carnarvon) were some of the principal towns. 

The Dobuni dwelt on the eastern side of the Severn, and to the east, 
occupying Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Northamptonshire, &c., 
were the Catieuchlani. Here were Verulamium (St. Albans), Mag- 
iovintum, and Lactodoro. 

Between the Tamesis and Metaris in the modern Essex, Suffolk, 
and Norfolk were the Iceni and Trinobantes. In the country of the 
latter were Londinium (London) and Camalodunum. 

On the south of the Tamesis was Cantiurn, corresponding with the 
county of Kent, and containing Dubris (Dover). 

To the west between the Tamesis and the British Sea were the 
Regni, Atrebates, Durotriges, and Belgte, in the modern Sussex, Hamp¬ 
shire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, &c. Here were Venta Belgarum (Win¬ 
chester), Sorbiodunum (Old Sarurn), Durnovaria (Dorchester), and 
Aquae Solis or Waters of the Sun (Bath). On the coast was the island 
of Vectis (Wight). 

The Dumnonii inhabited Cornwall; their capital was Isca. 

At a later period of the Roman empire Britannia was divided into 
five subdivisions; Britannia Prima in the south; Flavia Coesariensis 
between the Tamesis and Abus; Britannia Secunda to the west of the 
Sabrina; Maxima Csesariensis, between the Abus and Adrian’s Wall, 
and Valentia on the north of the wall. 


GERMANIA. 

Germany is sometimes used by the ancients in a wide sense compris¬ 
ing all the northern and northeastern parts of Europe. In a narrower 
sense it signified the country bounded by the Codanic Gulf and the 
German Sea on the north, the Vistula on the east, the Ister or Danube 
on the south, and the Rhenus (Rhine) on the west. 

This extensive region was inhabited by numerous independent tribes, 
each under its own chiefs, often united together by mutual leagues 
forming powerful confederacies. It is described by the Roman writers 
as in great part covered by woods and morasses, and exposed to all the 
horrors of a rigorous climate ; but we must remember that the authors 
of this description were inhabitants of the sunny plains and valleys of 

TL he Hercynian forest stretched from the Rhine east and north over 
extensive tracts, and its remains have been known in modern times 
under different names, as the Black Forest, the Hartz, &c. A northern 
branch of this great forest, called the Teutoburg Forest, to the west of 
me Visurgis (Weser), is famous as the scene of the defeat of the 
Romans by the Germans under the celebrated Arminius or Hermann. 


NORICUM. 


491 


The principal rivers of Germany were the Vistula, the Suevus or 
Viadef (Oder), the Albis (Elbe), the Sala (Saale), the Visurgis (Weser), 
the Amisia (Ems), Rhenus (Rhine), Mcenus(Maine), &c. 

On the north the Cimbric Chersonese, answering to the modern 
Denmark, was imperfectly known to the ancients. 

The various German tribes belonged to three great stocks or nations; 
the Hermiones, to whom belonged the tribes dwelling between the 
Visurgis and the Vistula, with some emigrant tribes in other districts; 
the Istsevones, dwelling along the Rhine, and the Ingaevones, occupying 
the northern section of the country. 

Among the Hermionic tribes were the Herulians, Vandals or Vindili, 
Burgundians, Rugians, Turcilingians, Longobards or Lombards, Angli, 
Quadi, Marcomanni, Hermunduri, &c. 

The principal tribes of the Istaevones were the Catti, Cheruscans, 
Ingrionians, Bructeri, Sigambrians, Marsians, &c. The Franks were 
not a separate tribe, but a powerful confederacy of tribes, comprising the 
Frisians, Marsians, Sigambrians, &c., who conquered Gaul, and gave 
their name to the country. 

To the Ingaevones belonged the Chauci, Saxons, Angrivarians, &c. 

The Romans were never able to conquer this extensive region, which 
contained few towns. 


PANNONIA. 

This province lay to thfe south and west of the Danube, which 
separated it from Germany and Dacia. It was inhabited by several 
German and Gallic tribes, with many of Sarmatian or Sclavonic origin. 

The Dravus (Drave) and Savus (Save) traversed the country. 

Here were Sirmium, once one of the principal cities of the Roman 
empire; Mursa (Eszeck), on the Dravus; Acincum(Buda); Bregetio; 
and Vindobona (Vienna). 


ILLYRICUM OR ILLYRIA. 

lllyricum lay between Pannonia and the Adriatic Sea, and between 
Noricum on the north and Macedonia. It comprised Dalmatia, Libur- 
nia, and Japydia. Among the towns were Scodra (Scutari); Epidaurus 
(Ragusa); Salona, in ruins; Narona, and Scardona. 


NORICUM. 

Noricum was a mountainous region, lying to the south of the Danube, 
and traversed by several chains of the Alps. It was inhabited by 
several nations, among whom were the Boii, the Noncans or Tauns- 

cans, and the Alaunians. . 

Boiodurum founded by the Boii, at the mouth of the CEnus(Inn); 
Lentia (Lintz), on the Danube, and Lauriacum, on the same liver, the 
station of the Roman flotilla, were the most important towns. 


492 


GALLIA OR GAUL. 


VINDELICIA. 

Vindelicia was situated between the CEniis and the Danube, and was 
inhabited by several tribes of Gauls and Germans. 

Here were Regina (Ratisbon),and Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg). 


RHiETIA. 

Rhgetia lay to the south of Vindelicia, and to the west of Noricum, 
and was traversed by the Rhaetian Alps. 

On the northern border was the lake of Brigantium (Lake Constance), 
and the Rhenus (Rhine), (Enus (Inn), and Athesis (Adige) had their 
sources here. 

Among the towns of Rhaetia were Brigantium (Bregentz); Curia 
(Coire); andTridentum (Trent). 


GALLIA OR GAUL. 

The country lying between the Rhenus and the ocean, and to the 
west of Italy, was called by the Greeks Celtica, and by the Romans 
Gallia or Gaul. It was also called Transalpine Gaul or Gaul beyond 
the Alps, to distinguish it from the northern part of Italy, which bore 
the name of Cisalpine Gaul. 

It was inhabited by numerous kindred tribes of Celts, and several 
German tribes, which had passed the Rhine and settled along the 
western bank of that river. There were likewise Greek colonies on 
the Mediterranean coast, and after the conquest of the country by the 
Romans, the language, arts, religion, and manners of that people almost 
entirely supplanted the Gallic usages and dialect. 

By Julius Caesar, who reduced this country to the Roman dominion, 
Gaul is described as divided into three parts, Belgica, Celtica, and 
Aquitanica; at a later period it was divided into four districts, which 
were subdivided into 17 smaller provinces; the great divisions were 
Belgica; Lugdunensis ; Aquitania ; and Narbonensis. 

Gallia was separated from Italia by the Maritime, Graian, and Pen¬ 
nine Alps, and its eastern part was traversed by the ranges of the Jura, 
and the Vogesus (Vosges). 

The principal rivers were the Mosa (Meuse) and Scaldis (Scheldt), 
flowing into the German Ocean ; the Sequana (Seine) running into the 
British Sea; the Liger (Loire), Carantonus (Charente), and Garumna 
(Garonne), emptying themselves into the Atlantic Ocean ; the Rhodanus 
(Rhone), flowing into the Gallic Gulf (Gulf of Lyons); the Mosclla 
(Moselle), flowing into the Rhenus (Rhine); and the Matrona (Marne), 
flowing into the Sequana. 

1. Belgica included five provinces, called respectively the First and 
the Second Belgica, the First and the Second Germany, and Maxima 
Sequanorum. 

In the First or Lower Germany the most remarkable nation was the 
Batavians; from them an island between the Rhenus and Mosa was 


GALLIA OR GAUL. 


493 


called Insula Batavorum; here also was a city called Lugdunum Ba¬ 
ta vorurri (Leyden), to distinguish it from another Lugdunum (Lyons) 
in Lugdunensis. 

The other principal towns of Lower Germany were Noviomagus 
(Nimeguen), Trajecturn (Maestricht), and Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). 

In Upper Germany were Confiuentes (Coblentz), Mogontiacu'm 
(Mayence), Noviomagus (Spire), and Argentoratum (Strasburg). 

Maxima Sequanorum comprised the country to the east of the Arar 
(Saone). Here dwelt the Sequani, Helvetii, and other tribes. The 
province was traversed by the Dubis (Doubs), and on the southern 
frontier was Lake Leman us (Leman or Lake of Geneva). 

The chief towns were Vesontio (Besancon,) Augusta (Augst), Aven- 
ticum (Avenche), Basilia (Bale), and Turicum (Zurich). 

Belgica Prima, First or Upper Belgica, lay to the west of Upper 
Germany. The Treviri, Verduni, and Mediomatrici were the principal 
tribes. The province was traversed by the Savarus (Sarre), which 
emptied itself into the Mosella. 

The chief places in this province were Augusta Trevirorum (Treves); 
Verodunum (Verdun); and Divodurutn (Metz). 

The western part of Belgica was called Belgica Secunda or the 
Second Belgium. There were the Matrona (Marne), Samara (Somme), 
and Sabis (Sambre). 

Among the tribes of this province were the Nervii, Atrebates, Vero- 
mandui, Bellovaci, Suessiones, and Catalauni. 

The principal towns were Durocatalaunum (Chalons), near which in 
the Catalaunian plains was fought a celebrated battle between Attila 
and the Romans; Durocortorum (Rheims); Augusta Suessionum 
(Soissons); Csesaromagus (Beauvais); Samarobriva (Amiens); Augusta 
Veromanduorum (St. Quentin); Nemetacum (Arras); Itius Portus, 
from which Csesar embarked for Britain, now filled up ; Ulterius Por¬ 
tus (Calais), on the Gallic Strait (Straits of Dover); Gesoriacum or 
Bononia (Boulogne); and Bagacum (Bavay). 

2. Lugdunensis included four provinces, viz.: the First, Second, and 
Third Lugdunensis, and Senonia. 

Lugdunensis Prima or the First Lugdunensis lay to the west of the 
Arar, along the Upper Liger. The chief tribes were the Segusiani, 
H5dui, and Lingones. 

The principal towns were Lugdunum (Lyons), from which the 
whole province received its name; Forum (Feurs), capital of the 
Segusiani; Bibracte or Augustodunum (Autun), celebrated for its 
schools of learning, in which all the Gallic nobles were educated; 
Noviodunum (Nevers) ; and Alesia (Alise), celebrated for .its siege by 
Csesar. 

To the north of this province was Senonia, inhabited by the Senones, 
Meldi, Parish, Tricasses, and other tribes. 

Here were Lutetia(Paris), capital of the Parish, in the time of Julius 
Csesar a little village of thatched huts on an island in the Sequana (the 
Cite of modern Paris); Genabum or Aureliani (Orleans), on the Liger 
(Loire); Iatinum (Meaux), capital of the Meldi, whence its modern 
name; Agedincum or Senones (Sens), a large and opulent city ; Autri- 
cum (Chartres); and Augustobona (Troyes), capital of the Tricasses. 

Along the lower part of the Sequana, and on the British Sea was 
Lugdunensis Secunda or the Second. On the coast were Caesarea 
(Jersey), Sarnia (Guernsey), and Riduna (Alderney). 


494 GALLIA OR GAUL. 

The Eburovices, Lexovii, Unelli, Caleti, &c., were among the inha- 
bitan ts. 

The towns were Rotomagus (Rouen), and Juliobona (Lillebonne),on 
the Sequana; Mediolanum (Evreux); Noviomagus (Lisieux); and In- 
gena (Avranrhes). 

The western part of Gallia to the north of the Liger, formed the 
province of Lugdunensis Tertia or the Third. The whole coast from 
the mouth of the Liger to that of the Sequana was called Armorica; 
in the ocean were the islands of Uxantis (Usliant), and Vindilis 
(Belleisle). 

The Cenomani, Turones, Nannetes, Veneti, &c., inhabited this pro¬ 
vince. 

Among the towns were Csesarodunum or Turones (Tours), Julioma- 
gus (Angers), capital of the Andecavi; Oondivicnum (Nantes), in the 
country of the Nannetes; Condate (Rennes), capital of the Rhedones; 
and Dariorigum (Vannes). 

3. Aquitania comprised the western part of Gallia between the Liger 
and the Pyrenees. It included three provinces, First and Second 
Aquitania, and Novempopulana. 

In the southeastern part were the Cebenna Mountains; (Cevennes) 
the Carantonus (Charente), Garumna (Garonne), Duranius (Dordogne), 
Oltis (Lot), and Aturus (Adour), were the principal rivers. 

Aquitania Prirna or the First was in the eastern part of this division. 
It was inhabited by the Bituriges, Lemovices, Arverni, Cadurci, and 
other tribes. 

Among the towns were Avaricum (Bourges); Aquae Bormonis 
(Bourbon-1’ Archambaud), and Aquae Calidae (Vichy), noted for their 
mineral springs; Augustoritum (Limoges); Augustonemetum (Cler¬ 
mont) ;.Uxellodunum ; Divona (Cahors); Segodunum (Rhodez), &c. 

Aquitania Secunda, or the Second, lay to the west of the preceding. 
The principal tribes were the Pictones, Santones, and a branch of the 
Bituriges. 

Burdigala (Bordeaux), the birth-place of the poet Ausonius; Medio¬ 
lanum (Saintes); Limonum (Poitiers); Vesuna or Petrocori (Peri- 
gueux), &c., were the towns of this province. 

Novempopulana formed the southwestern corner of Gallia ; its prin¬ 
cipal towns were Beneharnum, destroyed ; Lapurdam (Bayonne) ; 
Cocosa, on the coast, destroyed; Turba (Tarbes); Climberus (Auch), 
&c. 

4. JYarbonensis, including that part of Gaul to the east of Aquitania, 
and to the south of Lugdunensis, was divided into five provinces, viz.: 
Narbonensis Prirna and Secunda. Viennensis, Alpes Maritime, and 
Alpes Graise.* 

The principal rivers of Narbonensis were the Rhodanus (Rhone), 
Isara (Isere), and Druentia (Durance). Narbonensis Prirna or the First 
was in the western part of this division. The principal tribes were the 
Tectosages, Arecomici, Sardones, &c. 

The chief towns were Narbo (Narbonne); Nemausus (Nimes); Tolosa 
(Toulouse); Fines (Montauban), and Carcaso (Carcassonne). 

* This part of Gaul was also called Gallia Braccata, i. e. the Breeched Gaul, 
because the inhabitants woreleggins; and the rest of Celtic Gaul was called Gallia 
Comata (the Longhaired), from the prevalent custom of letting the hair grow 
long. 


IIISPANIA. 


495 


Viennensis comprised the country along the Rhodanus, and was in¬ 
habited by the Allobroges, Segalauni, Helvii, &c. 

The chief towns of this province were Massilia (Marseilles), a rich 
and flourishing Greek colony, on the Gallic Gulf; Arelate (Arles), a 
wealthy Roman colony ; Arausio (Orange), near which the Romans 
were defeated by the Cimbri and Teutones; Valentia (Valence); Vi¬ 
enna (Vienne); and Cularo (Grenoble). 

Narbonensis Secunda or the Second was situated along the coast, to 
the east of Viennensis. There were Aquae Sextiae (Aix), near which 
Marius gained a celebrated victory over the Teutones; Telo-Martius 
(Toulon), and Antipolis (Antibes), Greek colonies; and Forum Julii 
(Frejus), a Roman colony. Near the coast were the Stcecades islands 
(Hieres). 

The province of the Maritime Alps was in the southeastern angle of 
Gaul. The Caturiges were a powerful tribe who inhabited the Alps. 
Brigantio (Briancon), Nicaea (Nice), a Greek colony, and the river 
Varus (Var) are the chief objects of notice. 

To the north of the last described province, was that of the Graian 
and Pennine Alps, inhabited by the Centrones, Nantuates, &c. 


HISPANIA (SPAIN AND PORTUGAL). 

Hispania, called also Iberia and Hesperia, was the peninsula south of 
the Pyrenees, separated from Africa by the Straits of Gades or Hercu¬ 
les (Straits of Gibraltar), and having the Iberian Sea on the south¬ 
east. 

The country was inhabited by Iberian and Celtic tribes, and by a 
mixed race descended from both, and called Celtiberians. The Phoe¬ 
nicians and Carthaginians established several colonies upon the coasts, 
and the latter conquered nearly the whole country. It was subsequently 
reduced by tbe Romans, and previous to the time of Augustus, was 
divided into Hispania Citerior or Hither Spain, and Hispania Ulterior or 
Further Spain; but during his reign formed three provinces, Tarra- 
conensis, Lusitania, and Baetica. 

The principal rivers were the Minius (Minho), Durius(Douro), Tagus, 
Anas (Guadiana), Baetis (Guadalquivir), and Iberus (Ebro). 

The Spanish islands were Ebusus (Ivica), andOphiusa (Formentera), 
comprised under the general name of the Pityusae ; and Major (Major¬ 
ca) and Minor (Minorca); the two last were called the Baleares or 
Gymnasiae, and their inhabitants were noted for their skill in the use 
of the sling. Palma was the principal town of Major, and Portus 
Magonis (Port Mahon), of Minor. 

Among the Iberian tribes >^ere the Callaici and Lusitani in the west; 
the Astures, Cantabri, Vaccaei, Vascones, Ilergetes, and Jaccitani in 
the north ; the Carpetani, Oretani, and Olcades in the interior, and the 
Turdetani, Turdali, Bastuli, and Bastitani in the south. 

The Celtiberi were in the central part of the country, and the Celts 
in the southwest and north. 

1. Lmsitania comprised the southwestern part of the peninsula, cor¬ 
responding nearly to Portugal. The southern part was called Cuneus 
(Algarve), signifying Wedge. On the coast were Cape Sacrum (St. 
Vincent) and Cape Magnum (Rock of Cintra). 


496 


HISPANIA. 


The principal towns of Lusitania were Olisippo (Lisbon), Scalabis 
(Santarem), and Norba Caesarea (Alcantara) on the Tagus; Cetobriga 
(Setuval), and Conimbriga (Coimbra), on the coast; Lama (Lamego), 
and Salmantica, on the Durius ; Augusta Emerita (Merida), a Roman 
colony, and the residence of the governor of the province, on the Anas; 
and Ebora (Evora) and Pax Julia (Beia), in the interior. 

2. Bodica comprised the southeastern part of Hispania. It was 
traversed by Mount Marianus (Sierra Morena), and was celebrated for 
the fertility of its soil and the wealth of its mines. 

On the southeastern coast was Mount Calpe (Gibraltar), one of the 
pillars of Hercules; at the mouth of the Bsetis, was the island Tartes- 
sus, formed by the bifurcation of the river, but now joined to the main¬ 
land by the tilling up of one of the arms. 

Near the mouth of the Bsetis was Gades (Cadiz), a Phoenician colony 
and on the river were Asta, Hispalis (Seville), Italica, the birth-place of 
the emperor Trajan, and Corduba (Cordova), the birth-place of the phi¬ 
losopher Seneca. 

On the southern coast were Malaca (Malaga), a Phoenician colony, 
Calpe, and Munda, celebrated for the victory gained by Caesar over the 
son of Pompey. 

In the interior were Astapa, famous for its long defence against the 
Romans, Eliberis, now destroyed, and Castulo, near which Scipio 
Africanus defeated Hasdrubal. 

3. Tarraconensis comprised the greater portion of Hispania ; a con¬ 
siderable part of this division was occupied by Celtiberian tribes; 
and the Callaicans, Cantabrians, Asturians, and Vascons were the most 
remarkable of the Iberian tribes. 

It was traversed by the Idubeda Mountains, and separated from 
Baetica by the Orospeda range. 

This province contained a great number of populous and wealthy 
cities; Tarraco (Tarragona) on the Mediterranean was the capital, and 
gave its name to the province. 

Among the other towns in the northeast were Emporiae (Ampurias); 
Barcino (Barcelona), a Carthaginian colony ; Ilerda (Lerida), capital of 
the Ilergetes, on the Sicoris (Segra); and Osca (Huesca), where Ser- 
torius caused the noble Spanish youth to be instructed in Greek and 
Roman learning. 

On the Iberus were Dertosa (Tortosa); Caesaraugusta (Saragossa); 
Calagurris (Calahorra), celebrated as the birth-place of Quintilian; and 
Juliobriga. 

To the north were Pampelo (Pampeluna) and Flaviobriga (Bilboa), 
on the coast. 

On the eastern coast were Saguntus or Saguntum (Murviedro), 
which was destroyed by Hannibal, but rebuilt by the Romans; Sego- 
briga (Segorvia); Valentia (Valencia), on the Turia (Guadalaviar); Su- 
cro, at the mouth of the Sucro (Xucar); Lucentum (Alicant); Spar- 
tarius, on the Tader (Seguro); and Carthago Nova, or New Carthage 
(Carthagena), founded by the Carthaginians. 

On the Tagus and its tributaries were Ergavica, Contrebia, Toletum 
(Toledo), Mantua (Madrid), Complutum (Alcala de Henares); and 
Segontia (Siguenza). 

On the Durius were Segovia; Clunia; Numantia, now destroyed, 
famed for its long and heroic resistance to the Romans, which 


ITALIA OR ITALY. 


497 


proving unsuccessful, the inhabitants chose rather to burn the city and 
perish in the flames than to fall into the hands of their enemies: Pin- 
tia (Vailadolid), and Calle (Oporto). 

In the northwest were Flavionavia (Aviles); Lucus Asturum (Ovie¬ 
do); Brigantium (Betanzos); Tyde (Tuy), and Aquae Flavite (Chaves). 
The northwestern point of the peninsula was Cape Artabrum or Celti- 
cum (Finisterre). 

Bilbilis on the Salo, a branch of the Iberus, was the birth-place of the 
poet Martial. 


ITALIA OR ITALY. 


Italia was separated from Gallia, Rhaetia, and Noricum by the differ¬ 
ent ridges of the Alps, and on the other sides was surrounded by the 
sea. On the east was the Adriatic or Upper Sea (Gulf of Venice); on 
the southeast the Ionian Sea; and on the west the Tyrrhene or Tuscan 
or Lower Sea. 

The Apennines traversed the country through its whole length from 
north to south, from Liguria to Bruttium. 

This peninsula was called in earlier times, Opica, ^Enotria, Saturnia, 
Ausonia, and Hesperia ; the name of Italia was atfirst applied only to a 
small tract in the south, but was Anally extended to the whole region 
within the limits above mentioned; it was often, however, used in a 
narrower sense for that part of the country lying to the south of the 
Rubicon. 


The divisions of Italy were very different at different periods; but 
it may be conveniently described under the twelve following: 1. Gallia 
Cisalpina or Cisalpine Gaul; and 2. Liguria, constituting Upper or 
Northern Italy; 3. Tuscia or Etruria; 4. Latium; 5. Campania; 6. 
Umbria; 7. Picenum ; and 8. Samnium, forming Central Italy; 9. 
Lucania; 10. Bruttium; 11. Apulia; and 12. Calabria, comprising 
Lower Italy, called also Magna Grsecia or Great Greece, on account 
of the number and importance of the Greek colonies it contained. 

1. Gallia Cisalpina or Hither Gaul, was so called by the Romans 
because it was on the side of the Alps towards Rome. It was like¬ 
wise called Gallia Togata (Gowned Gaul), because the inhabitants wore 
the Roman toga. It included Venetia, Transpadane Gaul or Gaul 
Beyond the Padus, and Cispadane Gaul on the south of the river. 

This region was inhabited by different Gallic tribes, among whom 
were the, Insubres, Taurini, Euganei, Lingones, Cenomani, and Se- 
nones; and by the Veneti or Heueti and the Ligures of uncertain 
origin. 

The principal rivers were the Padus or Eridanus (Po); Athesis 
(Adige); Medoacus (Brenta); Rubico or Rubicon (Fiumicino), which 
separated the province on the east from Italy Proper, and by passing 
which with an armed force Caesar commenced open hostilities against 
his country; and Macra(Magra), which formed the southern boundary 
line on the western side. 

The tributaries of the Padus were, from the north, the Ticinus 
(Tesino), on the banks of which Hannibal defeated the Romans; Ad- 
dua(Adda); and Mincius (Mincio); and from the south the Tanarus 
(Tanaro), and Trebia, near which Hannibal gained bis second great 


victory. 


32 




498 


ITALIA OR ITALY. 


The Rhenus (Rheno) flowed into the Adriatic to the south ofthe Po; 
an island in this river is famous for the meeting of Antony, Lepidus, 
and Octavian, when they formed the infamous triumvirate. 

In the north were Jakes Verbanus (Maggiore), Larus (Lake of 
Como), and Benacus (Garda). 

Most of the cities of Cisalpine Gaul were Roman colonies, which 
in general still retain their ancient names. 

In Venetia were Patavium (Padua), the birth-place of Livy ; Portus 
Venetus (Venice), anciently only a harbor; Verona, the birth-place of 
the poet Catulus; Vicentia; Aquileia; Forum Julii (Friuli) ; Tergeste 
(Trieste) which gave its name to the Tergestine Gulf; and Pola, on the 
site of which are some fine remains. 

In Transpadane Gaul were Mantua, on the Mincius, near which at 
the little village of Andes, Virgil was born ; Cremona; Brixia (Brescia); 
Mediolanum (Milan), near which were the Raudian Plains, famous for 
the defeat of the Cimbrians by Marius ; Ticinum (Pavia); and Augus¬ 
ta Taurinorum (Turin). 

Among the towns of Cispadane Gaul were Ravenna, once the resi¬ 
dence of the exarchs of Italy; Fulsinia or Bononia (Bologna); Mutina 
(Modena); Parma; and Placentia (Piacenza). 

2. Liguria was the maritime region lying along the Ligustic or 
Ligurian Gulf (Gulf of Genoa), to the south of Cisalpine Gaul. 

The towns of Liguria were Genua (Genoa); Dertona (Tortona); 
Asta (Asti); and Bodincomagus. Near Dertona was Clastidium, where 
the Romans defeated the Gauls. 

3. Etruria , called also Tuscia and Tyrrhenia, lay on the western 
coast of Central Italy between the Macra and the Tiber. 

It was inhabited by the Etruscans, a people of uncertain origin, 
but who were at an early period remarkable for their progress in 
letters and the arts. They formed a number of small communities, 
independent of each other, but closely allied by ties of kindred, a com¬ 
mon language, and similar manners. The cities were commercial, 
rich, and populous, and each was governed by a chief called lucurno. 

Etruria was conquered by the Romans, who borrowed from the 
natives many of their arts and usages; but the literature and language 
were neglected, and are now unfortunately lost. Architectural and 
other remains, however, still exist to attest the skill and taste of the 
Etruscan artists. 

The principal rivers of Etruria were the Arnus (Arno); the Clanis 
(Chiana), and Tiberis or Tiber. 

Lake Trasimenus (Lake of Perugia) was the theatre of one of Hanni¬ 
bal’s victories over the Romans. Further south was Lake Volsinium 
(Bolsena). 

There were twelve chief Etruscan cities, each with a dependent 
district; viz: Pisae (Pisa) and Florentia, on the Arnus; Pistoria (Pis- 
toia), near which Catiline was slain ; Clusium (Chiusi), the residence 
of Porsena; Arretium (Arezzo); Cortona; Perusia (Perugia); Vola- 
terrae (Volterra), the birth-place of the poet Persius; Vulsinium (Bol¬ 
sena); Falerii or Falisci; Veii, famous for its long resistance to the 
Romans; and Caere. 

On the coast was the island of Uva (Elba), famed for its iron mines. 

4. Umbria, on the eastern coast, was bounded on the north by the 
Rubicon, and on thg south by the CEsis (Cesano) and Nar (Nera). It 


ITALIA OR ITALY. 


499 


took its name from the Umbrians, who were at an early period a 
powerful people, occupying a great part of Italy, but were subsequent¬ 
ly confined by the conquests of their neighbors to the district east of 
the Tiber. 

The Metaurus was a small river, on the banks of which the Romans 
defeated Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal. 

The towns were Ariminium (Rimini); Sena Gallica, founded by the 
Senones, a tribe of Gauls; Spoletium (Spoleto); Sarsina, the birth¬ 
place of the poet Plautus, and Narni, the birth-place of the emperor 
Nerva. 

5. Picenum lay to the south of Umbria. The principal towns were 
Ancona, a Greek city, and Asculum (Ascoli). 

6. Latium comprised that part of the western coast between the 
Tiber, on the north, and the Liris (Garigliano), on the south. In a 
narrower sense Latium meant only the land of the Latins, between the 
Tiber and Circeii, which was likewise called by way of distinction 
Latium Yetus or Ancient Latium. 

Latium was inhabited by the Latins, the iEquans, the Rutulians, 
the Hernicans, and the Volscians. 

The rivers of Latium were the Anio (Teverone), the Allia, near 
which the Romans were defeated by the Gauls, and the Liris (Gari¬ 
gliano). 

On the coast were the promontory of Circeium (Monte Circello), 
and the celebrated Pontine Marshes. 

On the eastern or left bank of the Tiber stood Roma or Rome, long 
the mistress of the civilized world. It was chiefly built on seven hills, 
viz: the Capitoline, Qnirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Ccelian, Palatine, and 
Aventine; but a part of the Pincian Mount on the north, and of the 
Vatican and ^aniculine hills on the west side of the river, were also 
included within the walls at one period. 

In the Tiber was an island called the Tiberine island, connected 
with the eastern bank of the river by the Fabrician, and with the west¬ 
ern by the Cestian bridge. Lower down the river were the Palatine 
or Senatorial bridge leading from the Forum to Mount Janiculum, and 
the Sublician or Wooden bridge leading to the same quarter from 
Mount Aventine. Above the island the Janiculine bridge lead from the 
Campus Martius to the hill whose name it bore, and further up the 
river, the Triumphal or Vatican bridge and the AElian bridge conducted 
from the same campus towards the Vatican Mount. Still higher up 
and without the walls was the Milvian bridge. 

The streets of Rome were irregular; the public squares were numer¬ 
ous, and distinguished into are®, open spaces in front of the temples 
and palaces; campi , large greens or parks serving for popular assem¬ 
blies, public processions, gymnastic exercises, burning of the dead, &c.; 
and the/ora, paved squares used for public meetings, market-places, 
&c. Of the Campi or parks the most celebrated was the Campus 
Martius, or Mars Field, called by way of eminence the Campus. It 
was adorned with temples, amphitheatres, circuses, &c. Among the 
seventeen forums, the Roman Forum or Great Forum, called also 
simply the Forum, lying at the foot of the Capitoline hill, was the most 
noted. It was adorned with innumerable statues, with porticoes, &c. 
Here likewise were the Curia or senate-house, and the Rostra, or place 
from which the public speakers addressed the people. 


500 ITALIA OR ITALY. 

On the Capitoline hill was the capitol or citadel, with the temple of 
Jupiter. 

The principal public edifices in Rome were the temples, which were 
numerous and often magnificent; the circuses, oblong buildings of 
great size, in which were exhibited the Circensian games, consisting 
of races, athletic contests, combats of wild beasts with each other or 
with men, naval engagements, &c.; amphitheatres, for the exhibition of 
gladiatorial fights and other spectacles; the baths, vast and magnificent 
piles, appropriated for bathing, &c. The Circus Maximus and the 
Colosseum, the principal amphitheatre, were remarkable for their 
immense magnitude. The acqueducts, which supplied the city with 
water, and the cloaca or sewers of gigantic size and indestructible 
solidity, also deserve mention. 

In the vicinity of Rome were Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber; 
Tusculum, (Frascati), where Cicero had a villa; Alba Longa, destroyed 
by the Romans; Lavinium; and Laurentum. 

Other towns of Latium were Ardea, capital of the Rutulians; Terra- 
cina, capital of the Volscians; Gaieta (Gaeta), near which Cicero was 
murdered ; Minturnee, near the mouth of the Liris ; Aquinum, the birth¬ 
place of Juvenal; Arpinum, the native town of Cicero and Marius; 
Anagnia, the capital of the Hernicans; Praeneste, capital of the AEquans; 
and Corioli, a Volscian town. 

7. Campav.ia, famed for its fertility and fine climate, extended along 
the coast to the south of Latium, between the Liris on the north, and 
the Salarus (Salaro), on the south. 

The Vulturous (Volturno) was a small river, discharging itself into 
the Tyrrhenian Sea. 

On the coast was Cape Misenum, where Augustus stationed a fleet, 
and near the cape were the little islands of Prochyta (Procida) and 
Pithecusa (Ischia). Further south lay the island of Capreae (Capri), 
notorious as the retreat of Tiberius. 

Campania was inhabited by Auruncans, Ausonians, and Oscans, and 
contained many Greek cities. 

Here were Venafrum ; Teanum, near which were the celebrated 
Falernian vineyards; Capua, where the soldiers of Hannibal became 
enervated by luxury; and Casilinum, Linternum, and Cumae. 

To the south lay Parthenope or Neapolis (Naples), a Greek city, on 
the gulf called Crater (Bay of Naples), not far from Mount Vesuvius. 

In the vicinity of Naples were Puteoli (Pozzuoli); Baise, a celebrated 
bathing-place; Nola, where Augustus died; and Herculanum and 
Pompeii, which were both buried by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 

Surrentum and Salernum were likewise in this neighborhood. 

8. Samnium was situated on the eastern coast between Picenum and 
Apulia. It was inhabited by several Sabellian tribes, among which 
were the Sabines, Samnites, Marsians, Pelignians, Hirpinians, &c. 

Among the towns were Cures; Fidenae; Crustumerium ; Ainiternum 
the birth-place of Sallust; Sulmo, of which Ovid was a native; Alba, 
near the lake Fucinus; further south were Beneventum and Caudium, 
near which was the celebrated defile called the Caudine Forks. 

9. Apulia comprised the eastern part of Italy, from the river Frento 
(Fortore) to Calabria. The principal river was the Aufidus (Ofanto). 
It was divided into Daunian Apulia on the north, and Peucetian Apulia 
on the south, of the Aufidus. By the Greeks this district was called 
Iapygia. 


SICILY. 


501 


The inhabitants were Peucetians and Daimians. 

Cannae, celebrated for the defeat of the Romans by Hannibal in its 
neighborhood; Venusia, the birth-place of Horace; and Barium (Bari), 
on the Adriatic Sea, were the chief towns of Peucetian Apulia. 

In Daunian Apulia were Mount Garganus; Sipontum, destroyed; 
Luceria (Lucera); and Canusium. 

10. Calabna or Messapia, called also by the Greeks Iapygia, was the 
southeastern peninsula of Italy. On the south was the Tarentine 
Gulf. 

The inhabitants were Messapians, divided into the tw T o tribes of the 
Salentines and Calabrians, and the Tarentines, Greek colonists. 

The principal towns were Brundusium (Brindisi), with a good 
harbor; Callipolis, (Gallipoli), on the Tarentine Gulf; Lupiae (Lecce), 
the birth-place of Ennius; Tarentum, a Lacedaemonian colony, and 
one of the most powerful Greek ^colonies in Italy; and Hydruntum 
(Otranto). 

11. Lucania, extending from Campania to Bruttium, took its name 
from the Lucanians an Ausonian tribe. Here were Poseidonia or 
Paestum, a Greek city on the Gulf of Psestum (Gulf of Salerno), of 
which the ruins are famous; Velia or Elea, the birth-place of the phi¬ 
losopher Zeno ; Metapontum ; Heraclea, the birth-place of the cele¬ 
brated painter, Zeuxis; and Sybaris or Thurium, proverbial for its 
luxury. 

12. Bruttium comprised the southwestern peninsula of Italy. The 
coasts were occupied by Greek colonies, but the interior was inhabited 
by the Bruttians, a wild tribe of Ausonians. 

Among the towns were Consentia (Cosenza); Pandosia; Mamer- 
tum (Oppido); Crotona, an Achaean colony; Scyllacium (Squillace); 
Locri Epizephyrii, an AEolian colony, celebrated for its lawgiver 
Zaleucus, and Regium (Reggio), an Ionian colony. 


SICILY. 

Sicilia, called also Trinacria and Sicania, was separated from Italia 
by the narrow arm of the sea called the Strait of Sicily, (the Strait of 
Messina or the Faro). The island was at an early period inhabited by the 
Sicelians and Sicanians; but the Greek colonies were so numerous and 
powerful, that the Grecian language and manners became predominant, 
and the whole island grew in fact into a Greek community. 

On the northern coast were the Vulcanian or AEolian isles (Lipari), 
the fabled seat of AEolus, god of the winds, and of Vulcan’s smithery. 
On the western coast were the AEgades; and to the south lay Melita 
(Malta) and Gaulos (Gozo), occupied by Phoenician colonists. 

The island was traversed by the Nebrodes and Hertei Mountains; in 
the east was Mount AEtna, and in the west Mount Eryx. 

The northeastern point of the island was Cape Pelorum (Cape Faro); 
the southeastern, Cape Pacbynum (Passaro); and the western, Lilyboeum 
(Cape Boeo). 

On the opposite sides of the Sicilian Strait were two famous rocks, 
Scylla and Charybdis, which the narrowness of the passage and the 
violent motion of the waters rendered dangerous to seamen. 


502 


CORSICA OR CYRNOS. 


Among the towns were Messana (Messina), a Messenian colony; 
Tauromenium, Leontium, and Catana, Ionian colonies; and Syracusse 
(Syracuse), one of the most powerful Greek cities in this region, and 
the birth-place of Archimedes and Theocritus, on the eastern coast; 
Gela and Agrigentum (Girgenti), Dorian colonies, and Selinus, on the 
southern coast; Lilybceum (Marsala) and Drepanum (Trapani), on the 
western coast; and Himera and Panonnus (Palermo), on the northern 
coast. In the interior were Hybla, famous for its honey, and Enna. 


SARDINIA OR ICHNUSA. 

Sardinia, called Ichnusa by the Greeks, was inhabited by Iberian 
tribes; the Phoenician colonies were numerous on the island and 
there were some Greek towns. 

Caralis (Cagliari) and Olbia (Terra Nuova) were founded by Greeks. 


CORSICA OR CYRNOS. 

This island was also peopled by Iberians and Ligurians, and con¬ 
tained several Greek and Phoenician colonies. It was separated from 
Sardinia by the Strait of Taphros (Straits of Bonifacio). 

Mantini (Bastia), Nicsea or Mariana, and Aleria, were among the 
principal towns. 


503 


APPENDIX. 


1. Terrestrial Globes. Though the earth be not exactly a sphere, 
it deviates very little from the spherical form. The polar diameter is 
less than the equatorial by about ^th of the latter, while the height 
of the highest mountain is not equal to the 4000th part of it. Upon the 
largest globe that is ever constructed, these differences of the earth 
from an exact sphere could not be perceived; and the artificial globe, 
therefore, is always exactly spherical. 

Through the centre of the globe let a straight wire pass, this will 
represent the axis , and the points where it cuts the surface, the north 
and south poles. A circle drawn at the distance of 90 degrees from 
either pole is the equator , and another circle drawn from any point of 
the equator, and at right angles to it, will be the first meridian. 

The equator and the first meridian are divided into degrees and 
minutes, which are numbered, beginning at the point where the circles 
intersect each other. The degrees upon the first meridian are number¬ 
ed on both sides of the equator, and do not exceed 90. They point out 
the latitude. The degrees upon the equator are numbered completely 
round the circle, and extend therefore to 360. They enable us to find 
out the longitude. 

The equator and first meridian are distinguished from parallels of 
latitude and other meridian lines, by their being graduated. They are 
also sometimes denoted by double lines. 

We shall now suppose that the artificial globe exactly represents the 
surface of the earth, and proceed to explain the lines which are com¬ 
monly drawn upon the globe, besides the equator and first meridian, 
and to describe the apparatus usually attached to it. 

In order that we might be able to find out from the globe itself, the 
latitude and longitude of any place, a parallel to the equator and a 
meridian line would require to be drawn through that place. It is im¬ 
possible that such lines could be drawn through every point on the 
globe, and it is unnecessary, for the brass circle placed around it, 
enables us to find out the latitude and longitude. In this circle, which 
is placed at right angles to the equator, and is therefore a meridian, the 
globe is suspended by the axis. One of the sides, of the meridian is 
graduated, or divided into degrees, minutes, and seconds. The globe 
can be turned round its axis, while the general meridian remains sta¬ 
tionary, so that every point of the surface of the globe must pass under 
some point of the meridian. To find out the latitude and longitude of 
anv place, therefore, we have only to turn the globe round till the 
given place be brought to the meridian. The number of degrees, 
minutes, &c. under which the place lies will be its latitude, and the 
number intercepted upon the equator its longitude. 

In addition to the general meridian, meridians and parallels of latitude 
are usually drawn upon the globe, through every 5th or 10th degree of 


504 


APPENDIX. 


latitude and longitude, according to the size of the globe. These 
lines point out accurately the latitude or longitude of those places which 
are situated upon them, and give us a general idea of the situation of 
other places. 

Besides meridians and parallels of latitude, the ecliptic is usually 
drawn upon globes, and also the tropics and polar circles. All these 
last are commonly drawn with double lines to distinguish them from 
other meridians and parallels of latitude. 

The globe suspended in the general meridian, is placed upon a 
wooden frame. The upper surface of this frame divides the globe into 
two hemispheres, one superior, and the other inferior, and represents, 
therefore, the rational horizon of any place which is brought to the 
zenith point of the meridian. There are two notches for the meridian 
to slide in, by which different elevations of the pole may be exhibited. 
The horizon has commonly drawn upon it the points of the compass, 
the twelve signs of the zodiac, the months of the year, &c. 

There is attached to the general meridian a quadrant , composed of a 
thin pliable plate of brass, answering exactly to a quadrant of the 
meridian. It is graduated, and has a notch, nut, and screw, by which it 
may be fixed to the brazen meridian in the zenith of any place. When 
so fixed, it turns round a pivot, and supplies the place of vertical circles. 
It is hence denominated a quadrant of altitude. 

A small circle of brass is placed on the north pole. It is divided 
into 24 equal parts, and is termed an hour-circle. On the pole of the 
globe is fixed an index , which turns round the axis, and points out the 
hours upon the hour-circle. 

There is also often attached to the globe a compass, which is placed 
upon the pediment of ths frame, parallel to the horizon. 

2. Problems solved by the Globe. Having thus described the globe 
and its apparatus, we shall now explain some of the problems that may 
be resolved by it. 

I. To find the latitude and longitude of any place. —We have already 
seen that this is done by bringing the place to the graduated side of the 
general meridian ; the degree of the meridian cut by the place being 
equal to the latitude, and the degree of the equator then under the 
meridian being the longitude. 

II. To find a place upon the Globe , its latitude and longitude being 
given. —Find the degree of longitude on the equator, and bring it to 
the brass meridian ; then find the degree of latitude on the meridian, 
either north or south, and the point of the globe under that degree of 
latitude is the place required. 

III. To find all the places on the Globe that have the same latitude 
as a given place, suppose JYew York. —Turn the globe round, and all 
the places that pass under the same point of the meridian as the given 
place does, have the same latitude with it. 

IV. To find all the places that have the same longitude or hour with a 
given place, as JYew York. —Bring the given place, New York, to the 
meridian, and all places then under the meridian have the same lon¬ 
gitude. 


APPENDIX. 


505 


V. To find the difference in the time of the day at any two given places, 
and their difference of longitude. —Bring one of the places to the meridian, 
and set the hour-index to twelve at noon, then turn the globe till the 
other place come to the meridian, and the index will point out the 
difference of time. By allowing 15 degrees to every hour, or one 
degree to four minutes of time, the difference of longitude will be 
known. The difference of longitude may also be found without the 
time, in the following manner:—Bring each of the places to the meri¬ 
dian, and mark the respective longitudes. Subtract the one number 
from the other, and we obtain the difference of longitude sought. 

VI. The time being known at any given place , as JYew York , to find 
what hour it is in any other part of the ivorld. —Bring the given place, 
to the meridian, and set the index to the given hour; then turn the 
globe till the other place come to the meridian, and the hour at which 
the index points will be the time sought. 

VII. To find the distance of two places on the globe. —If the two places 
be either both on the equator or both on the same meridian, the num¬ 
ber of degrees is the distance between them, reduced into miles, at the 
rate of 69£ to the degree, will give the distance nearly. If the places 
be in any other situation, lay the quadrant of altitude over them, and 
the degrees intercepted upon it by the two places, and turned into miles, 
as above, will give their distance. 

VIII. To find the antceci , periceci, and antipodes * of any given place 
suppose New York. —Bring New York to the meridian, and find by the 
meridian the point upon the globe, of which the latitude is as much 
south as that of New York is north. The place thus arrived at will be 

* Ascii, Amphiscii, Heteroscii, and Periscii. The inhabitants of the dif¬ 
ferent regions of the earth are sometimes distinguished by the ancient geographers, 
according to the direction of their shadows. When the sun at mid-day is vertical 
to any place, the inhabitants of that place were said to be ascii, that is, without 
shadow. All the inhabitants between the tropics must be ascii twice a year. 

The inhabitants of the torrid zone, having the sun sometimes to the north, and 
sometimes to the south, will project shadows directed by turns towards either pole, 
and they were therefore said to be amphiscii, that is having both kinds of shadows. 

Those who inhabit the temperate zones were called heteroscii , because their 
shadows fall in opposite directions. 

Within the polar circles the inhabitants must, for awhile, project shadows in all 
directions, and they are therefore said to be periscii. 

Periceci and Antceci, and Antipodes. The seasons which the inhabitants of 
opposite places on the earth enjoy at the same time, as well as the hours of the day 
at these places, being contrasted, give rise to certain distinctions with which it i« 
also necessary to be acquainted. 

Those who live under opposite meridians, at equal distances from the equator, 
and upon the same side of it, are termed periceci. They have the same seasons, 
but reckon at the same instant opposite hours: it being midnight with the one 
when mid-day with the other. 

Those who live under the same meridian on opposite sides of the equator, and at 
equal distances from it, are called antceci. They have the seasons at opposite 
times, but reckon at the same instant the same hours. 

The people who live at equal distances from the equator, and under opposite 
meridians, are termed antechthones, or antipodes. They have both the seasons 
and the hours of the day at opposite times. 


X 


506 


APPENDIX. 


the situation of the antoeci, where the hour of the day or night is always 
the same as at New York, and where the seasons and lengths of the 
days and nights are also the same, but at opposite times of the year. 
New York being still under the meridian, set the hour-index to 12 at 
noon, or pointing towards New York, then turn the globe half round, 
till the index points to the opposite hour, or 12 at night. The place 
that comes under the same point of the meridian where New York was, 
is where the perioeci dwell, or people that have the same seasons, and 
at the same time, as New York, and the same lengths of the days and 
nights, but have an opposite hour, it being midnight with the one when 
noon with the other. Lastly, While the place of the periceci is at the 
meridian, count by the meridian the same degree of latitude south, and 
that will give the place of the antipodes of New York. They have 
all their hours and seasons opposite to those of New York, being noon 
with the one when midnight with the other, and winter with the one 
when summer with the other. 

IX. To find, the sun's place in the ecliptic and also on the globe at any 
given time. —Find in the calendar, on the wooden horizon, the given 
month, and day of the month, and immediately opposite will be found 
the sign and degree which the sun is in on that day. Then, in the 
ecliptic drawn upon the globe, find the same sign and degree, and that 
will be the place of the sun required. 

X. The time being given at any place , to find the place on the earth to 
which the sun is then vertical. —Find the sun’s place on the globe by 
the last problem; and turn the globe about till that place come to the 
meridian; mark the degree of the meridian over it, which will show 
the latitude of the required place. Then turn the globe till the given 
place come to the meridian, and set the index of the hour circle to the 
given moment of time. Lastly, Turn the globe till the index points to 
twelve at noon, and the place of the earth corresponding to that upon 
the globe, which stands under the meridian at the point marked as 
before, is that which has the sun at the given time in the zenith. 

XI. To find all those places on the earth to ivhich the sun is vertical on 
a given day. —Find the sun’s place in the ecliptic on the globe, as in the 
last problem, and bring that place to the meridian. Turn the globe 
round, and note all the places which pass under the same point. These 
will be the places sought. 

This problem enables us to determine what people are ascii on any 
given day. It is evident, that in a similar manner we may also find to 
what places on the earth the moon or any other planet is vertical at a 
given time : the place of the planet on the globe at that time being found 
by its declination and right ascension. 

XII. A place being given in the torrid zone , to find on what two days 
of the year the sun is vertical at that place. —Bring the given place to the 
meridian, and note the degree it passes under. Turn the globe round, 
and note the two points of the ecliptic which pass under the same de¬ 
gree of the meridian. Then, find by the wooden horizon on what days 
the sun is in these two points of the ecliptic, and on these days he will _ 
be vertical to the given place. 


APPENDIX. 


507 


XIII. To find how long the sun shines without setting in any given 
place in the frigid zone. Subtract the degrees of latitude of the given 
place from ninety, which gives the complement of the latitude, and 
count this complement upon the meridian from the equator towards the 
pole, marking that point of the meridian ; then turn the globe round, 
and observe what two degrees of the ecliptic pass exactly under the 
point marked on the meridian. It is evident that the sun will shine 
upon the given place without setting while it is in these, and all the 
points of the ecliptic that are nearer to the given place. Find, therefore, 
upon the wooden horizon the months, and days of the months in which 
the sun is in the two points in question, and the intermediate time will 
be that during which the sun constantly shines at the given place. 

XIV. To find how long the sun never shines upon any given place in 
the frigid zones. —Count the complement of latitude towards the south, 
or farthest pole, and then proceed exactly as in the last problem. 

XV. To rectify the globe to the latitude of any place. —Move the brass 
meridian in its groove, till the elevation of the pole above the horizon 
be equal to the latitude. 

XVI. To rectify the globe to the horizon of any place. —Rectify the 
globe to the latitude of the place by the last problem; and then turn 
the globe on its axis till the given place come to the meridian. The 
place will then be exactly on the vertex of the globe, 90 degrees distant 
every way from the wooden horizon ; and that horizon, therefore, will 
represent the horizon of the given place. 

XVII. To find the bearing of one place from another , and their angle 
of position. —Rectify the globe to the horizon of one of the places. 
Screw the quadrant of altitude to the zenith point of the meridian, and 
make it revolve till the graduated edge passes through the other place. 
Then look on the wooden horizon for the point of the compass, or 
number of degrees from the south, where the quadrant of altitude 
meets the horizon, and that will be the bearing of the latter place from 
the former, or the angle of position sought. 

XVIII. To find all those places on the earth to which the sun at a 
given time is rising or setting ; also ivhat places are then illuminated by 
the sun , or in darkness; and where it is noon , or midnight. —Find the 
place to which the sun is vertical at the given time, and rectify the 
globe to its horizon, in which state the place will be in the zenith point 
of the globe. Then is all the hemisphere above the wooden horizon 
enlightened, or in daylight, while the hemisphere below the horizon is 
in darkness, or night; lastly, to all these places by the eastern side of 
the horizon, the sun is just setting, and to those by the western side, he 
is just rising. 

XIX. The time of a solar or lunar eclipse being given , to find all those 
places at which the eclipse will be visible. —Find the place to which the 
sun is vertical at the given time, and rectify the globe to the horizon of 
that place. Then, by the last problem, it is evident, that if the eclipse 
be solar, a part of it at the beginning only will be seen in places which 


508 


APPENDIX. 


are not far above the eastern side of the horizon ; while, in the rest of 
the upper hemisphere, the whole of the eclipse will be visible. A part 
of it at the end will be seen in places which are near to the lower side 
of the western part of the horizon. If the eclipse be lunar, the moon 
will be in the opposite point of the ecliptic to the sun, and vertical to 
that point of the earth which is opposite to the place to which the sun 
is vertical. The eclipse, therefore, will be visible in the lower hemi¬ 
sphere. 

XX. To find the beginning and end of twilight , on any day of the year , 
for any latitude. —It is twilight in the evening from sunset till the sun is 
eighteen degrees below the horizon ; and in the morning from the time 
the sun is within eighteen degrees of the horizon till the moment of his 
rising. Therefore, rectify the globe to the given latitude, set the index 
of the hour-circle to twelve at noon, and screw on the quadrant of 
altitude. Find the point of the ecliptic which is opposite to the sun’s 
place, and turn the globe on its axis westward along with the quadrant 
of altitude, till that point cut the quadrant in the eighteenth degree 
below the western side of the horizon. The index will then show 
the time of dawning in the morning. Next turn the globe and quadrant 
of altitude towards the east, till the same opposite point of the ecliptic 
meet the quadrant in the eighteenth degree below the eastern side of 
the horizon. The index will then show the time when twilight ends 
in the evening. 

XXI. To rectify the globe to the present situation of the earth. —Rec¬ 
tify the globe to the horizon of the place. Its situation will then 
correspond to that of the earth; and, if it stand in the sun, it will be 
illuminated as the earth is. 


QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


The following questions will be found to in¬ 
volve a careful and minute examination of every 
page and paragraph in the book. It is recom¬ 
mended that questions on the Atlas, in relation 
to each topic, be put to the pupil before the ques¬ 
tions on the matter contained in the book. These 
may be best adapted to the pupil by the teacher ; 
the following, will however, serve as a general 
mode of examination, on the Atlas. 

Questions on the map of Maine. 

Boundaries? Capital? Direction of Portland 
from Augusta? Warren from Augusta? Bangor? 
Norridgewock ? Hallowell ? Belfast? &c. &c. 
Principal islands in Maine? Direction of Mt. 
Desert island from Augusta? &c. &c. Principal 
rivers of Maine. Describe the Penobscot; that 
is, tell where it rises, which way it Hows, and 
where it empties. Counties of Maine ? What 
lie on the Atlantic ? What county on the eastern 
border, &c. &c. What are the principal lakes 
in Maine ? In what county is Moosehead Lake ? 
Its direction from Augusta ? And so with other 
lakes. 

The teacher will easily vary the questions to 
suit the pupil and the nature of the case; the 
following, however, are the points to which 
the student’s attention should be specially di¬ 
rected,'in his study of the Atlas, and the ques¬ 
tions should be so formed as to elicit answers 
respecting them. 

1. Boundaries. 2. The Capital. 3. Direction 
of the principal towns from the Capital. 4. Prin¬ 
cipal islands, if any: and their direction from 
the Capital. 5. Rivers ; with a description con¬ 
taining their sources, direction, and plan of 
• embouchure. 6. Counties or other divisions; 
those that lie on the southern border; those 
on the western, &.c. Also the towns in each 
county, &.c. &c. 7. Lakes ; then in what direc¬ 
tion each one is from the capital; the county 
or division in which it lies, &c. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The Earth , its Figure , Dimensions, S,'C. 

Page 5. Describe the Earth. What is the Axis ? 
The Poles? The Equator? A meridian? Lati¬ 
tude? Longitude? Degrees? Tropics? Polar 
Circles? Zones? The Dimensions and Divisions 
of the Earth ? Representations of the Earth ? 
Globes? Maps? 

Land and Water. 

Page 6. What of Continents? Islands? Capes? 
Peninsulas? An Isthmus? Oceans? Pacific 
Ocean ? Indian Ocean ? Southern or Antarctic 
Ocean? Arctic Ocean ? What are the uses of the 
Ocean? What are Seas? Gulfs? Bays? Straits? 
Sounds? Harbors? Roadsteads? What of the 
depth of the Ocean ? Tides? Currents? Whirl¬ 
pools? Saltness of the Sea? Temperature of 
the Ocean ? 

Surface of the Land. 

Page 9. What of mountains? Volcanoes? 
Valleys? Plains? Deserts? Prairies ? Steppes ? 

Lakes and Rivers. 

Page 10. What are Lakes ? Describe the 
Classes. What of periodical Lakes ? Lagoons? 
Rivers? Basins? Beds? Banks? Mouths? Es¬ 
tuaries or Friths ? A Delta? Falls? Rapids? A 
Bore ? Bars ? Periodical Floods ? Alluvial De- 
posites ? 

Climate and Winds. 

Page 12. What of Climate? Causes of Cli¬ 
mate ? Seasons of the Torrid Zone ? Seasons of 
the Temperate Zones ? Seasons of the Frigid 
Zones? Wind? Permanent Winds? Periodical 


Winds ? Variable Winds ? Trade W r inds ? 
Monsoons ? Sea breezes ? Land Breezes ? 
Hurricanes? Whirlwinds? Hot Winds? 
Geographical Distribution of Plants. 

Page 13. What is the number of plants? 
Their distribution ? What of the vegetation of 
the Frigid Zones? Vegetation of the Tem¬ 
perate Zones? Vegetation of the Torrid Zone? 
Geographical Distribution of Animals. 

Page 14. What is the number of species ? 
Their distribution ? Describe the Zoological Re¬ 
gions. What of the animals of islands ? 

Man. 

Page 15. What is said of man ? Varieties of 
the Human Race ? Languages? Population of 
the Globe ? 

Political Institutions. 

Page 16. What of Government? Powers and 
branches of Government? Forms of Govern¬ 
ment ? Monarchy ? Despotism ? Limited Mon¬ 
archy ? Republic? Democracy? Aristocracy? 
States ? Colonies ? 

Religion. 

Page 16. What are the varieties of Religious 
Systems ? What of Fetichism ? Sabeism ? Ju¬ 
daism ? Christianity? Mahometanism? Brah¬ 
manism? Buddhism? Nanekism ? Doctrines 
of Confucius? Magianism ? Numbers of pro¬ 
fessors of religion ? 

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 

Maine. 

Page 19. Boundaries of Maine? Extent? 
What of the mountains? Valleys? Describe the 
Saco. The Androscoggin. The Kennebec. The 
Penobscot. The St. Croix. The St. John’s. 
What are the Lakes? Bays? Islands? What 
of the climate? Soil? Natural Productions? 
Minerals? Face of the country? The Coun¬ 
ties ? County towns ? Describe the Cumberland 
and Oxford Canal. What of the towns in ge¬ 
neral ? Describe Portland. Thomaston. Hal¬ 
lowell. Augusta. Bath. Brunswick. Bangor. 
York. Castine. Gardiner. Waterville. East- 
port. Calais. Lubec. Machias. What of Agri¬ 
culture? Commerce? Manufactures? Fisheries? 
Forests? Population? Government ? Religion ? 
Education ? History ? 

Mew Hampshire. 

Page 24. Boundaries of New Hampshire? 
Extent? Mountains? Describe Mt. Washington. 
The Notch. What of the Valleys ? Describe the 
Merrimack. The Piscataqua. Lake Winnipi- 
seosee. The Isles of Shoals. What of the cli¬ 
mate ? Soil? Mineral productions ? Productions 
of the Soil ? Face of the country ? Natural 
Curiosities? Divisions? Population? Canals? 
Portsmouth? Concord? Dover? Somersworth? 
Dunstable? Exeter? Gilmanton? Hanover? 
Haverhill? Keene? Amherst? Agriculture? 
Commerce? Fisheries? Manufactures ? Edu¬ 
cation? Religion? Government? History? 
Vermont. 

Pa"e 29. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers ? Describe Lake Champlain. What of 
the islands? Climate? Soil? Minerals? Face 
of the country? Mineral Waters? Vegetable 
productions? Divisions? Population? Mont¬ 
pelier? Burlington? Bennington? Middlebury? 
Brattleborough ? Commerce? Agriculture? 
Manufactures? Government? Canals ? Reli¬ 
gion? Education? History? 

Massachusetts. 

Page 33. Boundaries of Massachusetts ? Ex- 






510 


QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 




tent? Population? Mountains? Valleys? Riv¬ 
ers? Describe Nantucket. Martha’s Vineyard. 
What are the other islands ? What of the bays ? 
Shores? Capes? Nahant ? Climate? Soil? 
Vegetable productions? Mineral productions? 
Face of the country ? Divisions? Canals? Rail 
ways? Boston? Charlestown? Cambridge? 
Salem? Beverly? New Bedford? Nantucket? 
Newburyport? Gloucester? Marblehead? Low¬ 
ell? Fall River? Taunton? Lynn? Plymouth? 
Concord? Lexington? Worcester? Pittsfield? 
Springfield? Northampton? Agriculture? Com¬ 
merce? Manufactures? Fisheries? Govern¬ 
ment? Religion? Education? History? 

Rhode Island. 

Page 41. Boundaries of Rhode Island ? Ex¬ 
tent? Mountains? Rivers? Islands? Bays? 
Harbors? Climate? Soil? Vegetable produc¬ 
tions ? Mineral productions? Face of the coun¬ 
try? Divisions? Population? Canals? Rail¬ 
ways? What is said of Providence ? Newport? 
Bristol? Warwick? Pawtucket? Agriculture? 
Manufactures? Commerce? Government? Reli¬ 
gion? Education? History? 

Connecticut. 

Page 43. Boundaries of Connecticut ? Extent? 
Mountains? Valleys? Describe the Connecticut 
River. Farmington R. The Housatonic. Long 
Island Sound. Thames. What of the climate ? 
Soil? Mineral productions ? Face of the country? 
Divisions? Population? Canals? New Haven ? 
Hartford? Middletown? Norwich? New Lon¬ 
don ? Wethersfield? Litchfield? Agriculture? 
Commerce? Manufactures? Government? Re¬ 
ligion ? Education ? History ? 

NEW ENGLAND. 

General View. 

Page 47. Boundaries ? Extent ? Population ? 
Mountains? Valleys? Rivers? Lakes? Ponds? 
Bays? Harbors? Shores? Climate? Soil? Agri- 
cluture ? Scenery? Inhabitants? Education? 
Religion? Manners? Customs? Institutions? 
New York. 

Page 51. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Valleys? Describe the Hudson. The Mohawk. 
The Genesee. What is said of the lakes ? Des¬ 
cribe Lake Champlain. Describe Long Island. 
What of other islands ? Bays? Harbors? Cli¬ 
mate? Soil? Vegetable productions? Mineral 
productions ? Mineral Springs ? Describe the 
Falls of New York. What of the Face of the 
country? Divisions? Erie Canal ? Champlain 
Canal? Its branches ? Delaware and Hudson 
Canal ? Railroads ? New York City ? Brooklyn ? 
Albany? Troy ? Hudson ? Schenectady ? Pough¬ 
keepsie ? Newburg? Catskill ? Ticonderoga? 
Crown point? Plattsburgh? Ogdensburg ? 
Sackett’s Harbor ? Auburn? Sing Sing ? Utica ? 
Rome? Geneva? Canandaigua? Rochester? 
Lockport ? Buffalo? What is said of the com¬ 
merce of New York ? Manufactures? Religion? 
Government? Education? History? 

JVc w Jersey. 

Page 60. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers ? Describe the Passaic. What is said of 
the Bays? Capes? Harbors? Climate? Soil? 
Mineral productions ? Face of the country ? Di¬ 
visions ? Canals? Railroads? Trenton? New¬ 
ark? New Brunswick? Patterson? Rahway? 
Elizabethtown? Burlington? Bordentown? 
Longbranch ? Amboy? Princeton? Agriculture? 
Manufactures? Commerce? Fisheries? Gov¬ 
ernment? Religion? Education? History? 
Pennsylvania. 

Page 64. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Valleys? Describe the Delaware. The Allegha¬ 
ny. The Monongahela. What of the climate ? 


Soil? Mineral productions? Vegetable pro¬ 
ductions ? Mineral Springs ? Face of the coun¬ 
try ? Divisions? Canals? Railroads? Give a 
description of Philadelphia. What of Pittsburg ? 
Reading? Lancaster? Bethlehem? Nazareth? 
Easton? Economy? Agriculture? Commerce? 
Manufactures? Government? Inhabitants? 
Religion ? Education ? History ? 

Delaware. 

Page 72. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country? Rivers? Bay? Cape? Climate? Soil? 
Divisions? Canal? Railroad? Towns? Agri¬ 
culture? Commerce? Manufactures? Govern¬ 
ment? Religion? Education? History? 
Maryland. 

Page 74. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Face'of the country ? Rivers? Bay? Harbors? 
Climate? Soil? Productions? Divisions? Ca¬ 
nals? Railroads? What is said of Baltimore? 
Annapolis? Frederick? Hagerstown? Agricul¬ 
ture? Commerce? Manufactures? Government? 
Religion? Education? History? 

Middle States. 

Page 77. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Valleys? Rivers? Shores? Bays? Lakes? Cli¬ 
mate? Soil? Inhabitants? » 

District of Columbia. 

Page 79. Situation? Divisions? Face of the 
country? Soil? Commerce? Population? What 
is said of Washington ? Georgetown? Alexan¬ 
dria? Education? Religion? 

Virginia. 

Page 81. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? I 
Describe the Potomac. Other rivers of Virginia. " 
What of the Bays ? Harbors? Shores? Capes? 
Climate? Soil? Face of the country ? Mineral j 
productions? Vegetable productions ? Mineral | 
Waters? Describe the passage of the Potomac 
through the Blue Ridge. The Natural Bridge. J 
Weyer’s Cave. Madison’s Cave. The Moun- J 
tain lake. What are the divisions of the State? j 
Canals? Railroads? Describe Richmond. Nor- -j 
folk. What of Gosport? Petersburg? Fred- j 
ericksburg? Lynchburg? Williamsburg? York- I 
town? Wheeling? Mount Vernon? What ai'b 1 
other towns? What of agriculture? Manufac- I 
tures? Commerce? Government? Religion? 1 
Education? History? 

North Carolina. 

Page 87. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? I 
Rivers? Islands? Sounds? Bays? Shores?! 
Capes? Face of the country ? Climate? Soil?jl! 
Describe the Swamps. What of the Mineral 1 
productions? Vegetable productions? Mineral I 
Springs? Divisions? Canals? Railroads? New- 1 
bern ? Raleigh? Wilmington? Fayetteville? 
What are other towns? What of agriculture? ] 
Commerce? Manufactures? Government? Re¬ 
ligion? Education? History? 

South Carolina. 

Page 92. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country? Rivers? Islands? Harbors? Climate? 
Soil? Mineral productions? Vegetable pro¬ 
ductions? Divisions? Population ? Canals? Rail¬ 
ways? Roads? Describe Charleston. What of 
the other towns? Agriculture? Commerce? Re¬ 
ligion ? Education ? History ? 

Georgia. 

Page 95. Boundaries ? Extent ? Face of the 
country? Rivers? Islands? Climate? Soil? 
Describe Nicojack Cave. What of the Mineral 
productions? Divisions? Canal? Railroad? 
Describe the city of Savannah. What is said of 
other towns? Agriculture? Commerce? Gov¬ 
ernment? Religion? Education? Indians? 
History ? 

Florida. 

Page 99. Boundaries? Extent? Describe the 












511 


QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


St. John’s. The Appalachicola. What are the 
other rivers? Islands? What of Harbors? 
Shores? Climate? Soil? Vegetable produc¬ 
tions? Face of the country ? Divisions? Des¬ 
cribe St. Augustine. Pensacola. What is said 
of other towns ? Agriculture? Government? 
History ? 

Alabama. 

Page 101. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers ? Bay ? Climate ? Soil ? Face of the 
country? Divisions? Railroads? Canals? Des¬ 
cribe Mobile. What is said of other towns? 
Agriculture? Commerce? Government? Re¬ 
ligion? Education? Indians? History? 
Mississippi. 

Page 104. Boundaries ? Extent ? Face of the 
country? Rivers? Bays? Islands? Climate? 
Soil? Natural productions? Divisions? Des¬ 
cribe Natchez. What is said of the other towns ? 
Internal improvements ? Agriculture? Indians? 
Religion? Education? Government? History? 
Louisiana. 

Page 106. Boundaries ? Extent ? Face of the 
country ? What is said of the Mississippi ? Red 
River? Other rivers? Lakes? Islands? Shores? 
Inlets? Bays? Climate? Soil? Divisions? 
Population ? Canals ? Railroad ? Describe New 
Orleans. What of the other towns? Agricul¬ 
ture? Commerce? Government? Religion? 
Education ? flistory ? 

Southern States. 

* Page 111. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers? Bays ? Sounds? Shores? Capes? Cli¬ 
mate? Soil? Natural productions? Inhabit¬ 
ants? Diseases? Manners and Customs ? What 
is said of the treatment of the Slaves ? Their 
dress? Privileges? Marriages? Amusements? 
Duration of Slavery? In what light are slaves 
regarded? Punishments? 

Tennessee. 

Page 115. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Valleys? Describe the Tennessee. What of 
other rivers ? Climate? Soil? Natural produc¬ 
tions? Minerals? Face of the country? Cu¬ 
riosities? Divisions? Describe Nashville. What 
is said of other towns? Agriculture? Manu¬ 
factures? Government? Religion? Education? 
History ? 

Kentucky. 

Page 118. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country? Rivers? Climate? Soil? Minerals? 
Mineral Waters? Describe Mammoth Cave. 
The “ Sink Holes.” What is said of Divisions ? 
Population ? Railroad? Canal? Louisville? 
Other towns? Manufactures? Agriculture? 
Commerce? Government? Religion? Educa¬ 
tion ? History ? 

Ohio. 

Page 121. Boundaries ? Extent ? Face of the 
country? Pivers? Describe the Muskingum. 
Other rivers. What of the Bays ? Harbors? Soil? 
Climate? Minerals? Natural Vegetable pro¬ 
ductions? Divisions? Canals? Railroads? Des¬ 
cribe Cincinnati. What is said of other towns ? 
Agriculture? Commerce? Manufactures? Gov¬ 
ernment? Education? Religion? History? 
Indiana. 

Page 126. Boundaries? Extent? Rivers? 
Climate? Soil? Minerals? Caves? Face of the 
country? Divisions? Canals? Railroads? 
Towns? Agriculture? Government? Religion? 
Education ? History? 

Illinois. '• 

Page 128. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country? Rivers? Climate? Soil? Minerals? 
Divisions? Population? Towns? Agriculture? 
Manufactures? Government ? Education ? His¬ 
tory ? 


Missouri. 

Page 130. Boundaries? Extent ? Mountains ? 
Rivers? Climate? Soil? Minerals? Face of the 
country? Divisions? Population? Describe St. 
Louis. What of the other towns ? Agriculture ? 
Government? Religion? Education? History? 
Arkansaw Territory. 

Page 132. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
The Mississippi ? Describe the Arkansaw. The 
White river. What of the climate ? Soil? Min¬ 
erals ? Face of the country ? Divisions ? Popu¬ 
lation ? Towns? Agriculture? Government? 
History ? 

Michigan Territory. 

Page 134. Boundaries? Extent? Soil? Face 
of the country? Rivers? Lakes? Climate? 
Minerals? Divisions? Towns? Inhabitants? 
History ? 

Huron or JVisconsin District. 

Page 136. Boundaries ? Divisions ? Popula¬ 
tion ? Inhabitants? Physical Features? 
Western States. 

Page 136. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country ? Describe the Prairies. The Parrens. 
What of the rivers ? Climate? Soil? Vegetable 
productions? Minerals? Diseases? Inhabitants? 
Scenes on the Rivers ? Education ? Religion ? 
Western District. 

Page 139. Extent ? Extent of the Missouri 
District? Face of the country ? Rivers? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Extent of the Oregon District? Soil? 
Climate? Rivers? Inhabitants? 

United States. 

Page 140. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country ? What is said of the Alleghany chain ? 
The Rocky Mountains ? The Mississippi Valley? 
The Pacific slope ? Soil ? Valley of the Missis¬ 
sippi? Describe the Mississippi. What of its 
navigation? The Missouri? Bays? Gulfs? 
Shores? Capes? Climate? Minerals? Political 
Divisions? Population? Agriculture? Corn? 
Tobacco ? Cotton ? Rice ? Grain ? Other pro¬ 
ductions? Commerce? Manufactures? Fishe¬ 
ries? Public lands? Revenue? Expenditure? 
Army? Navy? Posts? Mint? Canals? Rail¬ 
roads? Slavery? Religious Denominations? 
Education? Government? History? 

Russian Territory. 

Page 149. Inhabitants? Chief town? Trade? 
Mountains ? 

Upper Canada. 

Page 149. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country? Climate? Soil? Rivers? Describe the 
Falls of Niagara. What of towns? Canals? 
Inhabitants? Government? Education? Re¬ 
ligion ? 

Lower Canada. 

Page 151. Boundaries? Divisions? Popula¬ 
tion ? Describe the River St. Lawrence. What 
of the Soil? Climate? Canals? Describe Que¬ 
bec. Montreal., What of other towns ? Gov¬ 
ernment? Laws? Inhabitants? Education; 
Religion ? 

New Brunswick. 

Page 154. Boundaries? Divisions? Popula¬ 
tion ? Soil ? Face of the. country ? Describe the 
St. Lawrence. What are the other rivers ? 
What is said of the Bays? Towns? Govern¬ 
ment ? 

Nova Scotia. 

Page 155. Boundaries? Divisions? Popula¬ 
tion? Extent? Soil? Face of the country ? Cli¬ 
mate ? Rivers ? Bays ? Islands ? Minerals ? Gyp¬ 
sum ? Canals? Describe Halifax. What are 
the other towns? What is said of the govern¬ 
ment ? Inhabitants ? 




512 


QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


Prince Edward Island. 

Page 156. Situation ? Extent ? Population ? 
Divisions ? Capital ? Climate ? Soil ? Inhabi¬ 
tants ? Government? 

Newfoundland. 

Page 156. Situation? Extent? Face of the 
country? Soil? Climate? Inhabitants? Fishe¬ 
ries ? Government ? Population ? What is said 
of the Capital? Islands? Describe the Great 
Bank. 

New Britain. 

Page 157. Situation ? What is said of its lim¬ 
its ? Face of the country ? Rivers ? Lakes ? 
Inhabitants? Islands? 

Greenland. 

Page 158. Where does it lie ? To whom does 
the island belong ? What is said of its climate ? 
Inhabitants ? 

Iceland. 

Page 159. Situation ? Extent ? Settlers ? 
Population? Towns? Mountains? Minerals? 
Vegetable productions ? Education ? Religion ? 
Mexican United States. 

Page 159. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers ? Lakes ? Bays ? Harbors ? Climate ? 
Soil ? Vegetables ? Minerals ? Divisions ? 
Population? Describe the city of Mexico. What 
is said of Huehuetoca ? Guadaloupe? Otumba? 
Puebla? Cholula? Tlascala? Oaxaca? Vera 
Cruz? Xalapa? Orizava? Cordova? Perote ? 
Acapulco? Queretaro? Guanaxuato? The 
hacienda of Jaral ? Valladolid? Guadalaxara ? 
Zacatecas ? Other towns ? San Luis ? Potosi ? 
Tampico? Chihuahua? Durango? Santa Fe? 
Settlements in Cohahuila and Texas ? Upper 
California? The Missions? Agriculture? Com¬ 
merce? Manufactures? Inhabitants? Religion? 
Antiquities? The Pyramids ? History? 
Republic of Central America. 

Page 167. Boundaries? Divisions? Popula¬ 
tion? Mountains? Lakes? Rivers? Soil? Cli¬ 
mate? Coasts? Bays? What is said of New 
Guatemala? Old Guatemala ? The other towns ? 
Commerce? Inhabitants? Government? His¬ 
tory ? 

North America. General View. 

Page 168. Boundaries? Extent? Popula¬ 
tion ? Mountains ? Rivers ? Bays ? Gulfs ? 
Lakes ? Table-lands ? The Plain ? The bison ? 
Muskox? Moose? Reindeer? Caribou ? Com¬ 
mon deer? Elk? Long-tailed deer? Black¬ 
tailed deer ? Antelope ? Rocky mountain sheep ? 
Cougar? Lynx? Bears? Badger? Glutton? 
Dogs ? Wolves ? Foxes ? The Weasel ? Er¬ 
mine? Mink? Marten? Fisher? Raccoon? 
Otter? Marmots? Beavers? Muskrats? Opos¬ 
sum? Porcupine? Skunk? The Eagle? Tur¬ 
key? Buzzard? Crow? Quail? Grouse? Owls? 
The Mocking-bird ? Cat-bird ? Humming-bird ? 
The Alligator ? Snakes? Indians? 

West Indies. 

Page 179. Situation? Divisions? Climate? 
Productions? Hurricanes? Inhabitants? What 
is the extent of the Bahamas ? Number? Names 
of the islands ? To what country do they belong? 
What is said of the population? Capital? 
Where do the Bermudas lie ? What is the num¬ 
ber of inhabitants ? The capital ? To what 
country do they belong? What is the extent of 
Cuba? To what country does it belong? Popu¬ 
lation ? Face of the country ? Soil? Produc¬ 
tions? Exports? Describe Havana. What is 
said of the other towns ? To what country does 
Porto Rico belong? What is its extent ? Cli¬ 
mate? Soil? Population? What are its principal 
productions? Describe the capital. Where is 
Hayti situated ? Give its history, Extent. What 


is said of its climate ? Soil ? Capital ? Other 
cities ? To what country does Jamaica belong ? 
What is its extent ? What of its surface ? Moun¬ 
tains? Soil? Climate? Population? Towns? 
What is said of the Engl ish islands ? Trinidad ? 
Tobago? Grenada? Barbadoes? St. Vincent? 
St. Lucia? Dominica? Antigua? St. Chris¬ 
topher? Government of the islands? Total 
population ? What of the French islands ? Mar¬ 
tinique? Guadaloupe? Mariegalante ? Deseada ? 
To what powers does St. Martin belong ? W hat 
is said of the Dutch islands ? Cura^oa ? St. 
Eustatia ? What is said of St. Bartholomew ? 
New Grenada. 

Page 184. Situation ? Extent ? Population ? 
Mountains? Rivers? Bays? Climate? Soil? 
Minerals ? Natural curiosities ? Divisions ? 
Describe Bogota. Carthagena. What is said 
of Santa Martha? Porto Bello? Rio Ilacha? 
Panama? Popayan ? Pasto? Inhabitants? 
Travelling? History? 

Venezuela. 

Page 187. Extent? Population? Mountains? 
Plain? Rivers? Lakes? Climate? Soil? Vege¬ 
table productions ? Divisions? What is said of 
Caraccas? La Guyra? Maracaybo? Puerto 
Cabello? Valencia? Barcelona? Curnana? 
Varinas? Angostura? Merida? Coro? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Government? 

Republic of the Equator. 

Page 189. Extent? Population? Mountains? 
Describe the Amazon. The Guayaquil. What 
is said of the climate? Face of the country? 
Productions? Divisions? Describe Quito. 
What of the other towns ? Inhabitants? His¬ 
tory ? 

Peru. 

Page 191. Boundaries ? Population ? Moun¬ 
tains? Rivers? Lake? Coast? Face of the 
country? Minerals? Divisions? Describe the 
capital. What is said of the other towns? In¬ 
habitants ? History ? 

Bolivia. 

Page 193. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Climate? Soil ? Minerals ? 
Divisions? Capital? Towns? Inhabitants? His¬ 
tory ? 

Chili. 

Page 194. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
What is said of the island of Chiloe ? Moun¬ 
tains? Face of the country ? Rivers? Climate? 
Soil? Minerals? Divisions? Capital? Other 
towns? Inhabitants? History? 

United Provinces of the Plata. 

Page 196. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Face of the country ? Rivers? Climate? Pro¬ 
ductions ? Soil ? Minerals? Divisions? History? 
What is said of the capital ? Corrientes? Cor¬ 
dova? San Juan? Mendoza? Upsallata? Salta? 
Tucuman? Santa Fe? Inhabitants? Describe 
the life of the Guachos. What is the character 
of the Indians ? 

Uruguay. 

Page 198. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
History ? What is said of the capital ? 

Paraguay. 

Page 198. Extent? Population? Appearance 
of the country ? Climate? Soil? Productions? 
Towns? History? 

Patagonia. 

Page 199. Extent? Face of the country? 
Soil? Climate? Inhabitants? 

Brazil. 

Page 199. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains ? Describe the course of the Amazon. 
What is said of the other rivers? The Plain? 
Its Animals? Climate? Vegetable Productions? 




QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


Minerals? Divisions? Describe Rio Janeiro. 

f ‘‘} !va< ? or * Wiiat are the other towns? 
vv hat is said of them ? Of commerce ? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Population? Character of the Brazilians ? 
Religion? Government? 

Guiana. 

Page 202. Divisions? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Plain? Forest? Climate? Rivers? 
Extent of Cayenne? Population? Towns? 
What is said of Surinam ? Population? Towns? 
Deinarara? Berbica? Population? 

♦ 

South America. 

Page203. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Plains? Rivers? Deserts? Islands? What of 
the Falkland Is. ? The islands of Terra del 
Fuego ? Staten land ? Antartic archipelago ? 
Other islands? Climate ? Vegetable productions? 
Minerals? Animals? The Jaguar? The Ocelot ? 
The Margay ? Tapir? Peccary? Llama? Paca? 
Vicugna? Sloth? Coati? Agouti? Chinchilla? 
Cavia ? Ant-eater? Armadillo? Porcupine? 
Monkeys? Sea-cows? Serpents? Electrical 
eel? Ostrich? Condor? King of the Vultures ? 
Great Eagle of Guiana ? Toucan? Inhabitants? 
The Pecherais ? Tehuelliets ? Araucanians? 
Puelches ? Abiponians? Peruvians? Caribs? 
Ottomacs ? 

Atlantic Ocean. 

Page 210. Situation? Extent? Depth? Cur¬ 
rents ? Vegetation ? Islands ? 

England. 

Page 211. Extent? Great Divisions? Boun¬ 
daries? Mountains? Valleys? Rivers? Lakes? 
Islands? Bays? Harbors? Shores? Capes? Cli¬ 
mate? Soil? Minerals? Quadrupeds? Birds? 
Reptiles? Fishes? Mineral Springs? Natural 
productions? Face of the country ? Divisions? 
Subdivisions? Canals? Railroads? What is said 
of the extent of London ? Population ? Divi¬ 
sions? Streets ? Walks ? Gardens? Public build¬ 
ings? Churches? Describe St. Paul’s. West¬ 
minster Abbey. The Monument. What is said 
of other works? Institutions? Places of Amuse¬ 
ment? Waterworks? Gasworks? Shipping? 
Food? Inhabitants? Environs? Neighboring 
villages? What is said of Liverpool ? Manches¬ 
ter? Bolton? Rochdale? Oldham? Ashton? 
Stockport? Birmingham? Wolverhampton? 
Leeds? Towns in the neighborhood of Leeds? 
Bristol ? Sheffield ? Newcastle ? Sunderland ? 
Hull? Norwich? Dover? Yarmouth? Ports¬ 
mouth? Spithead? Cowes ? Plymouth ? Exeter? 
Salisbury? Winchester? Canterbury? Bath? 
Gloucester? Cheltenham? Oxford? Cam¬ 
bridge? Nottingham? Leicester? Derbyshire? 
Warwick? Kenilworth? Leamington? Wor¬ 
cester? Kidderminster? Shrewsbury? Litch¬ 
field? Lincoln? York? Carlisle? Lancaster? 
Chester? Durham? Berwick? Welsh towns? 
Agriculture? Commerce? Manufactures? Popu¬ 
lation of England? Population of Wales? In¬ 
habitants? Building? Manners? Travelling? 
Character? Fine arts? Amusements? Domestic 
manners? Englishwomen? Welsh? Ranks? 
Religion? Education? Ruins? Stonehenge? 
Roman works? Old abbeys? Cathedrals? Cas¬ 
tles ? History ? 

Scotland. 

Page230. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers? Lakes? Islands? What is said of the 
Hebrides? The Orkneys? Shetland islands? 
Bays? Straits? Harbors? Climate? Soil? Min- 


513 

erals? Face of the country ? Divisions? Canals? 
a lie capitaj? Glasgow? Aberdeen? Dundee? 
Perth? Paisley? Invefness ? Stirling? Places 
of note near Stirling? What is said of other 
Scottish towns? Agriculture? Commerce? 
Manufactures? Fisheries? Population? In¬ 
habitants? Dress? Language? Character? Man¬ 
ners? Education? Religion? Government? 
Antiquities ? History ? 

Ireland. 

Page 237. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers? Lakes? Bays? Climate? Soil? Min¬ 
erals? Face of the country ? Natural curiosities ? 
Divisions? Canals? Describe the capital. 
What is said of Cork? Limerick? Belfast? 
Armagh ? Waterford ? Other towns ? Agricul¬ 
ture r Manufactures ? Commerce ? Government? 
Education ? Religion ? Population ? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Language? Absentees? Life of the 
lower order? Their character ? History? 

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland. 

Page 242. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Foreign possessions? Revenue? Expenditures? 
National debt? Army? Navy? Government? 

France. 

Page 244. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Describe the Seine. The Loire. The Garonne. 
The Rhone. What of other rivers ? Bays ? 
Gulfs? Islands? Coasts? Soil? Climate? 
Natural productions ? Minerals ? Mineral 
Springs? Animals? Divisions? Face of the 
country? Canals? Where is Paris situated? 
What population has it? What of its public 
places? Bridges? Water? Public buildings ? 
Institutions? Promenades? Monuments? 
Cemetries? Manufactures? Catacombs? In¬ 
teresting places near Paris ? Lyons ? St. 
Etienne? Grenoble? Marseilles? Toulon? 
Aix ? Ailes ? Avignon? Vaucuse? Montpelier? 
Nimes ? Bordeaux? Bayonne? Nantes? Rouen? 
Havre? Lille? Dunkirk? Calais? Bologne ? 
Arras? Cambray ? Amiens? Caen? Rennes? 
Cherbourg? Brest? Toulouse? Montauban ? 
Limoges? Clermont? Strasbourg? Besau^on ? 
Digin? Troyes? Rheims? Metz? Agriculture? 
Commerce? Manufactures? Colonies? Debt? 
Revenue? Army? Navy? Population? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Language? Ranks? Society? Charac¬ 
ter? The Cagots ? Architecture? Food? 
Travelling? Describe the French Diligence. 
What is said of the roads? Travelling in Gas¬ 
cony ? Amusements? Religion? Education? 
Government? Antiquities? History? 

Republic of Andorra. 

Page 259. Situation? Population? Extent? 
Capital ? Government ? 

Spain. 

Page 260. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Central Group? Northern Group? Rivers? Is¬ 
lands? Climate? Soil? Vegetable productions? 
Minerals? Animals? Face of the country? 
Divisions? Canals? Describe the capital. The 
Escurial. Seville. Barcelona. What of the 
towns in the vicinity of Barcelona? Valencia? 
Places in the Captain-generalship of Valencia? 
Granada? Malaga? Cordova? Ecija? Taen ? 
Cadiz? Places in the vicinity of Cadiz? Sara¬ 
gossa? Santiago? Corunna? Valladolid? 
Other noted towns? Gibraltar? Agriculture? 







514 


QUESTIONS FOR 


EXAMINATION. 


Commerce? Manufactures? Government? 
Revenue? Army? Navy? Colonies? Religion? 
Inquisition? Education? Population? Inhabi¬ 
tants ? Language ? Character of the Spaniards ? 
Amusements? Travelling? Food? Costume? 
History ? 

Portugal. 

Page 270. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers? Climate? Soil? Minerals? Face of the 
country? What is said of Lisbon? Coimbra? 
Oporto? Setubal? Braga? Other towns? Agri 
culture? Commerce? Manufactures? Religion? 
Education? Colonies? Government? Inhabi¬ 
tants ? Amount of population ? History ? 

Naples or the Two Sicilies. 

Page273. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? Islands? What 
is said of Vesuvius? Etna? Climate? Soil r 
Minerals ? Divisions ? Naples ? Its beauty ? 
Public buildings ? Population ? Environs ? 
Mount Pausilippo? Grotto del Cane? Pozzu- 
oli ? Acheron? Avernus ? Monte Nuovo ? 
Baioe ? Terra del Greco ? Other towns ? Agri¬ 
culture? Commerce? Manufactures? Govern¬ 
ment? Religion? Education? vHistory ? 

States of the Church or Papal Dominions. 

Page 277. Boundaries? Extent? Districts? 
Face of the Country ? Describe the Tiber. The 
Po. What of the lakes? Climate? Falls? 
Divisions ? Where is Rome situated ? What of 
the population ? Streets? Palaces? Churches? 
Literary Institutions ? Monuments? Bologna? 
Ferrara? Ravenna? Rimini? Ancona? Pe- 
rujia? CivitaVecchia? Other towns? Indus¬ 
try? Government? Revenue? Debt? 

Republic of San Marino. 

Page 280. Situation? Extent? Population? 
Productions? San Marino? Government? 

Tuscany. 

Page 281. Boundaries? Extent? Divisions? 
Rivers? What is said of Elba? Climate? Soil? 
Face of the country? Florence? Leghorn? Pisa? 
Sienna? Pistoia? Commerce? Manufactures? 
Government? Revenue? Army? Population? 
Religion ? Education ? History ? 

Duchy of Lucca. 

Page 283. Situation ? Boundaries ? Extent ? 
Population? Government? Agriculture? Vege¬ 
table Productions ? Describe the Capital. 

Duchy of Modena. 

Page283. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Soil? Government? Capital? Other towns? 

Duchy of Parma. 

Page283. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Face of the country? Describe the Capital. Wliat 
is said of Piacenza ? 

Austrian Italy or Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. 
Page284. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Describe the Po. What of other rivers ? Lakes? 
Climate? Face of the country ? Capital? Bres¬ 
cia? Bergamo? Cremona? Lodi? Mantua? 
Pavia? Venice? Verona? Padua? Vicenza? 
Agriculture? Commerce? Religion? Govern¬ 
ment? Education? History? 

% 

Principality of Monaco. 

Page287. Situation? Government? Extent? 


Population ? What is said of the Capital? Chi 
town ? 

Kingdom of Sardinia. 

Page 287. Divisions? Boundaries? Extent? 
Mountains? Rivers? Climate? Soil? What 
is said of the Capital ? Genoa ? Other tovvns ? 
Industry? Exports? Religion? Education. 
Government? Population? Revenue? Debt. 
Army? Navy? 

General View of Italy. 

Page289. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Islands? Seas? Canals? 
Roads? Inhabitants? Nobility? Language? 
Costume? Food? Building? Travelling? 
Character? Manners? Savoyards? Lombards? 
Tuscans? Romans? Neapolitans? Lazzaroni? 
Religions? Customs? Amusements? What is 
said of the Carnivals ? Races on the Corso ? 

Switzerland. 

Page 294. Boundaries? Extent? Mountains? 
Rivers? Lakes? Climate? Soil? Animals? 
Cataracts ? Face of the Country ? Divisions ? 
Canals ? Roads ? What is said of the Capitals? 
Geneva? Berne? Hofwyl ? Morat? Bale? 
Zurich? Lausanne? St. Gall? Friburg? Ag¬ 
riculture? Manufactures? Trade? Religion? 
Education ? Government ? Army ? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Language? Character of the Swiss? 
Travelling ? Costume ? The Chace ? History ? 

Baden. 

Page 300. Boundaries ? Size ? Population ? 
Face of the Country? Rivers? Industry? Re¬ 
ligion? Government? Divisions? What is 
said of the Capital ? Other towns ? 

Wurtemberg or Wirtemberg. 

Page 301. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Face of the country ? Rivers? Soil? Produc¬ 
tions? Climate? Industry? Religion? Edu¬ 
cation? Government? Divisions? WHiat is 
said of the Capital ? Ulm? Reutlingen? Tu¬ 
bingen ? 

Bavaria. 

Page 302. Boundaries ? Population ? Sur¬ 
face ? Rivers? Industry? Divisions? What 
is said of the Capital ? Nuremberg? Augsburg? 
Blenheim? Ratisbon? Wairzburg? Baireuth ? 
Furth ? Anspach ? Passau ? Spire? Deux- 
Ponts? Education? Religion? Government? 

Saxony. 

Page 303. Boundaries? Population? Sur¬ 
face? Rivers? Sheep breeding? Mines? Book- 
trade? Manufactures? Fisheries? Religion? 
Education? Government? Divisions? Describe 
the capital. What is said of Leipsic? Freyberg? 
Chemnitz ? 

Hanover. 

Page 305. Boundaries? Population? Moun¬ 
tains? Minerals? The Brocken? Surface? 
Soil? Rivers? Agriculture? Mining? Trade? 
Religion? Education? Government? Divi¬ 
sions ? What is said of Hanover? Goettingen? 
Other towns ? 

Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg or Mecklemburg. 

Page 306. Boundaries? Government? Re¬ 
ligion? What is the extent of Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin ? Population? Towns? Extent of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz ? Population? Capital? 











QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


515 


Grand Duchy of Oldenburg. 

Page 307. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Surface ? Towns ? 

Saxon Duchies. 

Page 307. Boundaries? Religion? Forms of 
Government? What are the divisions of Saxe- 
Weiinar? Population? Capital? Chief towns? 
what of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ? Extent? Popu¬ 
lation? Towns? Extent of Saxe-Altenburg ? 
Population ? Capital ? Extent of Saxe-Meinin- 
gen ? Population ? Capital ? 

Duchy of Brunswick. 

Page 308. Divisions? Population? Cities? 
Religion? Government? Industry? 

Hessian States. 

Page 308. Boundaries ? Religion ? Govern¬ 
ment ? What is the extent of Hesse-Cassel ? 
Population ? What of the capital ? Chief 
towns? Extent of Hesse-Darmstadt ? Popula¬ 
tion? Towns? Divisions of Hesse-Homberg? 
Extent ? Population ? Capital ? 

Duchy of JVassau. 

Page 300. Situation? Government? Reli¬ 
gion? Extent? Population? Capital? Chief 
towns ? 

Principality of Waldeck. 

Page 309. Extent? Population? Situation? 
Religion? Government? Capital? Chief towns? 

The Anhalt Duchies. 

Page 310. Boundaries? Religion? Govern¬ 
ments ? What is the extent of Anhalt-Dessau ? 
Population? Capital? Extent of Anhalt-Bern- 
burg? Population? Capital? Extent of An- 
halt-Caethen ? Population ? Capital ? 

Schwartzburg Principalities. 

Page 310. Boundaries? Religion? What is 
the extent of Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt ? Popu¬ 
lation? Government? Capital? Extent of 
Schwartzburg-Sondershausen ? Population ? 
Government ? Capital ? 

The Reuss Principalities. 

Page 310. Boundaries? Religion? Govern¬ 
ment ? What is said of the extent of Reuss- 
Greitz ? Population? Capital? Extent of Reuss- 
Schleitz? Population? Capital? Gera? 

The Lippe Principalities. 

Page 311. Boundaries? Government? Re¬ 
ligion? Population ofLippe-Detmold? Extent? 
Capital ? Principal town ? Extent of Schauen- 
burg Lippe ? Population ? Capital ? 

The Principality of Lichtenstein. 

Page 311. Extent? Population? Religion? 
Situation ? Capital ? 

The Holienzollcm Principalities. 

Page 311. Boundaries? Religion? Extent 
of Hohenzollern-Hechingen ? Population ? 
Capital ? Extent of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ? 
Population ? Chief town ? Capital ? 

Lordship of Kniphauscn. 

Page 311. Size? Population? Situation? 
Capital ? 


The Republic or Free City of Bremen. 

Page 311. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
What is said of the commerce of the city ? Gov¬ 
ernment ? Population of the city ? 

The Free City of Hamburg. 

Page 312. Boundaries? Extent? Govern¬ 
ment? Describe the city. What is its popula¬ 
tion? What is said of Cuxhaven? 

The Republic of Lubeck. 

Page 312. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Government? What is said of the city? The 
Hanseatic League ? 

The Republic of Frankfort. 

Page 313. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Government? What is said of the city ? 

Austrian, Prussian, Netherlandish, and Danish 
Germany. 

Page 313. Extent of Danish Germany ? Popu¬ 
lation ? What are the provinces of Prussian 
Germany ? Extent ? Population ? German 
States of Austria? Extent? Population? Popu¬ 
lation of Luxexburg ? To whom does it belong ? 

General View of Germany. 

Page 313. Boundaries? Extent ? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Climate? Soil? Reli¬ 
gion? Government? Army? Inhabitants? 
Language? Character? Personal appearance? 
Character of the Southern Germans ? Tyrolese, 
Stirians, and Corinthians? Austrians? Bava¬ 
rians? Saxons? Hessians? Costumes? Edu¬ 
cation ? Amusements ? 

The Empire of Austria. 

Page 317. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? Climate? Soil? 
Minerals? Geographical divisions? Political 
divisions? Canals? Railroads? Describe the 
capital. What is said of Neustadt? Lintz ? 
Steyer ? Saltzburg ? Grcetz ? Innspruck ? 
Bolzano? Trent? Roveredo? Trieste? Lay- 
back ? Aquileia ? Idria ? Clagenfurth ? Ro- 
vigno? Pola? Prague? Reichenberg ? Bud- 
weis? Joachimsthall ? Pilsen ? Carlsbad, 
Tceplitz, and Seidlitz? Brunn? Spielberg? 
Austerlitz? Olrniitz? Lemberg? Bochnia ? 
Brody? Wieliczka? Buda? Perth? Pres- 
burg? Debretzin ? Other towns ? Agriculture? 
Manufactures? Commerce? Religion? Edu¬ 
cation? Government? Inhabitants? Revenue? 
Debt ? Army ? Mines ? History ? 

i 

Kingdom of Prussia. 

Page 324. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Coasts? Bays? Islands? 
Climate? Minerals? Divisions? Canals? 
What is said of Berlin ? Potsdam? Frankfort? 
Stettin? Stralsand ? Breslau? Kcenigsburg? 
Posen 1 ? Dantzic? Elbing? Thorn? Tilsit? 
Magdeburg? Halle? Haiberstadt ? Munster? 
Erfurt? Cologne? Dusseldorf? Elberfeld ? 
Barmen? Bonn? Aix-Ia-Chapelle ? Treves? 
Crefield ? Wesel ? Saarlonis? Xanten ? Ag¬ 
riculture? Manufactures? Commerce? Re¬ 
ligion? Education? Government? Revenue? 
Debt? Army? Inhabitants? History? 

The Kingdom of the Netherlands. 

Page 329. Boundaries? Area? Population? 





516 


QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


Rivers? Seas? Lakes? Islands? Shores? 
Dikes? Climate? Soil? Face of the country ? 
Divisions? Canals? What is said of Hague? 
Amsterdam? Rotterdam? Harlem? Leyden? 
Utrecht? Groningen? Zemvorden ? Bois-le- 
Duc? Dort? Delft? Middleburg? Flushing? 
Breda? Schiedam? Nimeguen ? Texel? 
Luxemburg? Agriculture? Manufactures? 
Commerce? Religion? Education? Govern¬ 
ment? Colonies? Inhabitants? Character? 
Condition? Mode of life? Travelling? His¬ 
tory ? 

Kingdom of Belgium. 

Page 333. Boundaries? Area? Population? 
Face of the country ? Soil? Climate? Rivers? 
Canals ? Divisions ? What is said of Brussels ? 
Antwerp? Ghent? Bruges? Ostend ? Liege? 
Tournay? Mons? Louvain? Namur? Ma- 
lines? Ypres? Courtray ? Waterloo? Maes- 
tricht? Agriculture? Commerce? Manufac¬ 
tures? Religion? Education? Government? 
Inhabitants ? History ? 

Denmark. 

Page 336. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Rivers? Lakes? Islands? Bays? Straits? 
The Sound? Climate? Soil? Surface? Di¬ 
visions? Canals? What is said of Copenha¬ 
gen? Elsinore? Altona? Flensborg? Hes- 
wick ? Kiel ? Lauenburg ? Aalberg? Aarhuus? 
Colonies? Industry? Religion? Education? 
Government? Inhabitants? Language? Per¬ 
sonal appearance ? Condition? History? 

Swedish Monarchy. 

Page 338. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? Islands? Capes? 
Climate? Soil? Animals? Vegetables? Min¬ 
erals? Divisions? Canals? What is said of 
the capital? Upsala? Gottenburg? Cal mar ? 
Carlscrona? Novekoping? Lund? Wisby? 
Gefle ? Christiania? Bergen? Drontheim ? 
Christiansand ? Wardhuus ? St. Bartholomew ? 
Agriculture? Manufactures? Commerce? Re¬ 
ligion? Education? Government? Inhabitants? 
Describe the Swedes and Norwegians. The 
Laplanders and Finns. What is the History of 
Sweden ? 

Republic of Cracow. 

Page 343. Boundaries? Population? Govern¬ 
ment ? Capital ? 

Russia in Europe. 

Page 343. Boundaries? Extent? Total 
Population? Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? 
Seas? Gulfs? Islands? Climate? Surface? 
Soil? Minerals? Divisions? Canals? Des¬ 
cribe St. Petersburg. What is said of Moscow ? 
Riga? Dorpat ? Helsingfors? Abo? Tula? 
Kaluga? Orel? Garoslav? Archangel? lver ? 
Smolensk? Nishni Novogorod ? Kiev? Odes¬ 
sa? Cherson ? Bender? Ismail? Akerman? 
Nikolaiev? New Tcherkask ? Wilna? Mohi- 
leo ? Witepsk ? Minsk? Kazan? Saratov? 
Astrachan ? Ekaterinburg? Uralsk? Kursk? 
Vologda? Voronege? Riazan ? Charkov? 
Paltava? Warsaw? Lublin? Kalisc? Agri¬ 
culture? Manufactures? Commerce? Fishe¬ 
ries? Religion? Education? Government? 
Army? Navy? Inhabitants? Manners and 
Customs ? Russian nobles ? Peasants ? Cos¬ 
sacks? Costume? Poles? Calmucs? Sa- 
moides? Possessions? History? 


Principality of Moldavia. 

Page 354. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Towns? Inhabitants? Government? 

Principality of Wallachia. 

Page354. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Towns ? 

Principality of Servia. 

Page 355. Boundaries? Area? Population? 
Government? Towns? Inhabitants? 

Turkish or Ottoman Empire. 

Page 355. Boundaries? Extent? Area? 
Population? Mountains? Rivers? Seas? 
Gulfs? Climate? Soil? Natural productions ? 
Minerals? Face of the country? Divisions? 
What is the situation of Constantinople? Cir¬ 
cuit? Walls? Appearance of the City? Se¬ 
raglio of the Sultan ? Public places? What is 
said of Adrianople? Rumelia? Philippopoli? 
Gallipoli? Selimnia ? Sestos :tnd Abydos? 
Salonica? Mount Athos? Seres? Larissa? 
Sophia? Chief places of Bulgaria? Yanina? 
Suli? Arta? Prevesa? Scutari? Cettina ? 
Bosna-Serai? Agriculture? Commerce? Manu¬ 
factures? Education? Religion? Govern¬ 
ment? Inhabitants? Character and Manners? 
Army? Navy? History? 

Hellas or Greece. 

Page 362. Boundaries? Extent? Popula¬ 
tion? Mountains? Rivers? Bays? Straits? 
Capes? Islands? Climate? Soil? Divisions? 
Productions ? Industry? What is said of Athens? 
Lepsina? Marathon? Megaris? Livadia? 
Salona ? Castri ? Lepanto ? Missolonghi ? 
Anatolico? Nauplia? Neighboring ruins? 
Tripolitza? Ruins? Mi sir a ? Monembasia? 
Motion ? Navarino ? Calamata ? Olympia ? 
Coron ? Pyrgos ? Patras ? Calaorita Corinth ? 
Negropont? Syra? Naxja ? Hydra? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Government? History? 

Ionian Republic and Malta. 

Page 366. Extent? Population? Govern¬ 
ment? Divisions? What is said of Corfu? 
Cephalonia? Ithaca? Zante? Cerigo? Santa 
Maura? Productions? Situation of Malta? 
Size? Productions? Population? Inhabitants? 
Language? Religion? Capital? Gozzo? His¬ 
tory ? 

General View of Europe. 

Page 367. Boundaries ? Extent ? Population ? 
Seas? Gulfs? Mountains? Capes? Penin¬ 
sulas? Islands? Rivers? Face of the country ? 
Climate? Minerals? What of the wild bull? 
Moufflon? Ibex? Chamois? Elk? Reindeer? 
Stag? Fallow-deer? Roe buck? Wild boar? 
Lynx? Wildcat? Weasel? Jevat? Marten? 
Sable? Pole-cat? Genet? Badger? Glutton? 
Bear? Fox? Wolf? Jackall ? Hare? Rabbit? 
Squirrels? Marmots? Hamster? Souslik? Rats? 
Beaver? Hedgehog? Otter? Birds? Falcon? 
Lammergeyer ? Other birds ? Reptiles and in¬ 
sects ? Inhabitants? Religion? Classes of So¬ 
ciety ? Industry ? Commerce ? Political divi¬ 
sions ? 

Asiatic Russia. 

Page376. Boundaries? Extent? Total Popu¬ 
lation ? Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? Steppes? 
Minerals? Climate? Soil? Divisions? What is 
said of Tiflis ? Erwan ? Chimaki ? Tobolsk ? 
Irkoutsk? Kiakta ? Yakoutsk ? Kolyvan ? 





QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


517 


Tomsk? Okotsk? Petropolosk ? Industry? 
Inhabitants? Religion? Character? Manners? 

Ottoman Asia or Turkey in Asia. 

Page 379. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? Islands? Des¬ 
cribe Cyprus. What of the climate ? Minerals ? 
Animals ? Divisions ? What is said of Bagdad ? 
Bassora? Mosul? Diarbekir? Orfa? Ruins on 
the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris? Erze- 
rum ? Van? Kutaieh? Broussa? Isnik? Smyr¬ 
na? Scutari? Manissa? Scalanova? Guzel 
Hissar? Ivonieh? Tocat? Kaisarieh ? Trebi- 
sond ? Boli? Angora? Tarsus? Industry? Re¬ 
ligion ? Inhabitants ? 

Syria or Egyptian Asia. 

Page 384. Boundaries? Extent? Inhabitants? 
Mountains? Rivers? Lakes? Divisions? What 
is said of Aleppo ? Hamah? Antakieh? Scan- 
deroon ? Tripoli? Acre? Tyre and Sidon ? 
Jaffa ? Damascus? Jerusalem? Mount of 
Olives? Gethsemane? Bethany? Valley of 
Jehosaphat ? Bethlehem? Nazareth? Cana? 
Mount Tabor? Capernaum? Tadmor? Balbec? 
Industry? Inhabitants? Religion? 

Arabia . 

Page 386. Boundaries ? Extent ? Population ? 
Divisions? Mountains? Deserts? Climate? 
Soil? Productions? What is said of Mecca? 
Jidda? Medina? Akaba ? Mount Horeb ? 
Mount Sinai? Yemen? Sana? Muscat? Wa- 
habites ? Religion? Government? Inhabitants? 
Exports? Character of the Arabs? Manners? 
Mode of Travelling? 

Persia or Iran. 

Page 389. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Surface? Productions? Industry? Divisions? 
What is said of Teheran ? Ispahan ? Cashan ? 
Toom ? Hamadan ? Casvveen ? Ecbatana ? 
Balfronc? Asterahad ? Sari? Recht? Tauris? 
Ardebil ? Kermanshaw? Shusta? Susa? Yezd? 
Shiraz? Busheer? Persepolis? Chilminar? 
Meshed? TonibofAli? Inhabitants? Govern¬ 
ment? Religion? History? 

Cabul or Afghanistan. 

Page 392. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains ? Rivers ? Productions? Divisions? 
What is said of the Capital ? Ghizneh ? Can- 
dahar? Legistan ? Inhabitants? Government? 
Religion? Language? Education? Costume? 
Dwellings ? 

Herat. 

Page 393. Boundaries? Population? Face of 
the country? What is said of the Capital? 
Bamian ? 

Beloochistan. 

Page 394. Boundaries? Population? Faceof 
the country? Rivers? Divisions? Towns? 

Turkistan or Independent Tartary. 

Page 391. Boundaries? Surface? Soil? 
Rivers? Lakes? Divisions? What is the ex¬ 
tent of Bucharia? Population? Inhabitants? 
What is said of Buchara ? Samarcand ? Nak- 
eheb? Bucharians? Usbecks? What is the ex¬ 
tent of Khiva? Population? People? Capital. 
What is the extent of Khokand ? Population ? 
Capital? Describe Balk. What of other 
Khanats ? In habitants ? 

India or Ilindostan. 

Page 396. Boundaries? Area? Population? 


Mountains ? Describe the Ganges. What other 
rivers? What is said of the surface? Climate? 
Natural productions ? Animals? Minerals? Isl¬ 
ands ? Divisions ? Extent of British India ? Popu¬ 
lation? Government? Allied States? What is said 
of Calcutta? Dacca? Mooshedabad ? Benares? 
Allahabad? Agra? Delhi? Hurdwar? Jug¬ 
gernaut? Madras? Ruins of Mahabalipurami 5 
Trichinopoly ? Tanjore? Masulipatam ? Se¬ 
ri ngapatain ? Bombay? Ilurpleat? Elephanta? 
I’oonah ? Surat ? Ahmedabad ? Bisnagar ? 
Lucknon ? Hyderabad? Golconda? Ellora ? 
Aurungbad? Nagpore? Baroda? Rajpootana? 
Situation of Sindia? Size? Population? 
Towns?. Confederation of the Seiks ? Lahore? 
Amretsir? Cashmere? Situation of Nepaul? 
Population? Capital? Situation of Sinde? 
Population? Capital ? Portuguese India ? French 
India? Danish India? Agriculture? Manufac¬ 
tures? Commerce? Religion? Inhabitants? 
Castes? Outcasts? Pariah’s? Brahminisin? 
Metempsycbos ? Rites? Faheers ? Cruel cus¬ 
toms ? Character of the Hindoos ? Life? Per¬ 
sonal features ? Travelling? Food? 

Farther India or India beyond the Ganges. 
Page 407. Boundaries ? Extent ? Natural 
features? Divisions? Boundaries of the Birman 
Empire ? Population ? What is said of the capi¬ 
tal? The former capital? Saigaing? Pegu? 
Rangoon? Inhabitants? Boundaries of Siam ? 
Population? Cities? Boundaries of Annam ? 
Area? Population? Hue? Hesho? Capital of 
Cambodia? Government? Inhabitants? Eng¬ 
lish territories ? Arracan ? Amherstown? Sin- 
capore? Georgetown? Andaman islands? 
Nicobar islands? Religion? 

Chinese Empire. 

Page 409. Boundaries? Area? Total popu¬ 
lation ? Mountains? Rivers? Surface? Di¬ 
visions? Climate? Natural productions ? Ca¬ 
nals? What is said of Pekin? Nanking? Can¬ 
ton? Singan? Hangchin ? Soucho? Names 
of Chinese towns? Lassa? Tigagungar? Yar¬ 
kand? Cashgar? Goulja? Macao? Agriculture? 
Manufactures? Commerce? Religion ? Temples? 
Ceremonies? Priests? Government? Laws? 
Classes? Government of Tibet and Bootan ? Of 
the Mongols, Calmucs, and Kirghises? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Person? Dress? Food? Manners and 
Customs? Literature? Arts? Chinese wall? 
Garden near Pekin ? History ? 

Empire of Japan. 

Page 418. Extent? Area? Population? Is¬ 
lands? Climate? Productions? What is said 
of the capital? Kio? Nangasaki? Government? 
Manufactures? Commerce? Religion? In¬ 
habitants? Women? Arts and Sciences ? 

General View of Asia. 

Page 419. Boundaries? Area? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Seas? Straits ? Peninsulas? 
Islands? Climate? Vegetable productions ? 
Minerals? What is said of the Lion ? Tiger? 
Hunting Leopard ? Panther? Lynx ? ^Caracal ? 
One-horned Rhinoceros? Elephant? Camel? 
Deers and Antelopes? TheYaK? Bnftaloes? 
Indian Oxen? Other animals ? Sheep? Goats? 
The Horse? The Zebra ? Wild Ass ? Birds? 
Inhabitants? Religion? 

Egypt. 

Page 493. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Rivers? Surface? Climate? Lakes? Canals? 
What is said of Cairo ? Ghizeh ? Memphis ? 








518 


QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 


Alexandria? Rosetta? Damietta ? Suez ? Surah? 
Ruins? Medinet el Fayoum ? Beni Hassan ? 
Siout ? Denderah ? Ruins of Thebes ? Esne ? 
Other towns? Industry? Inhabitants? Govern¬ 
ment? History? 

Nubia. 

Page 428. Boundaries? Extent? Face of the 
country ? What is said of Sennaar ? Shendy ? 
TheSheygyas? Dongola? Herr? Ebsamboul ? 
Suakim? Inhabitants? 

Abyssinia. 

Page 429. Boundaries? Extent? Area? Rivers? 
Lake? Surface? Divisions? What is the area 
ofTigre? Population? Towns? What is said of 
Gondar? Ankobar? Amhara ? Inhabitants? 
Arts? Religion? Negroes? Gallas? 

Maghret or Barbary. 

Page 430. Boundaries ? Divisions? Surface? 
Climate? Productions? What is said of Tripoli? 
The Capital ? Derne ? Oases? Fezzan? JMoor- 
zouk? Gadames? Boundaries of Tunis ? Area? 
Population? River? Capital? Carthage? Other 
towns? What is said of Algiers ? Capital? Chief 
towns? Situation of Morocco ? Area ? Popula¬ 
tion? Capital? Fez? Mequinez ? Mogadore? 
Sallee? Tangier? Commerce? Manufactures? 
Situation of Biledulgerid ? Soil? Climate? In¬ 
habitants? Commerce? Government? Reli¬ 
gion? Character and Manners? Dress? Educa¬ 
tion ? Arabs ? Berbers ? 

Sahara or Or cat Desert. 

Page 435. Extent ? Area ? Face of the desert? 
Soil? Rain? Vegetation? Animals? Oases? 
Travelling? Inhabitants? 

JYigritia, Sudan, or Land of the Blaclis. 

Page 436. Boundaries? Extent? Area? Riv¬ 
ers? Lakes? Climate? Productions? Industry? 
What is said of Upper Bambarra ? Lower Bam- 
barra? Timbuctoo? Bourgo ? Chief town? 
Yarriba? Capital? Situation of the Fellatah 
kingdom? Kano? Cashna? Soccatoo ? Zaria? 
Extent of the Fellatah kingdom ? Population ? 
What is said of Bornou ? Population? Trade? 
Manufactures? Towns? Darfoor Kordofan ? 
Donga? Land of the Shillooks? Inhabitants? 
Bournouese? Fellatahs? 

Senegambia. 

Page 440. Boundaries? Area? Rivers? Di¬ 
visions? Jalofs? Mandingoes? Foulahs? Euro¬ 
pean factories ? 

Guinea. 

Page 441. Boundaries? Rivers? Extent of 
the Ashantee empire? Population? What is 
said of Coomassie? Inhabitants? Manners and 
Customs? Situation of Dahomey? Capital? 
Customs? What is said of Benin? Loango? 
Congo? Insects? Angola? Benguela? Colonies? 
Sierra Leone ? Liberia ? 

Southern Africa. 

Page 443. Boundaries? Surface? Rivers? 
Divisions? Hottentots? Manners and Customs? 
Bushmen ? Extent of the colony of the Cape of 
Good Hope? Population? Capetown? Caffraria? 
Caffres ? Towns ? 

Eastern Africa. 

Page 445. Situation? Extent? Portuguese 
possessions? Monomotapa ? Zaguebar? What 
is said of Ajan ? Adel ? Natives ? Chief towns ? 


African Islands. 

Page 446. What is said of Socotra? Situation 
of Madagascar ? Size? Mountains? Produc¬ 
tions? Face of the country ? Climate? Inhabi- 
iants? History? Comoro Isles? Extent of 
Mauritius? Face of the country? Exports? 
Population? Capital? Situation of Bourbon? 
Climate? Volcano? Hurricanes? Roads? Pro¬ 
ductions? Population? Kerguelan’s Land? St. 
Helena? Ascension ? What is said of the Cape 
Verd Islands? Canaries? Teneriffe ? Santa 
Cruz? Batava? Canaria? Palmas? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Extent of the Madeiras? Face of the 
country? Population? Wine? Capital? 

General View of Africa. 

Page 448. Boundaries? Extent? Population? 
Mountains? Rivers? Capes? Climate? Min¬ 
erals? Vegetable productions? Monkeys? Lion? 
Leopard ? Panther? Tiger cat? Hyena? Ele¬ 
phant? Hippopotamus? Rhinoceros? Congallo? 
Zebra? Antelopes? Giraffe? Ostrich? Secreta¬ 
ry-vulture? Serpents? Insects? Inhabitants? 

Malaysia or Indian Archipelago. 

Page 452. Extent? Principal islands? Extent 
of Sumatra? Mountains? Inhabitants? What 
is said of Acheen ? Siak ? Banca? Java? Bata¬ 
via ? Other towns ? Timor ? Extent of Borneo ? 
Population? Situation? Settlements? Town of 
Borneo? What is said of Celebes? Spice Is¬ 
lands ? Philippines ? Manilla? Mindanao ? Cli¬ 
mate ? Productions? Minerals? Animals? In¬ 
habitants ? 

Australia. 

Page 455. Extent? What is the extent of 
New Holland ? Mountains? Rivers? Colonies? 
Extent of New South Wales? Divisions? Prin¬ 
cipal product? Fisheries? Capital? Principal 
towns ? Climate ? Soil? Natives? Situation of 
Van Diemen’s Land ? Extent? Surface? Popu¬ 
lation? Capital? Derwent? Other islands? In¬ 
habitants? Animals? 

Polynesia. 

Page 457. Extent? What is said of the La- 
drone islands? Carolinas? What are the Sand¬ 
wich islands? Area? Extent? Mountains? 
Climate? Soil? Inhabitants ? Civilization ? Pro¬ 
ductions? Royal residence ? Georgian islands? 
Nukahiva? Society islands ? Inhabitants? Ota- 
lieite ? Eimeo? Navigator’s islands ? Friendly 
islands? Extent of New Zealand ? Inhabitants? 
Climate? Soil? Northwestern islands ? General 
character of the Polynesians ? Dress ? Manners 
and Customs? Arms? The taboo? Climate? 
Productions ? 

General Views of Oceanica.' 

Page 461. Extent? Land-area? Population? 
Coral islands? Formation of Coral ? 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

General Principles. 

Page 465. Figure of the earth ? Geographical 
knowledge of the Ancients? Ancient divisions 
of the earth ? The Ancients ? 

Asia. 

Page 466. Divisions ? Boundaries ? Arabian 
Sea ? 

Asia Minor or Lesser Asia. 

Page 466. Divisions? Boundaries of Mysia? 
Inhabitants? Rivers? Islands? Troy? Other 
cities? Inhabitants of Lydia ? Islands? Rivers? 
What is said of Ionia? Its Inhabitants? Cele¬ 
brated places ? What of Caria? Islands? Do- 





QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 


519 


rian confederacy ? Where was Phrygia situated ? 
What is said of its rivers? Towns? Lycaonia ? 
What of Bithynia ? Cities? What of Paphlago- 
nia? Galatia? Cities? Pontus? Minerals? Riv¬ 
ers? Cities? Cappadocia? Inhabitants? River? 
Mountains? Towns? Divisions of Cilicia? 
Streams ? Cities ? What of Pisidia and Pamphv- 
lia ? Lycia ? 

Syria. 

Page 469. Boundaries? Divisions? What is 
the principal river of Syria Proper ? Mountain ? 
Principal places? Mountains of the Southern 
part? Celebrated places ? Extent of Phoenicia ? 
Inhabitants? Cities? Names of Palestine ? Des¬ 
cribe the Jordan ? What of the Mountains ? Di¬ 
visions? Remarkable cities and places? 

Asiatic Sarmatia. 

Page 471. Situation? Inhabitants? Rivers? 
Colonies ? Chief places ? 

Scythia. 

Page 471. Extent? Tribes? 

Colchis. 

Page 472. Divisions? What is said of Colchis 
Proper? Iberia? Albania? 


Armenia. 

Page 472. Situation? History? Rivers? 
Mountains ? Towns ? 


Page 472. 
places ? 


Mesopotamia. 

Boundaries? Divisions? Celebrated 
Arabia. 


Page 473. Boundaries? Divisions? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Who dwelt in Arabia Petrtea ? Wiiat 
celebrated places did it contain ? What of Ara¬ 
bia Deserta? Inhabitants of Arabia Felix ? Prin¬ 
cipal places ? 

Assyria. 

Page 473. Extent ? What is said of Nineveh ? 
Other places ? 

Babylonia. 

Page 474. Extent? Rivers? Cities? What 
is said of Babylon ? 

Media. 

Page 474. Boundaries? Lake? Mountain? 
River? Chief places? 


Susiaha. 


Sogdiana. 

Page 476. Situation? Inhabitants? What is 
said of the Oxus ? Principal places ? 

Chorasmia, <$'c. 

Page 477. Where was it situated ? Its In¬ 
habitants ? 

Bactriana. 

Page 477. Situation? History? Principal 
places ? 

India. 

Page 477. Ancient knowledge regarding In¬ 
dia ? Rivers ? Deccan ? Celebrated places ? 

Africa. 

Page 477. Inhabitants? Divisions? 

Mauritania. 

Page 478. Extent? Mountains? Divisions? 
Principal places? Islands? What of Mauritania 
Carsariensis ? 

Numidia. 

Page 478. Situation? Inhabitants? Rivers? 
Important places ? 


Africa Proper. 

Page 478. Situation? Divisions? Gulfs? 
Lake? River? What is said of Carthage ? Uti« 
ca ? Zaina? Capsa? Thapsus? lladrumetum? 
Leptis Magna? 

Libya. 

Page 479. Divisions ? What is said of Mari¬ 
time Libya? Cyreniaca? Augila? The Nasa- 
mones? Marmarica? Inland Lybia? Inhabi¬ 
tants ? Capes ? 

Egypt. 

Page 479. Extent? The Nile? Divisions? 
Extent of Lower Egypt ? What is said of Alex¬ 
andria? Lake Mareotis ? Pharos? Canopus? 
Bolbitine? Sais? Nitria? Tunis? Pelusium? 
Arsinoe? Heliopolis? Extent of Heptanonris or 
Central Egypt? What of lake Moeris? Remark¬ 
able cities? Extent of Upper Egypt? Com¬ 
merce? Minerals? Celebrated places? 

JEthiopia. 

Page 481. Extent? Inhabitants? Principal 
places ? 

Europa or Europe. 

Page 481. With what parts of Europe were 
the ancients acquainted? How did they bound it? 


Page 475. Boundaries? River? Susa? 


Persis or Persia. 

Page 475. Extent ? Boundaries ? Rivers ? Re¬ 
markable towns ? 

Carmania. 

Page 475. Boundaries ? Islands ? Capital ? 
Chief places ? 

Gedrosia. 

Page 475. Situation ? Face of the country ? 
Inhabitants? Chief places? 

Hyrcania. 

Page 476. Situation? Principal rivers? Di¬ 
visions ? 

Aria. 

Page 476. Situation? Mountains? Towns? 


Page 476. 
towns ? 

Page 476. 


Drangiana. 

Situation? River? Lake? Chief 

Arachosia. 

Situation ? 


Greecia or Greece. ' 

Page 481. Extent? Name? Sea? Coast? 
Gulfs? Divisions? Inhabitants? What is said 
ofThenaly? Principal river? Mountains? Di¬ 
visions and chief towns? Extent of Epirus? 
Mountains? Islands? River? Chief town? 
Dodma? Situation of Acarnania? Islands ? Cele¬ 
brated places ? What of Altolia ? Principal rivers? 
Early inhabitants ? Chief places? Divisions of 
Locris ? Inhabitants? Principal towns ? Doris? 
Situation of Phocis? Principal river? Mountain? 
Celebrated places? Surface of Bceotia? Soil? 
Climate? Inhabitants? Rivers? Mountains? 
Chief towns? Megaris ? Attica? Mountains? 
Rivers? Islands? Athens? Ollier places ? Eu¬ 
boea? Corinth? Sicyon ? Schaia? Elis? River? 
Islands? Chief places? Situation of Arcadia? 
Surface? Inhabitants? Mountains? Rivers? 
Principal towns? Argolis? Islands? Celebrated 
places? Laconia? Cythera? Sparta? Messenia? 
The Cyclades? Sporades ? Crete? 

Grecian Colonies. 

Page 486. Aeolian colonies ? lonians? Dori¬ 
ans? Other colonies? Thracian? Chersonese? 







520 


QUESTIONS FOR 


Macedonian coast ? Colonies of Lower Italy ? 
Sicily ? Colonies in other places ? 

Macedonia. 

Page 487. Extent? Provinces? Mountains? 
Rivers? Gulf? Towns? 


Thrace. 

Page 487. Boundaries? Rivers? Mountains? 
What is said of the Chersonese? Byzantium? 
Towns on the Euxine ? Other places ? Islands ? 

Moesia. 

Page 488. Extent? Divisions? Principal Riv¬ 
er? Towns? 

Dacia. 

Page 488. Extent ? Inhabitants ? Rivers ? 
Towns? 

Sarmatia. 


EXAMINATION. 

Divisions"? Rivers? Divisions of Belgic Gaul ? 
What of Lower Germany? Towns of Upper 
Germany ? Inhabitants of Maxima Sequanorum ? 
Mountains? Lake? Chief towns? WhatofBel- 
gicaPrima? Belgica Secunda ? Belgic tribes? 
Principal towns? Divisions of Lugdunensis? 
Where was Lugdunensis Prima? Chief tribes? 
Towns? What of Senoriia? Chief tribes? 
Lugdunensis Secunda ? Inhabitants? Towns? 
What of Lugdunensis Tertia? Tribes? Towns? 
Division of Acquilania? Mountains? Rivers? 
Inhabitants of Acquitania Prima? Towns? 
Inhabitants of Acquitania Secunda? Towns? 
What is said of Novempopulana ? Divisions of 
Narbonensis ? Rivers? Tribes? Chieftowns? 
Viennensis? Chief towns? Situation of Narbo¬ 
nensis Secunda ? Towns? Islands? What is 
said of the province of the Maritime Alps? Of 
the Graian and Pennine Alps ? 




Page 488. Extent ? Inhabitants ? Rivers ? 
Tribes? Peninsula? 

Scandinavia. 

Page 488. What did the ancients know of 
Scandinavia ? 

British Isles. 


Hispania (Spain and Portugal.) 

Page 495. Situation? Inhabitants? Colonies? ’ 
Divisions? Rivers? Islands? Tribes? What 
of Lustania? Towns? Buetica? Mountains? 
Islands? Towns? Inhabitants ofTarraconen3 : s? 
Mountains? Cities? 


Page 489. What groupes did these comprise ? 
What did the ancients know of Ireland ? Irish 
nations? Rivers? Towns ? Inhabitants of Bri¬ 
tannia. Caledonia? Roman wall? What was the 
extent of Roman Britain ? Estuaries? Rivers? 
Brigantes? Coritani ? Cornavu? Silures? Or- 
devices? Demetce ? DubunI? Catieuchlani ? 
Sceni and Trinobantes? Other tribes ? Inhabi¬ 
tants of Cornwall ? Later division of Britannia? 

Germania. 

Page 490. Boundaries? Inhabitants'* Face 
of the country ? Forests? Rivers? The Cimbric 
Chersonese ? Tribes ? 

Pannonia. 

Page 491. Situation? Inhabitants? Rivers? 
Cities ? 

llhjricum or Illyria. 

Page 491. Situation? Divisions? Towns? 
Noricum. 

Page 491. Face of the country ? Situation ? 
Inhabitants ? Towns ? 

Vindelicia. 

Page 492. Situation ? Inhabitants ? Towns ? 
Rhcetia. 

Page 492. Situation? Mountains? Lake? 
Rivers ? Towns ? 

Gallia or Gaul. 

Page 492. Situation ? Names ? Inhabitants ? 


Italia or Italy. 

Page 497. Boundaries? Seas? Mountains? 
Names? Divisions? Extent of Gallia Cisalpina ? 
Inhabitants? Rivers? Lakes? Cities? What of 
Liguria? Etmria? Its rivers ? Lakes? Cities? 
Island? BoundariesofUmbria? River? Towns? 
Picenum ? Latium? Rivers? Pontine marshes ? 
What is said of Rome? Places in its vicinity ? 
Campania? Rivers? Cape? Islands? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Cities? Situation of Samnium ? Tribes? 
Cities? Apulia? River? Divisions? Inhabitants? 
Celebrated places ? What of Calabria? Inhabi¬ 
tants? Principal towns? Brullium? Inhabitants? 
Towns ? 

Sicily. 

Page 501. Situation? Inhabitants? Islands? 
Mountains? Capes? Rocks? Towns? 

Sardinia or Jchnusa. 

Page 502. Inhabitants? Towns? 

Corsica or Cyrnos. 

Page 502. Inhabitants ? Situation ? Towns ? 
Appendix. 

Page 503. Form of globes ? Axis ? Poles ? 
Equator? First meridian ? Degrees of latitude ? 
Degrees of Longitude ? Distinction between the 
equator and first meridian ? Describe the gene¬ 
ral meridian ? What are its uses ? What of 
meridians and parallels of latitude? Ecliptic? 
Tropics? Polar circles? Rational horizon? 
Quadrant ? Hour-circle ? Index ? Compass ? 


























































































1 4 































































